MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

Magnetism and electricity are closely related concepts. When an electric current passes through
copper wire, magnetic effect is produced. There are many practical life applications of magnetic
effect of current such as usage of credit card where credit card reader transmits the information
encoded in a magnetic pattern on the back of the card to the cardholder's bank when the card is
swiped. The magnetic field changes as we swipe the card because of the credit card machine's wire
coil. We refer to this as electromagnetic induction. There is an induction of voltage and current from
the change in magnetic field, which are utilised to communicate account information. Magnets are
found in refrigerator doors, audio and video cassette tapes, computer hard drives and floppies,
radio, television, and stereo speakers, as well as children's toys. Additionally, electric motors and
generators are made with magnets. Magnets are also necessary for the operation of the Magnetic
Resonance Imaging (MRI) technology, which is used in hospitals to scan internal body components.

We have studied the about the heating effect due to electric current. We'll now explore the other
effects of electric current like an electric current can result in a magnetic effect. "An electric current
flowing in a wire produces a magnetic field around it," is what is meant to be understood by the
phrase "magnetic effect of electric current." Put differently, magnetism can be produced by electric
current.

Figure: The big iron nail has become

magnetic due to an electric current
passing through the coil of copper wire.
This is an illustration of the current's
magnetic effect.

INTRODUCTION:
Hans Christian Oersted made the discovery that a conductor carrying current creates a magnetic
field around it in 1820. Later, Michael Faraday demonstrated that when a conducting coil and a
magnet are moving relative to one another, current can be produced in the coil. As a result, electric
current has a magnetic effect, and electricity can be produced by changing magnetic fields. When
combined, their research constitutes the vital field of electromagnetism in physics. Let's first review
some key concepts related to magnetism before delving into the subject of electromagnetism.

MAGNETISM:
It has been widely recognised for decades that ferrous oxide's (Fe3O4) ability to attract materials such
as nickel, iron, and so forth. Materials with this property are referred to be magnets. As Fe3O4 occurs
naturally, it is referred to as a natural magnet; on the other hand, substances that artificially impart
the ability to magnetise are referred to as artificial magnets. Examples: Bar magnet, horse shoe
magnet etc.
A long, rectangular bar with a uniform cross-section is called a bar magnet and it attracts iron, steel,
nickel, and cobalt fragments.

Bar magnet Horse magnet

Magnetic substances: Magnetic substances are those that are attracted to magnets and have the
potential to become magnets. For instance, cobalt, nickel, and iron.

Non-magnetic substances: Non-magnetic substances are those that are incapable of being
magnetised and are not attracted to a magnet. For instance, plastic, paper, wood, etc.

Properties of Magnets:
1. A magnet has two poles near its ends: North Pole and South Pole.

2. The north pole of a freely hanging or freely pivoted magnet is its end pointing in the
direction of the geographical north. Furthermore, the south pole of a magnet is the end of
the magnet that faces geographical south when it is freely hanging or pivoted.

3. Like magnetic poles repel each other whereas unlike magnetic poles attract each other.
 4. Magnetic poles always exist in opposite pairs. Even if a magnet is broken into smaller and
smaller bits, tiny magnets with North and South poles would still be produced. Therefore,
magnetic monopoles never exist.

Magnetic Field and Field Lines:

A magnetic field is the area or space surrounding a magnet or current-carrying conductor where any
magnetic substance can sense its influence. For example, a small north magnetic pole will experience
a force when it is placed in the magnetic field produced by a magnet. Additionally, under the
influence of a magnetic field, the North Pole will move if it is free. Magnetic field is diagrammatically
represent by magnetic field lines. The magnetic field lines are also known as magnetic lines of force.

● Magnetic field is denoted by symbol B.

● SI unit of magnetic field is Tesla (T) or Weber per square metre (Wb/m2).
● CGS unit of magnetic field is Gauss (G) [1 T = 104 Gauss]
● Magnetic field is a quantity that has both direction and magnitude.

