DIGITAL LOGIC DESIGN

[EEng-2042 ]

Chapter Three:
Digital Logic Gates and Families
Outline

Digital logic gates:
✔
The NOT gate
✔
AND gate,
✔
OR gate,
✔
NAND gate,
✔
NORgate
✔
XOR and
✔
XNOR gate
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 Digital logic gates
 The logic gate is the basic building block in digital systems.
 Logic gates operate with binary numbers.
 Gates are therefore referred to as binary logic gates.

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Cont’d...
 These circuits will respond only to HIGH voltages (called 1’s) or
LOW (ground) voltages (called 0’s).
 All digital systems are constructed by using only three basic logic gates.
 These basic gates are called the AND gate, the OR gate, and the
NOT gate.
 This chapter deals with these very important basic logic gates, or
functions.

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The Inverter
 The inverter (NOT circuit) performs the operation called inversion or
complementation.
 The inverter changes one logic level to the opposite level.
 In terms of bits, it changes a 1 to a 0 and a 0 to a 1.

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 Standard logic symbols for the inverter are shown in Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1 Standard logic symbols for the inverter.

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Inverter Truth Table
 When a HIGH level is applied to an inverter input, a LOW level will
appear on its output.
 When a LOW level is applied to its input, a HIGH will appear on its
output.

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Logic Expression for an Inverter
 The complement of a variable is designated by a bar over the letter.
 A variable can take on a value of either 1 or 0.
 If a given variable is 1, its complement is 0 and vice versa.
 The operation of an inverter (NOT circuit) can be expressed as follows:
If the input variable is called A and the output variable is called X, then
X=A

Figure 3.2 The inverter complements an input variable.

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The AND Gate
 The AND gate is one of the basic gates that can be combined to form any
logic function.
 An AND gate can have two or more inputs and performs what is known
as logical multiplication.
 The term gate is used to describe a circuit that performs a basic logic
operation.
 The AND gate is composed of two or more inputs and a single out-put, as
indicated by the standard logic symbols shown in Figure 3.3.

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 Although examples of both distinctive shape symbols and rectangular
outline symbols are shown, the distinctive shape symbol, shown in part
(a), is used predominantly in this book.

Figure 3.3 Standard logic symbols for the AND gate showing two inputs

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Operation of an AND Gate
 An AND gate produces a HIGH output only when all of the inputs are
HIGH. When any of the inputs is LOW, the output is LOW.
 Therefore, the basic purpose of an AND gate is to determine when
certain conditions are simultaneously true, as indicated by HIGH levels
on all of its inputs, and to produce a HIGH on its output to indicate that
all these conditions are true.

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The total number of possible combinations of
binary inputs to a gate is determined by the
following formula:

N = 2n
where N is the number of possible input combinations and
n is the number of input variables. To illustrate,

For two input variables: N = 22 = 4 combinations

For three input variables: N = 23 = 8 combinations
For four input variables: N = 24 = 16 combinations

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Logic Expressions for an AND Gate
 The logical AND function of two variables is represented
mathematically either by placing a dot between the two variables, as
A.B, or by simply writing the adjacent letters without the dot, as AB.
 Boolean multiplication follows the same basic rules governing binary
multiplication, which were discussed in Chapter 2 and are as follows:
0.0 = 0  Boolean multiplication is the same as the AND
0.1 = 0 function.
1.0 = 0
1.1 = 1
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 The operation of a 2-input AND gate can be expressed in equation form
as follows:
✔ If one input variable is A,
✔ if the other input variable is B, and
✔ if the output variable is X,
✔ then the Boolean expression is
X = AB

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Cont’d...
The OR Gate
 An OR gate has two or more inputs and one output, as indicated by the

standard logic symbols in Figure 3.4, where OR gates with two inputs
are illustrated.
 An OR gate can have any number of inputs greater than one.
 Although both distinctive shape and rectangular outline symbols are
shown, the distinctive shape OR gate symbol is used in our textbook.

