Principles and Techniques of Modern Radar Systems

Prof. Amitabha Bhattacharya

Department of E & ECE
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 06
Some Basic Concepts of Pulsed Radar
(Contd.)

Welcome to this lecture actually we were discussing radar cross section.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:23)

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So, in the last class, we have defined radar cross section. Now we will make some
mathematical equations for this radar cross section. So, whatever is said here, now radar
cross section its symbol is sigma.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:43)

So, I can write that whatever is said here also can be said like the way we define the
directivity of the radar because this scattering is also directed in nature that it is not
equally scattering in all direction. So, with respect to an isotropic scatterer, RCS thing
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will be detected that had this target been an isotropic scatterer what would have been and
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compared to that how much is the actual case happening.

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So, the definition; this from the definition, it follows that it can be defined like this.
Again I am writing the exact thing; you please follow this concept that power scattered
toward radar receiving antenna per unit solid angle because it is a changing thing per
angle. So, powers scattered toward radar receiver per unit solid angle and that should be
compared with because radar cross section is the target is taking the incident power, then
it is scattering; then in which direction it is scattering. So, the denominator is; that
means, this thing is normalized to that had this been an the scattering energy been fully
ready sorry the incident energy is fully scattered.

That means the whole energy is getting scattered and scattered equally in all direction.
So, isotropic as well as the scatterer is scattering the whole power that is incident on it
which is not the case actually that is why numerator, but the normalization thing is that
ideal thing. So, incident power density reradiated equally in all direction. You see the
numerator is a power and power per unit solid angle, but that is power whereas, this is
power density. So, how they will be related? You see this is an area. So, incident power
density multiplied by the area will give you the power scatter. So, this is the definition.

So, can I say that actually this it is coming from this definition. If you read it carefully,
you will get that these are the things. So, sigma you see it is embodying various physical
things. First is incident power is falling, how much effective area it has to take that
power electrical area, effective electrical area that is taking that power then how much is
getting scattered then in the desired direction relatively how much power is coming so,
all that is embodied in this.

Now we will take the help of radar equation and try to manipulate these because still
with all these how we will express it. So, this whatever is said can I say that that is dP d
omega where omega is the solid angle because a it is scattering differently in different
direction; different amount of power in different direction.

So, if I want to know that in the radar direction, how much exactly power is coming;
obviously, it is a changing quantity. So, from the concept of calculus, it will be dP d
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omega. So, that is the numerator and here incident power density. So, let us call that
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incident power density is generally be W incident W incident power density that divide.
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If it reradiates equally in all direction, so, what is the total that power in all direction,
how much it will be power density that will be W inc by 4 pi because 4 pi is the total
solid angle for a 1 meter at a distance. So, W inc by 4 pi.

So, this is a definition where what is W incident; let me say, it is the incident power
density at the target and its unit is Watts per meter square. Now, I will take the help of
the model that we have derived radar equation and try to find out an expression for this
which is usable.
(Refer Slide Time: 06:13)

So, from radar range equation can I write that what is W inc; that means, the incident
power density that we know that that is
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PT
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Because, this is here there is an assumption that assumption we have not said, but in the
radar always that in our radar equation that assumption was there. So, let me write that
assumption that target is at far field.
(Refer Slide Time: 06:47)

So, this is assumption a target is at far field of radar transmitter; transmitting antenna and
b, the radar receiving antenna is at far field of target. What is this meaning? The first one
is obvious, the second meaning means the target when it is scattering. So, as if it is a
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radiator so, it also has a far field that can be found out from 2 d square by lambda t.
PT

So, the radar receiver or radar receiving antenna that is at far field of the; that means,
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both these things are very much separated. And so, with this assumption I can say
actually plane wave is falling on the target and when the radar is sensing the echo
scattered by the target that is also in the form of plane wave.

So, we can use plane wave expressions then only that. So, I will say that all these things
actually says that mathematically, this means limit R tends to infinity. Actually in actual
cases not infinity; actual case is far field far away so, in all these definitions I should
have limit R tends to infinity.

Now, if that is there, then can I say that what is the power density is the electric field
incident; its magnitude square by the intrinsic impedance of free space. So, let me write
what is E incident; E incident is incident electric field strength at the target. So, what is
its unit electric field unit? Electric field intensity that is volts per meter; now this thing
also I am here will be requiring another quantity which is called E s let us say; E s if we
name it. So, E s will be the scattered electric field strength at the direction of the radar
receiving antenna. So, both of these I will also write the units volts per meter; this unit
will be volts per meter.

So, already we have seen that this is a for plane wave I can write that what is the power
density for the incident wave that is the E square by eta. This is in the far field; this
relation is there for plane wave. Let me call this equation, equation one. Now, let us find
out what is the power density that is scattered back at radar receiver and that will express
in terms of this scattered electric field because these quantities are measurable. I can
measure what is the electric field strength incident on the target.

If I could have been on the target and put a probe I could measure similarly here I could
measure, what is the radar receiver there. If I put an power though they are generally not
made, but let us develop the model. So, now I take the help of the radar range equation.
So, I say that from radar equation that we have developed, there we have seen that what
is the scattered power. Here you see that transmitter is again you think of this model that
time we have seen. So, radar is now transmitting. So, P t G t by 4 pi R square is falling
here P t G t by four pi R square is the following there, then a portion of the radar cross
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section we have multiplier.

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So, that is the power scattered there and then towards the receiver and again it is
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travelling as a spherical wave and at the far field. So, again it is travelling a distance of
four pi R square. So, this is what I can say that this is nothing, but the power density or I
can say scattered power density scattered power density at the radar receiving antenna
and scattered power density. So, this is in the form of plane wave. So, I can say it is
again can we say that the magnitude of the field.

Field is a vector quantity. So, we will have to take the magnitude; magnitude square by
eta naught.
So, this is my second equation ok. Also one more thing I can write that actually you see
that what is the this is one sided value of these, but from radar range equation, I can have
a third equation that you see the it is transmitting radar is transmitting.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:41)

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So, P t gain of the transmitting antenna G t by 4 pi R square. What is it? It is nothing, but
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I can say W incident.

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I have given it a name to simplify this, but actually this is my third equation. So, now I
have got three equations. One is this ii is this and iii is this. Now, this third equation; if I
put into second equation, what we get? So, putting iii in ii, I can write

and I have this i. So, this I can put in place of this W i.

Now I can say putting i in this last equation, I can say that
So, if I simplify I can write sigma is

Only thing is the assumption that I will put in the form of a far field assumption. So, this
is a much simpler thing. What it says that four pi into R square and then you have the E s
magnitude square divided by E inc square.

This actually is an usable formula. So, this actually we will be using many times. That
you can find out RCS of any body by measuring these. Actually people do that or people
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also simulate etcetera to do this. As I already said that what is sigma’s physical
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significance, it is the scattering effectiveness of any body. So, anybody how much it is
scattering in a particular direction when it is getting illuminated? that is the measures of
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this.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:07)

And it please remember always that it depends on various things that sigma is a function
of I can say shape of the body, the size of the body, the orientation of the body relative to
the radar orientation relative to radar, then composition of the body, the body of the body
or target. Then it also depends on the illumination things. That means what is the
frequency of the illuminating electromagnetic wave, then what is polarization of the
electromagnetic wave etcetera.

And when I say composition of the target basically I mean that electrical parameters for
that. So, composition of the target, this thing actually means what is the sigma; that
means, the conductivity of the target, what is the epsilon the permittivity of the target,
what is the permeability of the target. All those affects this thing.

So, it is depends on all these so; that means, if you want to find out the RCS, there are
ways either you can calculate; that means, apply Maxwell’s equation. There you know
all these things of the body. So, a given picture is there that this is the orientation, this is
the medium etcetera and there you apply Maxwell’s equation solve that. But it is very
difficult to do.
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I mean analytically it is not tractable for most of the things, only for some canonical
objects; canonical means which has a proper shape like sphere, plate, cylinder, cone. In
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those cases, people have found the RCS things and, but it is good that actually from this
canonical things, actual objects suppose an aircraft or a ship. If they can be approximated
by these canonical objects, then people have try to find their RCS. Now a days with
numerical techniques, the simulation etcetera are performed and there are moment
methods and other methods numerical methods by which people try to find this out and.

But later see that a closed form expressions of this RCS that also give some interesting
things like there are closed form approximations for those plates spheres etcetera outer.
But all those cases you see that orientation relative to radar, we call it aspect. So, aspect
angle is important. So, generally this RCS is a strong function of this aspect, but there is
one canonical object which is a sphere which is invariant to this aspect.

That is why sphere it’s easier because whatever aspect you take the RCS is same because
sphere does not by its shape actually it is independent of the aspect. So, people have
found out closed form expressions for this and that let us discuss that that RCS of a
sphere. So, I will say that RCS of a sphere.
Now, what is in the x axis? It is generally the diameter sorry periphery of the sphere, but
that is normalized usually to the wavelength because actually this means the electrical
perimeter or a electrical length of the perimeter. And this side is the RCS, but usually
that RCS is normalized to the physical area. So, physical cross section of a sphere that is
a circle and the radius of the sphere is a. So, I can say pi a. So, this is y axis, this is your
x axis. So, RCS is plotted here; that means, what you are plotting that what is RCS value
for various sizes of the sphere because here you are changing. So that means, you are
actually changing the diameter and finding out that what is the RCS.