Let’s perform an activity to understand the meaning of magnetic field lines and how they are drawn.
Magnetic Field Pattern Due to a Bar Magnet by Using Iron Filings:
Put a card—a piece of thick, stiff paper—over a powerful bar magnet. Using a sprinkler, sprinkle the
card with a thin layer of iron filings, and then gently tap the card. The iron filings self-arrange in a
predictable manner. This configuration of iron filings provides us with a rough representation of the
magnetic field pattern generated by a bar magnet. So we can say a magnetic field is created around
the bar magnet. The bar magnet's magnetic field exerts force on the iron filings. Iron filings align
themselves in the directions of magnetic field lines and arrange themselves in a specific pattern due
to the bar magnet's strong magnetic field.
 Experiment to trace the magnetic field pattern Magnetic field pattern of a bar
of a bar magnet by using iron filings magnet as traced by iron filings

The magnetic field pattern surrounding a bar magnet can also be obtained using another technique.
Using a compass, this is accomplished. A tool for indicating the direction of the magnetic field at a
point is a compass. A compass, sometimes known as a plotting compass, is made out of a small,
freely rotating magnet that typically takes the shape of a pointer in the horizontal plane.

Mark the needle's North Pole end by placing it close to the bar magnet's North Pole. Now indicate
the new location of the needle's N-pole and insert the needle's S-pole there. It turns out that the
needle always follows the route created by the curved lines stated above. These lines are called
magnetic lines of force. Thus, a magnetic field can be represented by lines of force.

Properties of magnetic field lines:

The lines in a magnetic field where an imaginary free isolated north pole travels along are known as
magnetic lines of force. It is a straight or curved route whose tangent at any given point indicates the
direction of the magnetic field.

1. Lines of force are continuous closed loops.

2. The lines of force outside a bar magnet point towards the South Pole and away from the
North Pole. The lines inside a bar magnet are oriented from the South Pole to the North
Pole.
 3. At other places, the magnetic field lines of a magnet are widely separated, yet they are
closer to one another near the poles.

4. It is not possible for two field lines to cross one another. If they did, the compass needle at
the intersection would point in two different directions, which is not feasible.

5. Uniform and Non-uniform magnetic field:

In a magnetic field, if the lines of the magnetic field are parallel, the strength of the magnetic
field at any point will be the same means the field strength will remain uniform.

If the magnetic field lines in a particular magnetic field range are not uniform, the field at all
the points is non-uniform.

Note: Pole strength is the ability of a magnet's pole to attract or repel another magnetic pole. 'm' is
used to represent it. Ampere-meter is its SI unit.

MAGNETIC FIELD OF EARTH:

A freely suspended magnet always points in the north-south direction even in the absence of any
other magnet. This suggests that the earth itself behaves as a magnet which causes a freely
suspended magnet (or magnetic needle) to point always in a particular direction: north and south.

The magnetic field of the earth is shaped like an imaginary bar magnet buried in the heart of the
planet, with a length equal to one-fifth of its diameter.
Since the earth's magnet attracts the north pole of a suspended magnet, its south pole is located in
the geographical north. Similar to this, the earth's magnet's North Pole is located in the geographical
south because it attracts the suspended magnet's South Pole to it. As a result, a magnetic N-pole and
S-pole are located close to the geographical south and north, respectively. The earth's geographical
axis and magnetic axis are not coincident. They are tilted at an approximate inclination of 15°.

MAGNETIC EFFECT OF CURRENT (OR ELECTROMAGNETISM):

OERSTED EXPERIMENT:
Oersted made the discovery of the magnetic effect of electricity in 1820. Oersted discovered that a
compass needle could be deflected by a wire that was carrying current. As a small magnet, the
compass needle can only be deflected by a magnetic field. It was determined that a current running
in a wire always creates a magnetic field surrounding it because the wire was able to deflect
a compass needle. The magnetic effect of current signifies that the current generates mechanical
forces. The magnetic effect of current is also called electromagnetism which means electricity
produces magnetism.