(a) Distinctive shape (b) Rectangular outline with the OR (≥ 1) qualifying symbol

Figure 3.4 Standard logic symbols for the OR gate showing two inputs 15
Cont’d...
Operation of an OR Gate
 An OR gate produces a HIGH on the output when any of the inputs is
HIGH.
 The output is LOW only when all of the inputs are LOW.
 Therefore, an OR gate determines when one or more of its inputs are
HIGH and produces a HIGH on its output to indicate this condition.

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OR Gate Truth Table

 The truth table can be expanded for any number
of inputs;
✔ but regardless of the number of inputs, the
output is HIGH when one or more of the
inputs are HIGH.

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Logic Expressions for an OR Gate
 The logical OR function of two variables is represented mathematically
by a + between the two variables, for example, A + B. The plus sign is
read as “OR.”
 Addition in Boolean algebra involves variables whose values are either
binary 1 or binary 0. The basic rules for Boolean addition are as follows:
0+0=0
0+1=1  Boolean addition is the same as the OR function.
1+0=1
1+1=1

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 Notice that Boolean addition differs from binary addition in the case
where two 1s are added. There is no carry in Boolean addition.
 The operation of a 2-input OR gate can be expressed as follows: If one
input variable is A, if the other input variable is B, and if the output
variable is X, then the Boolean expression is
X=A+B

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The NAND Gate
 The NAND gate is a popular logic element because it can be used as a
universal gate; that is,
✔ NAND gates can be used in combination to perform the AND, OR, and
inverter operations.
 The term NAND is a contraction of NOT-AND and implies an AND
function with a complemented (inverted) output.

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 The standard logic symbol for a 2-input NAND gate and its equivalency to
an AND gate followed by an inverter are shown in Figure 3.5 (a), where
the symbol K means equivalent to. A rectangular outline symbol is shown
in part (b).

(a) Distinctive shape, 2-input NAND gate and its

(b) Rectangular outline, 2-input NAND
NOT/AND equivalent gate with polarity indicator

Figure 3.5. Standard NAND gate logic symbols.

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Operation of a NAND Gate
 A NAND gate produces a LOW output only when all the inputs are HIGH.
When any of the inputs is LOW, the output will be HIGH.

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Truth Table
 For a 2-input NAND gate, output X is LOW
only when inputs A and B are HIGH;
 X is HIGH when either A or B is LOW, or
when both A and B are LOW.

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Logic Expressions for a NAND Gate
 The Boolean expression for the output of a 2-input NAND gate is
X = AB
 This expression says that the two input variables, A and B, are first
ANDed and then complemented, as indicated by the bar over the AND
expression.
 This is a description in equation form of the operation of a NAND gate
with two inputs.

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 Evaluating the expression for all possible values of the two input
variables, you get the results shown in Table 3–8.

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Negative-OR Equivalent Operation of a NAND Gate
 Inherent in a NAND gate’s operation is the fact that one or more LOW
inputs produce a HIGH output.
 Table 3–8 shows that output X is HIGH (1) when any of the inputs, A and
B, is LOW (0).
 From this viewpoint, a NAND gate can be used for an OR operation that
requires one or more LOW inputs to produce a HIGH output.
 This aspect of NAND operation is referred to as negative-OR.
 The term negative in this context means that the inputs are defined to be in
the active or asserted state when LOW.
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 Cont’d...

Figure 3.6 ANSI/IEEE standard symbols representing the two equivalent operations of
a NAND gate.
 For a 2-input NAND gate performing a negative-OR operation, output X is
HIGH when either input A or input B is LOW, or when both A and B are
LOW.

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The NOR Gate
 The NOR gate, like the NAND gate, is a useful logic element because it
can also be used as a universal gate; that is, NOR gates can be used in
combination to perform the AND, OR, and inverter operations.
 The term NOR is a contraction of NOT-OR and implies an OR function
with an inverted (complemented) output.

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Cont’d...

(a) Distinctive shape, 2-input NOR gate and its NOT/OR equivalent

(b) Rectangular outline, 2-input NOR gate with polarity indicator

Figure 3.7 Standard NOR gate logic symbols.