So, there are points. Let us say this is our 1, this is our 10. So, and this value let us say
that here in this direction 0.001; let us say here it is 0.1. So, it will be one here and I can
say this is 10 here. So, if you plot what color I am using; so, change 1 because it will be
somewhere here. So, you see, it is something looks like a second order function that
when we have a second order circuit and then a second order LCR circuit; you see that
we have this that there is a peak and then gradually dies down.

So, this is the steady state. Now, based on these actually these sizes of scattering or the
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scattering phenomena is broken into regions. One region is this actually this 1 actually
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this zone and this 10 this zone. Now this region is called; that means, when 2 pi a by
lambda is less than 1, this zone is called Rayleigh region. This is a Rayleigh region what
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is it is when the 2 pi a by lambda is much less than one that is Rayleigh. When it is
greater than 1; let me use other color. So, this zone is called optical region.

What is it 2 pi a by lambda is greater than 10. This is optical and what is this zone? This
is called Mie region; Mie or also various people call resonance. So, this zone now what it
says you see in Rayleigh, the RCS is quite small. So, as I am increasing the object, RCS
is not much. You see the values they are not much; that means, the physical area pi a
square, but your RCS is let us say typically 0.1, 0.2; that means, what if you have a 1
meter square, but RCS will be much less than that; so, very small amount of power is
scattering here.

Whereas you see actually this here there are ups and downs so; that means, the object has
an it is changing. So, it can be going high then coming down. So, it is a resonant sort of
thing that it is changing, but in the optical region it is going flat and reaches a steady
state value of 1.
What does that mean? That means, in this region the electrical area and optical area, they
are same; that means, there not much power compared to the; that means, the area is
more or less as if the whole power it is taking as if it is a physical area so, not much
scattering is there. But here you see actually this peak; this peak happens this peak is
around 5.7dB.

So, compare to 1 this value is so, I can say that this is 5.7 dB up at the maximum. So,
that is important; that means, here it is a very good scatterer. If you have this size is 2 pi
a is equal to 1, then it goes up; that means, it is a very good radiator here also, you see it
a good radiator.

So, there are various sizes where it is good and generally the microwave illumination of
various objects, they come here. Now this is one of the problem. Here you see there is an
interference sort of pattern. Why that is coming? If we people have explored that and
found that in Rayleigh region actually the various scattering centers of a sphere, they are
not interacting with each other.
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And also they are very weak so, their total sum is same. In the optical region, this
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scattering centers of the sphere or of anybody actually this classification is true for
anybody. Though we are discussing it with sphere, but for anybody you can have this
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three separate regions usually microwave come in this Mie region. There is and the
interference pattern and in the optical region the scattering centers, they do not interact
with each other; they simply behave as a individual localize thing individual scatterers.
So, RCS is vector sum of that.
(Refer Slide Time: 29:17)

So, I can say that the in the optical region, in the optical region the scatterers they are I
can say individual scatterers and only their vector sum is to be taken. So, and it is a that
is why it is a steady value because they are not interacting. And, in Rayleigh region this
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thing actually not even the vector sum only the amplitude factor their sum and only
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amplitude and that amplitude is it can be shown that the RCS is there almost proportional
to 1 by lambda by 4.
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And no, phase while addition, there is no phase addition also, but in the Mie region the
whole problem is both when the scatterers there is mutual coupling. So, I will say that
mutual coupling of all scatterers of individual scattering points individual scattering
points and so, the total vector sum that is have a strong function of amplitude and phase
and that is why that this type of interference sort of thing. That is why it is very difficult
to model it analyze it etcetera. But you see that due to this Rayleigh region if you can
make that the target is very small compared to the lambda, then the RCS is very small.

So, you think that suppose I am trying to detect an aircraft; now raindrop suppose
generally microwave region means typically I can say, the 10 gigahertz. Suppose 3
centimeter is the wavelength. So, anything which is less than this 2 pi means 6; so,
anything which is of millimeter of size; suppose a raindrop its 1 millimeter diameter
typically.
So, that will give you give me very small return. So, that is why we say that radar is
invisible to rain radar is invisible to snow, radar is invisible to fog. This is an advantage
that rain etcetera; they do not create any problem clouds rain, there are. So, this is the
chief advantage of radar in bad weather.

On the other hand; if you wants to observe raindrop, then you will have to increase the
RCS of that. So, what we will do? You now go to very high frequency; that means, you
reduce this then you are going to Mie region you observe it. So, that is why weather
observing radars they are of high frequency cube and much higher etcetera higher
frequency. Now already I said in Mie region the maximum, RCS is 5.7 dB. So, always be
careful that you can have for a sphere maximum RCS, you can get 5.7 dB up from its
physical area.

Now, let us now come to the RCS measurement. If we want to do RCS measurement
generally for a complex target like in aircraft ship etcetera, then we will have some more
things to discuss on these. Actually we are spending much time on this RCS because,
there are lot of conceptual things here and measuring RCS is a very important thing.
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Also in military technology you want to conceal your RCS that is called stealth so, that
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also is a very important application that how you have your aircraft etcetera aircraft,
ship, missiles, but I want to conceal that i; that means, to the radar I want to become
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invisible.

That means I want to reduce my RCS. So, that is called stealth technology. So, RCS
measurement RCS evaluation reducing RCS in certain cases even enhancing RCS all
these are very important considerations and lot of work goes on there lot of research is
still going on in this field. So, we will discuss something more also in the next lecture

Thank you.
 Principles and Techniques of Modern Radar Systems
Prof. Amitabha Bhattacharya
Department of E & ECE
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 07
Some Basics Concepts of Pulsed Radar (Contd.)

Key Concepts: Measurement of RCS, Scaling Method of RCS measurement, Doppler

effect in radar, Development of expression for velocity measurement

Welcome, to this NPTEL lecture on Modern Radar Systems. Now, we were discussing a
very important parameter radar cross section. Now, today we will discuss that
measurement of RCS because as we have seen that analytically RCS is not always very
tractable, but with the now advancement of the numerical techniques people do simulate;
simulators are available where you can do that. But, the correctness of all those things
ultimately requires a measurement.

Now, because suppose you are producing an military aircraft you need to evaluate these
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RCS and find out whether the enemy radars, how it will detect it etcetera. So, people do
PT

RCS measurements, so for RCS measurement you see RCS depends on many things. So,
you will have to see it over various frequencies or at least the frequencies in which
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enemy radar can operate over that whole thing you need to find the RCS because RCS is
a strong function of that frequency.

Also, you need to see that you need to have a facility for rotating the object and changing
at various aspect angle what is the RCS because you see that in which direction the
enemy radar is looking depending on that RCS will change, if you see any practical RCS
a thing that with aspect it changes a lot.
(Refer Slide Time: 02:08)

Now, generally you see that when an aircraft is approaching an enemy radar; the enemy
radar is looking it from a nose end direction. Suppose this is a radar and let us say that
this is the aircraft. So, this is called nose, so from nose end it is seen. But, suppose it is
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maneuvering that time some other aspect also suppose the there are wings here. So, this
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wings also may be seen, this is the tail end that may be seen etcetera. So, that means, you
need a facility to rotate it etcetera, so; that means, for measurement you will have to have
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suppose a aircraft you will have like to move, a ship you will have to move.

So, that is a huge technical challenge, but people have made it that in ships in the sea it
should rotate then also sea environment is different from air because fortunately for air it
is a clean environment no returns comes, but sea that has various states the sea state. So,
because of the wind the turbulence in the ocean etcetera, so that will also give a return,
now you will have to clear that and find out what is RCS of the ship etcetera.

Now, what happens that so that means, for RCS measurement I can say that
measurement you should have that rotation of object rotate object that will give you RCS
versus aspect angle, then you change frequency that means, your system measurement
system should be able to change the frequency that will give you the RCS frequency
response.

Also you should be able to change polarization of the waves; that means, polarization of
the transmitting antenna, polarization of the receiving antenna. So, change polarization
and for that; that means, it will turn out to be RCS should be given in terms of a
polarization matrix why because suppose your transmitting antenna has a actually
polarization generally we define please refer to our NPTEL lecture on microwave
antenna there we have defined what do you mean by polarization of a wave, polarization
of an antenna.

Generally, if it has an horizontal and vertical polarization this two polarization so,
suppose when the incident; that means, transmitting antenna is having a horizontal
polarization and the receiving antenna is also having horizontal polarization, then the
RCS will be called sigma h h. Now, let us say that the transmitting antenna polarization
is H, but receiving antenna polarization is V, so it will be sigma h v.