Oersted carried out a number of tests to ascertain the magnetic effect of a wire that carried current.
The Oersted experiment, which demonstrated that a wire carrying current can act as a magnet, is
described below:

An external battery is connected to a long, straight wire, and an electric current is run through it. A
deflection in the magnetic needle is seen when it is positioned below a wire such that the wire is
parallel to the magnetic needle's axis and the current flows from south to north. It is observed that
the needle's North Pole is deflected westward; this deflection grows with increasing current
magnitude until the needle's North Pole turns precisely west. Additionally, it has been noted that the
magnetic needle's North Pole is displaced eastward if it is positioned above the wire instead of
keeping below the wire. Therefore, the experiment above demonstrates how an electric current in
the current-carrying wire creates a magnetic field around an object by deflecting the compass
needle . The compass needle is deflected by this magnetic field when it is positioned close to the
wire carrying current.
Ampere Swimming Rule:
The direction of the magnetic field produced due to a current carrying wire may be determined using
this rule:
“Ampere's swimming rule states that if a swimmer faces a magnetic needle and swims in the current
direction, the south pole of the magnetic field will deflect towards his right hand and the north pole
towards his left.”

Another aid in remembering this rule is the word "SNOW." It means if the current travels from south
to north, the North Pole will be deflected towards west.

Observations from Oersted experiment:

1. Any wire that carries current creates a magnetic field around it because it can deflect a
nearby magnetic needle.
2. The amount of current flowing through the wire determines how strong the magnetic field
is.
3. The magnetic field setup acts perpendicular to the direction of the current flow.
4. The direction of the current flow determines the direction of the magnetic field.

MAGNETIC FIELD PRODUCED BY CURRENT-CARRYING CONDUCTORS:

A current-carrying conductor's shape determines the magnetic field pattern or the shape of its
magnetic field lines it produces. In our syllabus, we have to study about the magnetic field produced
by:
1. a straight conductor (or straight wire) carrying current,
2. a circular loop (or circular wire) carrying current, and
3. a solenoid (long coil of wire) carrying current

MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A CURRENT THROUGH A STRAIGHT CONDUCTOR:

A pattern of concentric circles are formed around a straight conducting wire indicating the field lines
pattern of a magnetic field. The magnetic field surrounding a long, straight wire carrying electric
current can be studied with the help of the following experiment:
Cover a cardboard with a piece of white paper. Create a tiny opening in the middle. Place this
cardboard horizontally against a stand. Over it, scatter some iron filings. Through the tiny hole in the
middle of the cardboard, insert an insulated copper wire that is perpendicular to the material. A
current (i) runs through the wire when the circuit is closed meaning a battery, switch, and variable
resistance are connected in series with the wire. A current-carrying conductor creates a magnetic
field around itself, as seen by the iron filings on the cardboard that form concentric circles around
the wire. At every point, the magnetic field is tangential to the circle that passes through it and is
located in the plane of the paper.

Observations:
1. At every given point, the amount of magnetic field generated by a wire carrying a straight
current is directly proportional to the current flowing through the wire. Therefore, the
magnetic field generated will be stronger, if larger current flowing through the wire.
Bα I
2. A straight current carrying wire's magnetic field strength at a given location is inversely
proportional to the point's distance (r) from the wire. So, a point's magnetic field strength
decreases with increasing distance from the current-carrying wire.
1
Bα
r
3. If the direction of the current is changed in the wire by changing the polarity of the battery,
the direction of the magnetic field forming concentric circle will also change.

From these observations, we can write:

 Where K is the constant of proportionality and may experimentally be verified to be equal to

, (in S.I system), where µ0 is called the permeability constant of free space or vacuum,
whose value is given as:

So,

Right hand thumb rule:

Maxwell’s right hand thumb rule is a practical method for determining the direction of the magnetic
field associated with a conductor carrying electric current.