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Operation of a NOR Gate
 A NOR gate produces a LOW output when any of its inputs is HIGH.
 Only when all of its inputs are LOW is the output HIGH.
 This operation results in an output level opposite that of the OR gate.

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 Cont’d...
Truth table for NOR gate.
 For a 2-input NOR gate, output X is LOW
when either input A or input B is HIGH, or
when both A and B are HIGH;
✔ X is HIGH only when both A and B are
LOW.

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Logic Expressions for a NOR Gate
 The Boolean expression for the output of a 2-input NOR gate can be
written as
X=A+B
 This equation says that the two input variables are first ORed and then
complemented, as indicated by the bar over the OR expression.
 Evaluating this expression, you get the results shown in Table 3–10.

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Negative-AND Equivalent Operation of the NOR Gate
 A NOR gate, like the NAND, has another aspect of its operation that is
inherent in the way it logically functions.
 Table 3–10 shows that a HIGH is produced on the gate output only when
all of the inputs are LOW.
 From this viewpoint, a NOR gate can be used for an AND operation that
requires all LOW inputs to produce a HIGH output.
 This aspect of NOR operation is called negative-AND.
 The term negative in this context means that the inputs are defined to be in
the active or asserted state when LOW. 33
 Cont’d...

Figure 3.8 Standard symbols representing the two equivalent operations of a

NOR gate.

 For a 2-input NOR gate performing a negative-AND operation, output X is

HIGH only when both inputs A and B are LOW.

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The Exclusive-OR and Exclusive-NOR Gates
 Exclusive-OR and exclusive-NOR gates are formed by a combination of
other gates already discussed.
 However, because of their fundamental importance in many applications,
these gates are often treated as basic logic elements with their own unique
symbols.

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The Exclusive-OR Gate
 Standard symbols for an exclusive-OR (XOR for short) gate are shown in
Figure 3.8.
 The XOR gate has only two inputs.
 The exclusive-OR gate performs modulo-2 addition.
 The output of an exclusive-OR gate is HIGH only when the two inputs are
at opposite logic levels.

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 Cont’d...
Standard symbols for an exclusive-OR (XOR for short) gate.

(a) Distinctive shape (b) Rectangular outline

Figure 3.9 Standard logic symbols for the exclusive-OR gate.

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Truth table for an exclusive-OR gate
TABLE 3–11  For an exclusive-OR gate, output X is
HIGH when input A is LOW and input B
is HIGH, or when input A is HIGH and
input B is LOW;
 X is LOW when A and B are both HIGH
or both LOW.

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Logic Expressions for a exclusive-OR gate
 There is an exclusive-OR operator with its own algebraic identities. The
exclusive-OR (XOR), denoted by ⊕.
 The Boolean expression for the output of a 2-input exclusive-OR gate can
be written as
X = (A ⊕ B) = AB + AB

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The Exclusive-NOR Gate
 Like the XOR gate, an XNOR has only two inputs.
 The bubble on the output of the XNOR symbol indicates that its output is
opposite that of the XOR gate.
 When the two input logic levels are opposite, the output of the exclusive-
NOR gate is LOW.

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 Cont’d...
Standard symbols for an exclusive-NOR (XNOR) gate.

(a) Distinctive shape (b) Rectangular outline

Figure 3.10 Standard logic symbols for the exclusive-NOR gate.

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Truth table for an exclusive-NOR gate.
TABLE 3–12  For an exclusive-NOR gate, output X is
LOW when input A is LOW and input B is
HIGH, or when A is HIGH and B is LOW;
✔ X is HIGH when A and B are both HIGH
or both LOW.

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 Cont’d...
Logic Expressions for a exclusive-NOR gate
 The exclusive-NOR, also known as the equivalence, is the complement

of the exclusive-OR.
 The Boolean expression for the output of a 2-input exclusive-NOR gate

can be written as
X = (A ⊕ B) = AB + AB

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Thank You !

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