Now, transmitting antenna polarization is v and receiving antenna polarization is h and

transmitting antenna polarization is v receiving, so- you need to give all these parameters
for all aspect all frequency. So, it is a huge challenge it is a very time consuming thing
etcetera.
EL

(Refer Slide Time: 06:11)

PT
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Now, what happens, so, you see people sometimes have a measurement that instead of
you refer to let us refer to this. Actually you see that 2 pi a by lambda; 2 pi is a constant,
so a by lambda. What is it? It’s the I can say the a is something like the link, a or 2a is
the diameter of the thing. Now, for general bodies any body that parameter is called L by
lambda.
(Refer Slide Time: 06:35)

Now, L by lambda actually is this that L by lambda less than 1 you are at Rayleigh
region, L by lambda greater than 10 you are at optical region; L by lambda in between
you are in the Mie region. Now, generally microwave frequencies and the objects that
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they see they fall in this Mie region.

PT

Now, you see that they are from this graph it is seen now I say that x axis is L by lambda.
N

So, L by lambda what will be the for a particular L by lambda what will be the RCS that
is known. So, people have suggested that if suppose I reduce L by a factor of x and you
also reduce lambda by a factor of x. So, the RCS will remain invariant because RCS
depends on this L by lambda parameter. So, if you do this you are not changing the L by
lambda, so the RCS will also be same.

Actually, this was the principal in which you know India the first aircraft it produce to us
the LCA, Light Combat Aircraft, combat aircraft not I am saying other aircraft, combat
aircraft LCA. So, this principle was used to measure that L by .So, what they do that you
can reduce the size; that means, make a scaled model reduced scale model of the actual
thing all finer details geometrical details share the material details you keep, but you
make it small then it is easier to rotate it, then it is easier to do all the mechanical parts
that get reduced.

And, so, when you are making a scale model measurement then you will have to scale up
the lambda; that means, lambda also you reduced by that factor; that means, actually you
scale up in frequency. So, suppose L is reduced by a factor of suppose a typical aircraft is
3-4 meter fighter aircrafts, suppose a 4 meter aircraft. So, if you reduce it by 10 times it
becomes 40 centimeter; instead of 400 divided by 10, 40 centimeter which is quite small.
So, 10 times you scale up the frequency; that means, if you were seeing at 10 gigahertz
you will have to go to go to 100 gigahertz. So, depending on what facility you have you
go there measuring.

(Refer Slide Time: 09:45)

EL
PT
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But, remember that there is a very serious concern here that actually as I said that RCS is
functions of many things. So, it is also function of sigma, mu and epsilon of the medium
making that. Now, aircraft etcetera they are not made for metals. For metals if any
aircraft is made of metals or conductors there are no problem; this scaling method
measurement by a reduced scale model that is perfectly.

But, nowadays no aircraft is made of conductors they are made of composite material, so
there are some non-metallic parts basically various reinforced metals, ceramics etcetera
they are used. So, they have their epsilon mu and sigma they are not linear functions of
frequency, for conductors these parameters are linear functions of frequency. But, for
non-conductors they are not linear functions of this; please do not get confused this is
RCS the that two this is the conductivity of any material.

Now, this conductivity mu and sigma they are not linear functions of frequency. So, this
scaling you cannot do because actually when you are do the scaling the inherent
assumption is all the parameters are linear functions of frequency. So, if you scale up and
down does not matter, but this if it is not there then you cannot do the scaled reduce scale
measurement you will have to do the full scale measurement ok.

So, people have developed various numerical codes for that, but then there are that the
codes needs to be simulating the actual physical phenomena which sometimes they
cannot because codes take into account some of the things, but physically there may be
some other things. So, there are various questions on that codes etcetera. Measurement is
definitely good, but it is a very very costly thing etcetera. Also, how to reduce RCS that
stealth thing I was talking.

Now, there are various shapes particularly in the geometrical shape of anybody if there is
a discontinuity; that means, the slope of the radius of curvature if that has a discontinuity
then there is lot of scattering. So, stealth techniques required that the shapes should be as
smooth as possible. So, shaping the object, but you see that if you do those type of
shapings actually an aircraft also will have to fly.
EL

So, there are aerodynamic considerations for that and generally this making it smooth
PT

etcetera is modern aircrafts there aerodynamics is completely opposite. So, aerodynamics

once it not so smooth, so; that means, this stealth requirement for shaping and the
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aerodynamic requirement of shaping they do not see generally eye to eye. So, there is a
compromise that generally needs to be done.

So, many times suppose an aircraft has been made from these aerodynamic thing because
ultimately it will fly. If it is a very good stealth, but ultimately if it cannot fly then there
is no point and that happened. Actually the very best stealth aircrafts that has been
designed by mankind they were not very effective as a flyer, so that is why.
(Refer Slide Time: 14:01)

So, another technique is once and thing is aerodynamically designed etcetera, then you
apply some material on the things typically some paints etcetera. So, or some sheets or
some jackets covering those are called RAMs those are very important the Radar
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Absorbing Material RAM; Radar Absorbing Material.

PT

So, name Salisbury screen, Dallenbach screen etcetera various, then now-a-days the
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requirement is now radars also their frequency is increasing, so, you want wideband
RAM. Still that is challenge that what is an wideband RAM; what material is to be used.
Actually the principal of all these things is radar absorbing material is you know that a
wave incoming wave has an impedance that is called wave impedance. Whereas, a
material the suppose the aircraft or that is made of the material. So, that material has
their intrinsic impedance.

Now, if you can match these two impedances the wave impedance of the incoming wave
and the intrinsic impedance of the aircraft or target, then the wave will come to the radar
and then in the material if you have good amount of conductivity and also the good
amount of imaginary part of the conductivity; that means, the loss tangent of the
dielectric things. Then the wave after entering will be loss, so that will get absorbed. So,
those are the principles of design of this RAM.

So, I should say that first there is a shaping these are all for making the design stealth.
So, one is shaping that is the best one, but shaping always is not possible though, then
this method is called coating; out of that there are various schemes of coating either paint
or putting some metal all those are RAM. So, they work on the principle of impedance
matching.

Please remember, which impedance that is important that is the intrinsic impedance of
the material and then a on all these RAMs generally particularly the broadband ones they
are multi-level things because at one go you cannot change the impedance. So, gradually
they are multilayer structures and gradually there thing. Nowadays meta materials are
being used there various other frequency selective surfaces are used there. So, these are
huge huge area of research, lot of research is going on, lot of scope of research is there
here.

And, also another way is that if you can use an bistat radar in a bistatic mode because if
RAM etcetera suppose has been design for monostatic thing, but if you change your
receiver position many of the times it happens that the RCS get enhance. So, an enemy
radar will be able to detect because actually what happens in one direction you are taking
the energy, so in some other direction you should have a leave that energy and there it is
EL

easier to detect. So, that is also another thing that you can have your radar in bistatic bi
PT

static operation.
N

But, then and then electronics is a challenge because transmitter and receiver they are at
two different positions. So, at such high frequency and such distance there should be
perfect synchronization between them that will see when we will discuss various radars
functions that transmitter and receiver always should be synchronized. So, that
synchronization is a challenge in bistatic, but it is a very good way of detecting an enemy
target, an enemy radar ok. So, this is somewhat brief discussion on RCS.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:28)

Now, we will see another parameter and we will close actually after range measurement
the very one more important measurement that the radar does is the velocity of the target.
Now, I can say that suppose a radar; so the parameter that I am going to effect is Doppler
EL

effect. We all know from our elementary, college level a thing that whenever there are
PT

two bodies and there is a relative velocity between them, the frequency of the signal that
is falling on the body and coming back, the frequency will get change that is called
N

Doppler effect, so that we know.

Now, that means, if there is a relative velocity between the target and the radar, then
when the echo will come it will have a Doppler change if I can detect that Doppler
change I can predict the relative velocity. But, one question can be asked that suppose I
have a radar, I have a target this is target and this is radar. Now, radar is making a range
measurement. So, basically it is making the measurement R and it is doing it over time;
so, it knows R t.

Now, if you differentiate R t you get velocity. So, what is the need of measuring the
Doppler frequency? Because Doppler frequency making is you see that frequency
measurement also you are sending a gigahertz sort of signal of frequency and the
velocity that is a terrestrial velocity that is not like the stars velocity etcetera which is
quite high that is why Doppler was earlier detected etcetera.
But, in this case the change won’t be small some kilo hertz change may be there at the
most. So, on a gigahertz frequency a change of kilo hertz you think that what is the
order. So, detecting that is not so easy, but still this is not used that we will discuss later,
but always Doppler is used. Actually the reason for that we will discuss this is a food for
thought for now think of that, but the Doppler is usually measured. So, what is the
principle very briefly say this Doppler effect that. Let say that R is the distance between
the radar and the target.

Now, we know that what is actually the wave it is the target is at far field of the radar.
So, it is I can assume that the plane wave is going, a plane wave going a distance R and
then getting scattered back and coming here. So, the total distance travel is 2R. So, the
total space phase that will be associated with this two way travel that will be
EL

Now, we know that what is frequency? Rate of change of phase is frequency. So, we can
PT

easily find out what will be the Doppler frequency. So, I can easily derive that
mathematically Doppler angular frequency. Let us call it omega d that will be 2 pi f d
N

and that is nothing, but if I call this space phase as phi. So, I know that it is time rate of
change of space any phase that is called frequency.