“Visualise grasping a straight conductor that carries current in your right hand, with your thumb
pointing in the direction of the current. Next, wrap your fingers around the conductor in the
direction of the magnetic field lines.”

Maxwell’s right-hand thumb rule is also known as Maxwell’s corkscrew rule. A corkscrew, which
consists of a handle and a spiral metal rod, is a tool used to remove corks from bottles. The direction
in which we turn a corkscrew's handle corresponds to the direction of the magnetic field (or
magnetic field lines) when driven in the direction of current, as per Maxwell's corkscrew rule.

Note: The magnetic field line perpendicular to the plane in the outward direction is denoted by dot
( ) and the magnetic field line perpendicular to the plane in the inward direction is denoted by cross
( ).
MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A CURRENT THROUGH A CIRCULAR LOOP:
Take a copper wire and wrap it into a circle shape. Connect a battery, rheostat, and switch in series
with this coil. Make two holes on a cardboard sheet covered with white paper and insert this copper
wire over them. Sprinkle the cardboard with iron filings. It appears that iron filings self-organize into
concentric circles.

Magnetic field lines due to circular loop Magnetic field lines due to a circular current
(or circular wire) carrying current carrying conductor

The right-hand thumb rule can be used to determine the direction of the circular field that is close to
the conductor. As we travel away from the wire, the concentric circles that symbolise the magnetic
field surrounding the loop would get bigger and bigger. When we get at the circular loop's centre,
the arcs of these large circles will eventually become straight lines.

Observations:
1. When a circular loop or wire carries current, the amount of magnetic field generated at its
centre is directly proportional to the current flowing through the loop or wire.
Bα I
 2. A circular loop or wire carrying current at its centre produces a magnetic field whose
strength is inversely proportional to the loop's or wire's radius (r).
1
Bα
r
3. The field generated by a circular coil with ‘n’ turns is n times larger than the field produced
by a single turn. This is because the field resulting from each circular turn just adds up since
the current in each turn has the same direction.
Bαn

Coil having ‘n’ number of turns

So, if B is the magnetic field at the centre of coil having ‘n’ number of turns, then
Bα I
1
Bα
r
Bαn

B=K ¿
r
μ0
Where K is the proportionality constant and is equal to (In SI system)
2
n μ0 I
So, B=
2r

Clock Face Rule:

As per Clock face rule, observe one face of a circular wire (or coil) through which a current is passing:
1. The face of a circular wire (or coil) will be the South pole (S-pole) if the current flowing
around it flows in a clockwise manner.
2. A North pole (N-pole) will be present on the face of a circular wire (or coil) if the current
flowing around it is flowing anticlockwise.
 Coil carrying clockwise current Coil carrying anticlockwise current

MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A CURRENT IN A SOLENOID:

A solenoid or helix is an insulated copper coil that is twisted around a cylindrical cardboard or other
core so that its length is longer than its diameter.

A solenoid
Each coil turn acts like a separate magnet when there is an electric current flowing through the
solenoid. A magnetic north pole and a south pole are represented by the two ends of the solenoid,
respectively. Parallel straight lines make up the field lines inside the solenoid. This suggests that the
solenoid's magnetic field is same at each and every point inside the solenoid. In other words, there is
a uniform field inside the solenoid.

Since all of these magnets are organised in a certain order, the number of turns determines the
solenoid's total magnetic strength. The solenoid functions as a bar magnet as a result. The end in
which current flows in an anticlockwise direction becomes a North Pole and the other end where the
current flows in clockwise direction, becomes a South pole.
When a piece of magnetic material, such as soft iron, is placed inside a current-carrying solenoid, a
powerful magnetic field is created that can be used to magnetise that material. This type of magnet
is known as an electromagnet. Solenoid is employed in the construction of electromagnets.