So, this is the relation we know; so this is d dt of now let me put this value 2R by
lambda. So, can I say that this is 4 d dt of sorry space phase it will be 2 pi into 2 pi over
lambda ok.
where v R what is v R? v R is the relative velocity between the or I can say let me define
v R, that v R is relative radial velocity between velocity of target with respect to radar.
Generally, we take it with respect to radar because radar is generally not moving, but in
airborne radars it moves in that case you can adjust, so with respect to radar the relative
radial velocity.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:32)

EL
PT
N
So, now I can write what is Doppler frequency change f d. So, this is the Doppler
frequency. So, that from this relation you can easily find out 2 pi f d is this. So,

So, this is the expression for Doppler frequency change, where what is f naught? f naught
is the frequency of the transmitted wave.

So, write this frequency of transmitted em wave. What is c? c you know it is velocity of
light. So, from that you can calculate that suppose I am sending a 10 gigahertz signal and
EL

let us say the velocities you know the aircraft speed fighter rates be there given in Mach;
PT

1 Mach means 1 speed of sound. So, you know speed of sound you can take 330 meter
per second or even you can take 300 also 320, 330 some. So, you can easily find out that
N

how much Doppler shift will be there that will be given in the exercise.

And, remember one thing that when I am saying the velocity actually here I have given
you everything simply as a scalar thing, but in actual suppose the this is the radar, this is
the target. So, in a frame of reference attached with the radar this is the radial distance
and suppose the target is moving this is the trajectory of that ok. So, if this angle it makes
is theta. So, this is the let us the trajectory of the thing, velocity is in this direction. So,
then we will say that what is this v r this you know easily that this is

where theta is this angle.

So, this expression should be then change the or v r is there, but you remember that v r is
the projection of the velocity vector in the direction of the radial direction of the target
from the radar. So, remember that if this angle theta turns out to be 90 degree; that
means, from this radial direction actually the velocity vector is a orthogonal to that, then
Doppler will not be detected. So, that means, if suppose you are at a earth thing and
something suppose some satellite is suppose this is the earth ok, you are observing and
this is the a satellite is moving.

Now, here there are no Doppler’s because always you see this is the velocity vector, this
is the radial vector that is 0, so that means, Doppler shift is 0. Similarly, the target is
here; here this is again 90 degree. So, in this case the Doppler will not be there, but in if
you have any other angle there will be some component, so that will come. So, Doppler
shift will be there (Refer Time: 28:52) we will see that various say, but this is the basic
principle. Now, all this whatever we have discussed starting from range, the maximum
range, unambiguous range, maximum unambiguous range, minimum range, integration
of pulses, then the radar cross section, then this Doppler effect, the Doppler frequency,
these are the basic concepts we have learned.

Next, we will go to various radars. So, we will start with the simplest radars which is
EL

CW radar, though we have understood this with pulse radar because this is easier to
PT

understand and pulse radar is the modern things. But, when radar was invented in the
history you think probably noticed that initially pulse radar did not come because pulse
N

radar is an advanced concept. CW radar was first invented because it is easier to make
CW radar, we will also start with CW radar.

Now, you can ask that why we study that because we are studying modern radar and
pulse radar we have already this concepts are understood and that is will, but still CW
radar is used. CW radar very easier to make, pulse radar is quite complicated electronics;
pulse radar is quite costly, CW radar is quite cheap and there is a there are various
applications where pulse radar is an overkill. So, in that cases CW is used also you see
that nowadays the radar technology is being used in civilian cases and there mostly CW
radars are used.

One example is you are measuring the speed of anything particularly in today’s
automobiles you see that in cars they always try to find whether there collision will be
there or police try to find what is the speed, whether you are exceeding speed, all of them
use the with the CW radars. So, it is a very good even a cheap thing, you can always
make. Nowadays, the chips are fully available for CW radars in 2, 3 dollars you can buy
those chips; particularly you know for automobile industry they make that chip.

So, CW radar is very important and that has lot of applications particularly in the civilian
side in the defense side that or a huge radars generally they are not CW and so, we will
start with that in the next class.

Thank you.

EL
PT
N
 Principles and Techniques of Modern Radar Systems
Prof. Amitabha Bhattacharya
Department of E & ECE
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 08
Tutorial Problems on Basic Concepts of Radar (Part I)

Key Concepts: Tutorial Problems on Basic Concepts of Radar

Welcome to this NPTEL lecture on Principles and Techniques of Modern Radar

Systems. In previous classes, we have seen basic concepts of radar. So, in that we have
seen unambiguous range, minimum range, then integration of pulses, then radar cross
section etcetera. So, based on that we will today do the first tutorial; we are calling it
tutorial 1.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:52)

EL
PT
N

Actually, the next lecture also we will continue the tutorial because there are several
concepts. So, one by one we will do that. The first problem for this tutorial is this that a
ground based air surveillance radar operates at a frequency of 1.3 gigahertz; 1.3
gigahertz means radar people call it L Band. Its maximum range is 200 kilometre for the
detection of a target with a RCS of 1 metre square. Its antenna is a horn of 12 metre wide
by 4 metre high; its gain is 17 dB. The receiver sensitivity we have introduced this term
minus 100 dBm. The minimum detection range is required to be 300 metre.
Now, based on this information determine the following the peak transmitter power; p.r.f
to achieve a maximum unambiguous range of 200 k; average transmitter power; range
resolution and Azimuthal beamwidth ok.

So, we will; you see this if you read this question it will be clear that there should be
some equation which we need to solve to get one by one these parameters. So, what we
will do, we will first write what is given. So, note down the problem then we will write
that what is given the so, I will say this is the solution one.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:50)

EL
PT
N

So, for problem 1, I am doing the solution. So, if you read it is given that frequency; that
means, the carrier frequency is 1.3 gigahertz, then maximum range R max is 200
kilometre, then RCS of the target that is to be detected is 1 metre square. Now, antenna
dimension is given. So, that but the antenna gain is 17 dB and receiver sensitivity S min
that is given as minus 100 dBm. You know that receiver sensitivity is basically the
power minimum power that is detectable by the receiver so that it is, it will say that a
signal is present.

Now, power’s unit is minus 100 dBm I think you know these conversions that if we call
0 dBm; that means, 1 milliwatt of power. So, accordingly you can calculate 100 dBm
minus 100 dBm etcetera. The minimum detection range; that means, R min that also
needs to be 300 meters; that means, at least 300 metre beyond it should be able to see.
So, we are asked that what is the P t. So, it is clear that we have done a modelling so, the
basic radar range equation which that time we called a model that will now help. So, we
can immediately write the radar range equation.

(Refer Slide Time: 05:01)

EL

So, if you recall the radar range equation was or let me use this colour. So, radar range
equation was P r is equal to P t G t square I am assuming this is the same antenna; that
PT

means, monostatic case lambda square sigma by 4 pi whole cube r to the power 4 so, but
N

I have been asked P t. So, I can now write what will be P t? P t will be just P r 4 pi whole
cube R 4 by G t square lambda square sigma.

Now, it is given that; obviously, this P r this is minimum when we have the maximum
range, so, that is called nothing, but S min. So, S min is given; so, we can put that . So,
here we can write that if we put in place of P r the S min then we will have to put in
place of R R max. So, both these values are given so, that we will do. So, that means, we
will now write that S min is it is given minus 100 dBm. So, that is 10 to the power minus
10 milliwatt or we can call it 10 to the power minus 13 Watt. So, I am trying to come to
the SI units. Similarly, R max is given as 200 kilometre.
(Refer Slide Time: 07:49)

So, that is 2 into 10 to the power 5 metre R max and G t is 17 dB; 17 dB is 10 to the
power 1.7. So, that turns out to be 50.12. Now, lambda frequency is given 1.3. So, you
can find out because lambda will be 0.3 by frequency in gigahertz. This is the way
EL

otherwise also possible from that C by lambda f C and lambda their relation from that
PT

you can always get 0.23 metre and sigma is given.

N

(Refer Slide Time: 08:50)

So, then if you put all those you get the value of P t. So, P t will now you can put there.
So, it will turn out to be 2.38 into 10 to the power 9 Watt or in terms of megawatt you
can say 2380 megawatt or you can say 2.38 gigawatt. So, this is the remember this is the
peak power.

Then let us go to part b. In part b we were asked to find out what is the p.r.f? p.r.f. to
achieve the maximum unambiguous range of this. So, we know that maximum
unambiguous range and p.r.f. they are related that relationship is R unambiguous is equal
to C by 2 f r. So, f r is to be find out unambiguous range is given that 200 kilometre. So,
you can from here you can calculate f r will be 750 Hertz ok.

Now, come to part c. What is part C saying that average transmitter power, you see that
we have found peak power. So, we have seen that if we know the duty cycle we can find
out. Now, what is a pulse duty cycle you see here directly it is not said, but indirectly it
that has been said. Actually, you see the minimum detection range is required to be 300
metre; that means, that minimum detection range is R min; now, what is R min?
Basically it is related to the pulse width that we have seen in the basic concept that tau C
by 2. So, from here we will get the value of tau; tau will be 2R min by the speed of light
C. So, we know R min is 300 metre and C is 3 into 10 to the power 8. So, this will give
EL

you a pulse width of 2 microsecond ok.

PT

The moment pulse width is done so and we have already found the p.r.f. So, we can find
N

the average power.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:51)

So, P average we have seen that P average is P t into tau into f r. So, now, all these are
available P t is already we calculated tau here and f r here if you put all this value it will
turn out to be 3.57 megawatt. So, you see that what was the peak power it was 2.38
gigawatt and average power is reasonable the 3 or 4 megawatt 3.5 megawatt something
ok.

Now, next part is the part d that what is the range resolution? Now, range resolution
roughly we said that it is equal to the pulse width. Later we will see that it is not pulse
width, it is a fraction of pulse width. But, for time being we can say that range resolution
is approximately pulse width. So, a range resolution is that range distance according to a;
that means, the R min what is called sorry not this corresponding to the tau what is the R
min. So, that will be 300 metre.

And, the other one is azimuthal beam width. Actually from antenna classes we know that
beam width for an horn antenna in the azimuthal plane, this beam width if we have it in
degree then there is a formula for azimuthal beam width. So, we can say that azimuthal
beam width for horn that is 70 lambda by D, where D is the maximum dimension of the
EL

horn.
PT

So, in our case we know the value of lambda and D in our case is I think 12 metre. It was
N

said that the horn is 12 metre wide and 4 metre high. So, this will be 12 metre and
lambda is 0.23 metre by 12. So, this will turn out to be 1.34 degree 1.34 degree is a
typical radar azimuthal beam width. So, you see who helped us to get all these things?
The thing is the our radar range equation.

You see this is the second problem, problem 2. A radar is tasked with detecting and
tracking the moon; suppose a radar is tasked with detecting and tracking the moon.
Assume that the average distance to the moon is so and so kilometre and it is average
radar cross section is you see huge thing because several metres square. Now, why you
can say that moon does not look so high, but if you see the illumination of the moon,
moon is quite bright to the radar because lot of reflection comes from there that is why it
has a high radar cross section.

Now, first part is compute the delay to the moon that is; then what is the required p.r.f.,
so that the range to the moon is unambiguous. I want that this range this 3.844 into 10 to
the power 5 kilometre that should be at least my unambiguous range. Now, then what is
moon’s radar cross section in dBSm? Actually this is in absolute value the value is given.
It is just that in dB scale to have you practiced this what is the convert it to dBSm.

What pulse width you will choose to resolve craters of 1 kilometre diameter? It is an
interesting question that is anything to choose a pulse width because I will have to find
craters. You know in moon various craters are identified by various moon mission.
Suppose, you have made a radar or your country has made a radar and you want to have
at least craters of 1 kilometre diameter that you want to detect so, what pulse width you
will choose, interesting question.

And, last part is what needs to be the receiver sensitivity of the radar for a 100 megawatt
peak transmission power. This is important because suppose you cannot have more than
100 megawatt suppose you decided that I will have a 100 megawatt peak transmission
power then how would or what will be the requirement from your receiver. So, what
needs to be the receiver sensitivity, how sensitive the receiver needs to be so that it can
achieve it can detect the moon ok.
EL

So, please note down the problem or this problems will be later shared with you. So, let
PT

us see and solve this problem. How to solve? Again, I think you understood that we will
have to go to the radar range equation.
N

(Refer Slide Time: 18:33)

So, now I will start with problem number 2. Now, here the first part is easy that what is
the delay? So, you can say that time delta t for 2 way travel. So, that will be 2R by C and
you know distances are given 3.844 into 10 to the power 8 by 3 into 10 to the power 8.
So, this will give you 2.56 second; that means, if you send a pulse you will receive it
after almost 3 seconds. So, you should remember that that is why this problem is given
and what is the p.r.f? So, in problem 1 also we have done that. So, we will use this R
unambiguous is C by 2 f r. So, from here we will find the f r. So, f r is 0.39 Hertz ok.

So, that is required because otherwise you would not get you have a large time for travel.
So, that is why your p.r.f cannot be high that is why it is less than even 1 Hertz ok. These
are reasonable things then that conversion that convert the RCS given in metre square to
dBSm. Now, remember what is the definition of RCS because here to convert it to dB,
which multiplier we should use 10 or 20? I think you know that for primary quantities
like voltage current etceter,a we use 20; multiplier as a multiple. 20 as a multiplier and,
for second order quantities like power, energy etcetera we use 10.

Now, what is sigma? Though sigma is not an dimensionless, but what is it is a thing that
EL

dimension it is having a metre is the unit, but that does not give the clue. So, basically it
PT

is a ratio of power; if you see our definition of RCS so, it is the power that is radiated
etcetera. So, that is why we will have to take 10 log. So, this is important that you should
N

remember that for RCS we will have to take 10 log. So, it is given 6.64 into 10 to the
power 11. So, that will be 118.22 dBSm square metre. So, this all it was done.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:50)

Then part d, what pulse width you will choose that interesting problem that resolve
craters of 1 kilometre diameter; that means, your range resolution because craters will be
in the direction of your range; so, range resolution should be 1 kilometre range resolution
EL

1 kilometre.
PT

Now, what is the relation of that with the pulse width? I think we have seen that that
N

what; that means, the minimum travel time. So, we can say that this will give that tau is
equal to 2 pi r by C because this is the time that if you have this. So, you can get this
minimum thing. So, this will be 2 pi r or this is capital R you can say tau R min. So, 1
kilometre means 10 to the power 3 metres by 3 into 10 to the power 8. So, this will be
20.94 microsecond ok.
(Refer Slide Time: 23:34)

And, last part is some calculation that what is the receiver sensitivity? So, basically what
is S min? S min we know is given by P t G t square lambda square sigma by 4 pi cube R
to the power 4; this R should be R max. In this case the distance from the moon to
EL

consider that. So, if you assume that G t value is not given. So, assume G t is 10 dB
PT

typically or 10 dB and 10 (Refer Time: 24:15).

N

So, I can say 10 also, let us say absolute value G t 10 and lambda let us say 10 gigahertz,
3 centimetre that is 10 giga hertz. So, that is 0.03 metre, then you will see that this comes
to 0.14 microwatt. So, 0.14 microwatt or 140 milliwatt it should be able to sense. Sorry,
0.14 microwatt; that means, even less than 1 microwatt it should be able to scene.

So, it needs to be a very sensitive receiver that is why generally radars from the ground
do not generally observe a because this is a real limitation. You have a radar sensitivity
of these is not so easy to very very sophisticated receiver etcetera. That is why you see
that radar astronomy projects that those which are observing various stars etcetera where
very costly. Generally, various nations are now different countries are coming together
making consortium and having those things installed etcetera.
(Refer Slide Time: 25:44)

You see an airborne radar has the following specifications: transmit power given, pulse
width given, p.r.f. given, antenna gain given, carrier frequency 10.5 giga hertz, receiver
noise figure is these, system loss propagation path loss it is as free space model. What
EL

you have to do? Find the SNR of the single echo from a 2 metre square target at 102
PT

kilometre.
N

And, then it is saying that now suppose the radar integrates 2048 echoes with the
integration loss of so and so find the new SNR and the look time; that means, for how
long time a target is looked by a radar. So, this is a problem on concept of integration of
pulses so, that we will see. The first part you will see that obviously, from radar range
equation it will come, with those receiver noise figure etcetera; that means, the loss
etcetera needs to be taken into account.
(Refer Slide Time: 27:16)

Correct. Let us come to I think this is our problem number 3. So, we can say that this is
the first part that for a single pulse S by N we know it is given by from the again radar
range equation because S is the received power by N. So, P t G square sigma square and
EL

a lambda square sigma by 4 pi whole cube R to the power 4 K, this is the noise part K T
PT

B. So, K T naught B then you multiply with the noise figure and then any other system
loss. So, this is the SNR expression for a signal that we have seen.
N

So, now, you will have to put all those values. What are the given values? Given is G is
given as 35 dB; that means, 10 to the power 3.5. So, that will turn out to be 3162.28 then
lambda is 28.57 into 10 to the power minus 3 metre, that you can calculate from the
given frequency of 10.5. So, it will be nearly 3 centimetre, a bit less than 3 centimetre
that is why you see this one.

Then R is given; R is 102 into 10 to the power 3 metre, then K I think you know. K is
Boltzmann constant 1.38 into 10 to the power minus 23 Joule per Kelvin. Then T naught;
T naught is the reference for noise calculations referrence temperature that is 290 K.
Then B, in this case B is said system loss; B is not said. You see in the given
specification if we again see the given specifications so, nowhere the receiver bandwidth
is said, but pulse width has been said. So, what can be done; we can do that roughly we
can say that it is the inverse of the bandwidth.
(Refer Slide Time: 30:36)

So, if you do that; that means 1 by tau. So, that if you do, it will turn out to be 1.25
megahertz, then F r it is said that receiver noise figure is 3.5 dB; again noise figure so 10,
10 to the power 0.35. So, that will be 2.24 absolute value and the system loss other losses
EL

in various cables, various joints etcetera that is I think 1.4 dB. So, that means, 10 to the
PT

power 0.14. So, if you put that you get the value that we are looking for that S by N
single pulse that will be 0.049 or minus 13.09 dB.
N

So, you see that the noise is much more stronger than signal if we consider only one
single echo. So, this is generally the radar receiver is not able to detect it because its
sensitivity is not so high. So, that is why we need to integrate; so, now for integration
what will happen?
(Refer Slide Time: 32:29)

So, part b is we are integrating; so, S N integrated that time the SNR gets multiplied 2
meter square target and now only thing is with an integration loss of 1.6 dB. So, for
integration because if you do not coherently add there can be a loss. So, you will have to
EL

take that, but I can say this will be N, this is the number of pulses to be integrated;
PT

number of pulses integrated S N single. If there was no loss this is ok, but now there will
be loss.
N

So, we will have to take that L S in absolute value. So, that will be nothing, but 2048 into
0.049 by 10 to the power or what is that value, that value directly we can put 1.38; no, 10
to the power 0.16. So, that will turn out to be 69.43 which is 18.42 dB ok.
(Refer Slide Time: 34:29)

And, then the question is what is look time? So, look time I can say that for so many
pulses N number of pulses into what is the one pulse how long it looks at a target? I can
say 1 by prf. So, for N pulses this will be the time. So, this is 2048 into 1 by prf is 250
EL

kilo hertz so, if you do it will be 8.192 millisecond. So, for this much time the thing is
PT

looked here.
N

So, we have seen three problems. So, one was remaining due to lack of time in this class.
We would do in the next tutorial we will cover that ok.

Thank you.
 Principles and Techniques of Modern Radar Systems
Prof. Amitabha Bhattacharya
Department of E & ECE
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 09
Tutorial Problems on Basic Concepts of Radar (Part II)

Key Concepts: Tutorial Problems on Basic Concepts of Radar

Welcome to this NPTEL lectures on Principles and Techniques of Modern Radar

Systems. So, in last class, we have done tutorial I on Basic Concepts, we are continuing
that.

Actually what I scheduled earlier that one such problem left many one important
problem.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:44)

EL
PT
N

So, that we will see now you see this 4th problem of the previous tutorial. It is a very
very interesting problem. Determine the peak power and the antenna physical area which
would make the cost of the following radar a minimum.

So, frequency is given antenna aperture efficiency is given, receiver sensitivity is given.
Unit cost of transmitter is rupees 132 per Watt of peak power, unit cost of antenna rupees
80000 rupees per square meter of physical area, cost of receiver and other cables etcetera
other items 60 lakhs. Also the radar must detect non a fluctuating target. What non
fluctuating target means that later we will see. Let us say that it has a constant RCS of 10
meter square cross section at a range of 200 kilometer by measuring a single echo pulse.

So, you will have to find what are the respective cost of the antenna and the transmitter
and then based on that in a new radar design, how would you try as a first attempt to
allocate the cost between the antenna and transmitter based on the answers obtained in
part c. So, you will have to find you see peak power and antenna physical area which
would make the cost of the following radar a minimum; also you find the respective cost
of the antenna and the transmitter. So, four things need to be found out. Now apparently
it looks like an economy problem, but, no, to solve this problem also you need a model.

Actually you see in anything you need to analyze in engineering, you need a model. So,
radar is a system. So, to evaluate its cost also scientifically, you will have to have a
model and that model is nothing, but radar range equation. So, you see that very
elegantly if we use the radar range equation model. So, I am writing this is problem 4.
And so, since it is a question of cost let us say the total cost, I am breaking into three
EL

parts as suggested by the problem that cost of transmitter plus cost of antenna plus cost
PT

of receiver.
N

Now, it is said that C T that is 132 rupee into P t that is said that per each Watt. Similarly
for C A. It is said 80000 into area of the antenna and for C R it is say it a fixed cost.
(Refer Slide Time: 04:26)

So, now let us come to the radar range equation. We know P t is 4 let us select P t to R
max is given. So, let us connect to R max; R max whole to the power 4 S min then G t A
e sigma. So, you see deliberately I have taken this A e in the receiver receiving antenna
EL

portion because it will be then related to these physical area of the antenna.
PT

Now, what are the things what is now G t is not said in the problem, but area of the
N

problem will come out. So, we know G t can be converted to area effective area of the
antenna by this formula 4 pi A e by sigma square. So, that we will do and also we know
what is the connection between effective area or electrical area of the receiving antenna
and the physical area that connection is through the efficiency which antenna aperture
efficiency. So, that I think this we are calling antenna aperture efficiency. This is in all
antenna classes this is said. So, A e is equal to a where this is the physical area of the
antenna.

So, putting all these in this equation, we will make it more simple in terms of the our
required quantities. So, it will be 4 pi we will see. So, one 4 pi will come from here. So,
4 pi R max whole to the power 4 S min lambda square by rho a square into sigma. So,
this is will be then I am writing it as 1 by A square. Now you see for the radar, this first
ratio that is all are constant terms because R max is fixed, S min is a, for a receiver it is
fixed the carrier frequency is fixed, aperture efficiency of the antenna is fixed, RCS of
the target is fixed.
So, I can now write it as that some constant k by A square where k is a constant ok. So, P
t; that means, is inversely proportional to A square.

(Refer Slide Time: 07:49)

EL

So, we can say that if this is the case. So, we can say that C is 132 k by A square; this
one I am now writing plus 80000 A plus 60 lakhs.
PT

(Refer Slide Time: 08:30)

N

Now, if I want to minimize C so, there it is only depends on A you see. So, with respect
to A, I will have to differentiate; that means, to minimize C d C d A should go 0 and that
gives me A is equal to 262 4 k by 80000 whole to the power one -third.
So, lambda is given we know what is the value of lambda is 0.122 meter. So, k now we
can find out we can evaluate the value of k because k previously we have that expression
there we now can put because now this k needs to be found out. So, k is 4 pi into 200
into 10 to the power 3 whole to the power 4 into 0.5 into 10 0.122 square by 0.7 square
into 10. So, this will be 0.30507 into 10 to the power 8. So, we have got k, we have got
the value of A which is making the cost minimum.

So, now one by one we can answer various parts of the question that what is part a part a
already we answer that A is so much what is a physical area.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:33)

EL
PT
N

So, now, a will be then P t is equal to k by A square and so, it is 0.3057 into 10 to the
power 8 by 46.55 whole square now. Where from A is coming? Actually first we will
have to find A then we can come here. So, actually better b can be first found. What is b?
b is A is equal to 264 into 0.3057 into 10 to the power 8 divided by 80000 whole to the
power one-third. So, that will 46.55 meter square. Once we get this A, we can put it here
and so, this value will be.
(Refer Slide Time: 12:17)

So, putting that we will get is 14.11 kilo Watt. You seen that by radar range equation, we
are not only getting the what is the transmitter power required? That is 14 kilowatt peak
power and what is the antenna size physical area 46. So, both are coming. So, it is not an
EL

actually economic question; it is a question of correct modeling. Then C can be now

PT

easily found what is C T?

N

So, C T will be; that means, transmitter power 132 into 14107.7 or 14.11 or so. So that
will be 18.62 lakhs of Indian rupees. And what is C A? C A will be 80000 into 46.55. So,
it is 37.24 lakhs of INR. Now this is an interesting thing, please see this is not so,
obvious that an antenna cost 37 lakhs. The transmitter we think, it is a high value high
power thing; it is having you see 14 kilo Watt power, but actually the technology why is
antenna technology is much sophisticated that is why its cost is more.

So, what is the outcome of these that actually that is what you said you always remember
these that what is this ratio typically C A is to C T. Roughly we can say this is 2 is to 1.
So, while allocating fund, always you should give more fund for making the antenna
because antenna’s technology is more sophisticated for any microwave things. So, that’s
this problem then let us come to the other problem.
(Refer Slide Time: 14:48)

You see this is also the problem 1 of tutorial 2. A satellite orbiting the earth in a circular
orbit at an altitude of 5000 kilometer has a speed of so and so.
EL

What is the Doppler frequency shift? If the satellite is observed by an UHF radar
operating on 450 mega Hertz lying in the plane of the orbit just as a satellite appears over
PT

the horizon. Given radius of earth is so much you may ignore the effects of refraction by
N

the earth’s atmosphere and reflection from the earth surface. The same thing is asked
what is the Doppler shift when the satellite is observed at the zenith. So, interesting this
is on the Doppler shift concept. So, let us see this (Refer Time: 16:07).
(Refer Slide Time: 16:55)

So, here you see if this is the earth and so, let this is the radar and the satellite now
horizon. What is called horizon? If you look from the horizontal direction, the point
where you are seeing the satellite so; that means, a satellite is here. So, let me use some
EL

other color this is a satellite ok. Now the question is what is the direction of the satellite’s
PT

velocity. You see if it is here. So, satellite is this radar is this, so, radar is looking here
these velocity vector is perpendicular to this.
N

So, what will be the Doppler shift? Doppler shift will be 0. So, this is at the horizon.
Now the question is second part. So, this was the first part, this is the horizon part. So,
there will be no Doppler shift. Please remember this thing that it appears that there may
be some shift etcetera. But the two vectors, they are perpendicular the range vector; this
is the range victor, this is the velocity vector. So, there projection on these will always be
0 that is why no shift.

The second part is that you have the same problem radar. Now the satellite is at the
zenith; zenith means at the top; that means, just on top of your head. So, this is the
satellite, again what is its velocity? Its velocity is this and this time what is the radar
range direction this? Again you see these two are perpendicular. So, always you will see
that these two are perpendicular that is why here also no shift; remember this ok.

So, next problem what frequency will result in the maximum radar cross section of a
metallic sphere whose diameter is 1 metre? So, what frequency will result in the
maximum radar cross section of a metallic sphere whose diameter is 1 metre? So, you
have a metallic sphere now at what frequency because we have seen that graph the how a
sphere’s RCS varies with the radius of the sphere. So, based on that, we will have to
answer this.

Similarly, in the part 2, at what frequency will the radar cross section of a ball bearing
whose diameter is 1 millimetre will be maximum; two ways of saying so; that means,
same thing, but you see one is 1 metre diameter metal, another is 1 millimetre metal. So,
just to give you an idea what is a frequency there.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:52)

EL
PT
N

So, what I will call this is problem 2 problems 1 2. So, third problem, let us say. So, here
we can say the in part 1 RCS of a sphere metallic sphere is maximum RCS of a sphere is
maximum. You can see that graph we have discussed in the class when 2 pi a by lambda
is 1. So, here it is given that 2a is 1 metre. So, we can say that lambda will be pi metre
and. So, lambda pi, now I will have to convert it to frequency. So, frequency C by
lambda so; that means, C is 3 into 10 to the power 8 and lambda is pi is value pi. So, that
will give me 95.49 mega Hertz.

So; that means, if I have a 1 metre diameter things at 95 mega Hertz roughly; it will be
very good; that means, if you want to observe a 1 metre diameter something so,
frequency you should choose. If all other things are not considered just from choosing
frequency you will choose a VHF type of radar. Now the same thing I want to observe
now, a ball bearing of 1 millimetre. So, here only change will be that 2a is 1 millimetre.
So, now so, rest of the thing you do and so, f will be 95.49 giga Hertz.

So, this is an important thing that you see that roughly the smaller, I want to observe I
will have to go high in frequency. Suppose rain generally normal radars like UHF radar
or microwave radars, rain do not affect them much. But if I want to observe rain, I said
also in the class that you like to scale up the frequency. So, if I want to observe rain, if I
want to observe weather, I will have to go high in frequency. So, that then the RCS of the
thing becomes. So, this is also an important lesson. Next problem let us go.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:05)

EL
PT
N

So, this one we have done, then three variants... So, I will have to give you those
formulas actually we will show you in the books etcetera. If you just manipulate there
are three radar range equations are given. Out of that one will be does not contain
explicit indication of wavelength. In equation b, the wavelength is in the numerator and
in equation c it is in the denominator. How would you respond to the question? How
does the radar range vary with the radar wavelength everything else being the same?
(Refer Slide Time: 24:53)

So, what I will do; let me call this 4 now. So, and I will give you that, you can see in the
books the R max, you can write it as P t G t A e sigma by 4 pi whole square S min 1 by
4. Let me call this one equation a. Also if I just make this A e put its value in terms of G
EL

t, I can also write this as P t G t square lambda square sigma by 4 pi whole cube S min
PT

whole to the power 1 by 4.

N

On the other hand, if I eliminate G t; that means, put this G t in terms of Ae, you see
from this equation this equation is both G t and Ae are present. Now in sometimes we
make that ok; if G t is known we can convert A e to G t or G t to A e, we know that
conversion. So, if we write it in terms of A e, then the equation becomes P t A e square
sigma by 4 by lambda square S min whole to the power 1 4th.

Now, interesting thing is you see that in the first equation, the lambda is not present
explicitly in the second equation, lambda is in the numerator. In the third equation,
lambda is in the denominator. So, the question is how does the radar range vary. This is
the range how radar range vary with lambda. So, you see you can do this three things by
remembering that what is A e; A e is G t lambda square by 4 pi. So, actually A e and G t
r related. So, by that these are the three variations. Now the question is then what is the
actual dependence? So, what we will do we to solve this? (Refer Time: 28:45).
(Refer Slide Time: 28:49)

So, if we start from equation a, we can write that R max is P t G t. So, we are putting the
value of A e, G t square lambda square by 4 pi sigma by 4 pi whole square S min to the 1
4th. So, this will become P t G t square lambda square sigma by 4 pi whole cube S min
EL

whole to the power 1 by 4 which is nothing, but equation b.

PT

(Refer Slide Time: 30:06)

N

So, starting from a we can go to b and again from starting from equation c, we can say
that R max is equal to P t G t square lambda 4 by 4 pi square sigma by 4 pi lambda
square S min whole to the power one-fourth is P t G t square 4 pi whole cube S min 1 by
4th which is again your equation b. So, equation b is the one you see, P t is does not have
any lambda dependence; G t also once an antenna is there it does not have any a
dependence.

(Refer Slide Time: 31:22)

EL

So, basically we can say that all equations are same and so, R max that is varies with
PT

lambda to the power half, you see lambda square 1 by 4th. So, it is square root
N

proportional to lambda. So, that is the main thing; that means, if you scale up lambda in a
square root fashion the R max will scale up. So, that was the third problem I thing time is
up. So, we have seen enough problems on this basic concepts that what is RCS, this radar
range equation various thing.

Always remember in this last problem that actually A e, this is a electrical concept; A e
is electrical concept that is why the lambda is directly affecting this effective area. It is a
known from antenna theory etcetera. So, do not think that effective area is of an antenna
is independent of lambda. It is highly dependent on lambda and that is why you are
getting all these apparent anomalies, but actually there is no anomaly the radar range that
varies as a square root of lambda ok. So, thank you from next day we will start the CW
radar.

Thank you.
 Principles and Techniques of Modern Radar Systems
Prof. Amitabha Bhattacharya
Department of E & ECE
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 10
CW Radar

Key Concepts: Working principle of CW radar, Block diagram of a basic CW radar,

Mathematical model of CW Doppler Radar

Welcome, to this NPTEL lecture on Techniques and Principles of Modern Radar

Systems. In last few classes, we have discussed some basic parameters and techniques of
radars, particularly with pulse radar. Today, we will see various functional types of radar.
So, we will start with CW Radar as I said that historically this was the first radar that was
developed and nowadays also this radar is used actually pulse radar is a better option for
very long range things, but for short ranges due to the simplicity of these radar this is still
used and more and more the civilian applications are coming for radar. The CW radar is
gaining again popularity.
EL

So, we will see today the CW radar. CW radar means that if the transmitter is operated
PT

continuously instead pulse fashion. So, the high frequency carrier signal that is sent
N

continuously, then the radar is called CW. You know it is much easier to produce a
continuous wave that is a sinusoidal wave sinusoidal generators we know any second
order LC circuit that can produce that. So, that is why production of these CW radar is
quite easy.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:43)

And now, the problem is that if I have a continuous wave in time suppose this is the time
axis and this is my amplitude of the wave. The problem is that I am sending it and also
after sometime let us say that this I am receiving the thing. But, in a CW radar there is no
EL

starting position and ending position you see that if I get suddenly this plus this what I
PT

will find that this is the in response to this one I have got this I would not be able to say.
So, I would not be able to measure the time between the transmitted pulse and the return
N

pulse.

So, because there is no timing mark here in a pulse you see the on-off time is there. So,
when the return will come I will be able to say that will be also in the form of pulse. So, I
will be able to say that, but here that timing mark is not there that is why CW radar
actually should not be called a radar because range measurement is not possible with this
classical CW radar. So, the radar stands for radio detection and ranging. So, CW radar
cannot detect that.

But, it can what was the purpose it can detect? It surprisingly can detect the velocity we
know what is velocity it is the rate of change of range. So, that first derivative it can
detect that we will discuss now and also we will say one more thing that you see that the
here unlike pulse radar there will be two separate antennas. One for receiving and one for
sorry one for transmitting one for receiving because we will have to see what is the
transmitted pulse transmitted signal and what is the receiving signal.
Now, the already we have seen that for any radar the transmitter power is high. So,
transmitting antenna is sending relatively high power of signal, but in case of CW radar
since the range is not much it is still it is some let us say some one Watt or something or
some milliwatt power and the if the range is few kilometers, you will get some milliwatt
or microwatt power the receivers will send that. So, by separating them in space some
isolation is created so that the see the transmitted signal does not come there.

(Refer Slide Time: 04:39)

EL
PT
N

So, we will have. So, one thing characteristic of this is separate antenna for transmitting
and receiving systems. Now, obviously, the radar generally is used for detecting the
moving object or if the object is stationary suppose the earth it is if we consider it
stationary and some aircraft is flying so, there is a relative velocity we have seen that if
there is a relative velocity between the radar and the target then there is a Doppler shift
produced.

So, we can say that whatever transmitted signal we have sent the returned echo that will
be Doppler shifted. So, there is a change of frequency of the signal. So, actually this is a
mark. So, if we now can find out how much this Doppler shift has been produced, then
we can find out that what is the relative velocity of the target with respect to the radar.
This is the principle of CW radar. So, you see that.

So, actually I can say that very stringent isolation between the transmitter and receiver is
not required here which was the case for pulse radar. We have seen that pulse radar since
it is a high power radar so, we require very stringent isolation between the receiver and
transmitter otherwise the receiver will get saturated when the transmitter is put on.

But, here is no such thing here both transmitter and receiver actually they are separated
they are two different ones, but some amount of coupling is required because if I want to
detect that with respect to the transmitted signal how much Doppler shift in frequency
has been obtained. So, I require a copy of the transmitted signal also, that is why that by
deliberately some coupling is there. Generally, by space separation they are isolated
there is a link by which the transmitted signal is fed. So, let us better discuss with a block
diagram of the radar.

(Refer Slide Time: 07:19)

EL
PT
N

So, suppose I have a transmitter, I have a receiver. So, the transmitter is connected to an
antenna, the receiver also is connected to an antenna and the let us say the transmitter is
sending a frequency of f naught let us call that. It is a CW radar. So, a single frequency
sinusoidal frequency it is sending. So, there will be waves going, let us say that this is the
target. Now, from the radar again the signal will come. So, I can say that the frequency
of these will be f naught depending on whether the target is approaching the radar or
receding from the radar the Doppler shift will be either plus or minus. So, that signal will
come.

Now, receiver will get that signal what receiver will do that it will now send that signal
to a mixer. So, that we call a RF mixer there it will be put and mixer requires two inputs.
So, one of these you know that this is f naught plus minus f d. Also from the transmitter
one signal will be put. So, this signal is f naught. So, the outcome that will be f d. This
we know that mixer does this. So, this f d and now the signal needs to be amplified
because obviously, this is a weak signal.

So, we call it beat frequency amplifier. We put an amplifier which is at a much smaller
frequency. So, putting an amplifier is not an problem. So, that also the output is f d and
then we give it to a indicator or display anything. So, this indicator can be having a chart
that depending on what is f d. So, we have found that expression; f d can be always
considered to what is the radial velocity of the target. So, mathematically this we can
make the model that.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:25) EL

PT
N

So, the thing is that now there are two terms here comes that closing target. Closing
target means a target which is coming to radar closing target coming to radar. So, for a
closing target I can say that the we all know that for closing target the Doppler frequency
Doppler shift will be positive. So, we will get the received signal will be f naught plus f d
and for receding target; receding target; that means, that going away from radar and for
that the Doppler shift is negative.

Now, actually you see the mixing operation there the sign is gone. So, we can find the
velocity, but whether if this a closing target or receding target if we use this previous
block diagram these diagram does not this block diagram this is a CW radar block
diagram CW radar block diagram.

So, in this the due to the mixing operation the sign of f d is lost because you have seen
after mixer we are not getting plus minus f d, but there are circuit by which we can find
out that we will see that because I would not be knowing whether the target is closing or
receding that is an important information because generally the enemy thing will be
closing.

Now, our own targets they maybe closing they may be receding, but we need to
understand that what type of whether the target is closing or receding.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:33)

EL
PT
N

So, now we will see a we will modify the previous block diagram to get the sign of radial
velocity. So, for that what we will do, again that; again that let us say this is the
transmitting antenna and this is the receiving antenna and now here we put two mixers.
So, one I am calling mixer A sorry mixer A and another one I am calling mixer B. Let
me use easer let to erase this, so, mixer A and mixer B.

Now, just here we require an additional element additional element that we need a 90
degree phase shifter; 90 degree phase shifter, you know phase shifters. So, usually they
are made of ferrite or some reciprocal material and then non reciprocal material and then.
So, 90 degree phase shift you have seen in communication classes also etcetera the SSB
modulation that time we require a ninety degree phase shift etcetera. So, it is a Hilbert
transformer etcetera so, that thing 90 degree phase shift.

Now, this what we do, we take the signal. Now, how this mixers are fed? So, from the
transmitting signal let us say that from the transmitter this mixer A that is given this and
the other thing will come directly from receiver. So, mixer A is like the previous case.
The previous block diagram mixer A is like that, mixer B is new. So, in mixer B this this
transmitted signal that is also given to this 90 degree phase shifter.

And this output is taken and given to the mixer B and mixer B also is given the receiver
signal ok. So, what is the modification that we have done? There are now two mixers.
So, one mixer; mixer A is identical to the previous case, mixer B is only one change that
the transmitted signal is being 90 degree phase shifts and given to mixer B. The other
one is from receiving signal that is common in both one and this whole these two outputs
of these two mixers they are now given to a synchronous motor synchronous motor
indicator. So, and give this here also let me see yes.
EL

So, mathematically now let us understand what is happening. So, I can write that what is
PT

the transmitted signal. So, T x signal, let me call these E t; t is a indicating that it is a
transmitted signal. So, I can say
N

I could have assumed sin also. It is a sinusoidal signal, let us say cos. Now, so, what is
the echo signal? Echo from target let us call that E r; the received signal E r and that will
be obviously, the amplitude will be some factor of this transmitted there will be a lot of
reduction etcetera and cos.

Then I can say that there is a we are assuming a moving target, so, there is a Doppler
shift I do not know what it is, but it is omega naught plus omega d into t plus in general
there will be a phase.
Now, this phase is a constant phase phi which depends upon range of the initial
detection. So, the more range it is that will change, but that is constant. So, you see that
channel A; that means, the mixer A that is being fed with the E t and E r because directly
the receiving signal and the transmitted signal are fed to mixer B.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:27)

EL
PT

So, next I will write what is the expression for the output of mixer A that I am calling E
N

A. What is it? Mixer A output signal. So, that I can say some other constant k 2 E
naught; we know mixing operation if these two signals are fed what will we get? We will
get the difference. So, that will be

Similarly, what is mixer B output signal? Let me call it E B and that E B since mixers are
identical I am assuming that the amplitude. Actually the; this mixers do not bother about
the amplitude. So, I can write

So, these are the two mixer outputs.

Now, let us specialize that what is happening for closing target what is happening for
the? So, let us say that if it is a closing target. So, then I know that E A I am to show that
it is closing I am writing

So, we can say that the mixer B output the mixture B output that is lagging mixer A
output by pi by 2 angle. So, I can say that E B sorry, E B lags E A by pi by 2 phase ok.

Now, let us see. So, if this is the case then there are this phase difference between the
two signals. So, if this two are now put to the synchronous motor you see that actually in
the diagram this is put to a synchronous motor. So, synchronous motor will start rotating
because if the two signals who are different in phase they are given to synchronous
motor, synchronous motor runs more phase difference it will run more etcetera. You
EL

know the operation of synchronous motor ok.

PT

So, I will say that the motor runs in one of the direction depending on the construction of
the motor whether it will move in clockwise or anticlockwise motor runs in one direction
N

I do not know that direction, but it is there. Then let us see what happens for receding
target. So, for receding target I can similarly write
(Refer Slide Time: 24:03)

So, I can write that E B leads E A by pi by 2. So, if now this signal what will happen to
the motor? I can say the motor runs in opposite direction, what it was for closing? So,
opposing; so by just by noting in which direction motor is running you can put a mark on
EL

the motor because those who know their construction they will be able to say that
PT

whether it is moving in clockwise or anticlockwise. So, motor runs in opposite sorry

opposite direction and so, you can now get from the motor that.
N

So, indicator will indicate indicator gives whether it is a closing or receding just by
noting the direction. So, such a simple circuit, you see all this can be made this RF
mixers are now available you even in microwave ranges etcetera very simple these things
I think. So, you can always make this type of thing and also able to say what is the
velocity. So, actually in labs these are made. In our lab etcetera you will see that students
can easily make this.

And now we will now do one thing we will find out the exact expressions because these
are that what is the exact expression C/R because here we have arbitrarily assumed this
you see that the return signal something, but from the transmitted signal to return signal
actually the range information is also there though CW radar would not be able to find
that. But, we will drive an expression next that starting from the transmitted signal so
that in terms of range we will find the expression that will be used later.
Because later actually we will see that CW radars if it cannot measure range that is a
problem though it is able to measure velocity, but for range measurement we will just
twig the classical CW radar then it will be able to do ranging and that time we will be
requiring those expression, that is why we will do that next in the next lecture we will do
that.

Thank you.

EL
PT
N