A current-carrying solenoid's ability to generate magnetic field is directly proportional to:

1. Number of turns per unit length in the solenoid. Larger the number of turns per unit length
in the solenoid, greater will be the magnetism produced.
Bαn
N
where n = number of turns per unit length = , and N = Number of turns in the solenoid
L
and L = Length of the solenoid

2. Magnitude of current in the solenoid. Larger the current passed through solenoid, stronger
will be the magnetic field produced.
Bα I

3. Nature of “core material” used in making solenoid. The use of soft iron rod as core in a
solenoid produces the strongest magnetism.
B α μ0

where μ0= Permeabitity of free space

N
So, B=μ0 ∋¿ μ0 I
L

Electromagnet:
Electromagnets are temporary magnets that are made with the help of electric current. The
magnetic effect of current drives the operation of an electromagnet. When a solenoid contains a soft
iron rod known as a core, the induction of magnetism into the iron core causes the magnetic field to
intensify greatly.

An electromagnet is a type of magnet that is created by winding a lengthy coil of insulated copper
wire around a soft iron core. The coil becomes magnetised only when electricity is applied to it.

Note: Q- Why steel is not used as core in electromagnets instead of soft iron?
A solenoid with a soft iron core can only function as a magnet when current is passing through it.
When the solenoid's current is cut off, it stops acting like a magnet. When the coil's current is cut off,
the soft iron core's magnetism completely vanishes. However, when the current is cut off, steel that
is used to create an electromagnet's core retains some of its magnetism and turns into a permanent
magnet. Steel is not utilised to create electromagnets because of this.
Factors Affecting the Strength of an Electromagnet:
An electromagnet's strength is determined by:
1. The coil's number of turns. The strength of the electromagnet grows as the coil's turns
increase.
2. The coil's current flowing. The electromagnet's strength grows with an increase in coil
current.
3. The length of air gap between its poles. An electromagnet's strength grows as the distance
between its poles is shortened.

Differences Between a Bar Magnet (or Permanent Magnet) and an Electromagnet:

Bar magnet (or Permanent magnet) Electromagnet

1. The bar magnet is a permanent 1. An electromagnet is a temporary

magnet. magnet. Its magnetism is only for the
duration of current passing through it.
So, the magnetism of an electromagnet
can be switched on or switched off as
desired.

2. A permanent magnet produces 2. An electromagnet can produce very

comparatively weak force of attraction strong magnetic
force.

3. The strength of a permanent magnet 3. The strength of an electromagnet can

cannot be changed. be changed by changing the number of
turns in its coil or by changing the
current passing through it.

4. The (north-south) polarity of a 4. The polarity of an electromagnet can

permanent magnet is fixed and cannot be changed by changing the direction
be changed. of current in its coil.

5. Permanent magnets are usually made 5. Electromagnets are made of soft iron
of Carbon steel, Chromium steel, Cobalt core with coils wrapped over it.
steel, Tungsten steel

6. Permanent magnets are used in 6. Electromagnets are used in Motors and

microphones, loudspeakers, electric generators, Transformers, Electric bells
clocks, ammeters, voltmeters, and buzzers, in cranes to lift heavy
speedometers etc. loads etc.
MAGNETISM IN HUMAN BEINGS:
The movement of charged particles called ions in the human body produces incredibly weak electric
currents. We refer to these as ionic currents. The weak ionic currents in our body create a magnetic
field when they go through the nerve cells. The magnetism generated in the human body is
insignificant in comparison to the earth's magnetic field. The heart and the brain are the two primary
organs in the human body where a significant magnetic field is created.

For example, MRIs, or magnetic resonance imaging, are a method of creating images of the inside of
the human brain utilising the magnetism found in the brain.

FORCE ON A MOVING CHARGE IN A MAGNETIC FIELD:

The following findings were obtained from experiments on different charged particles moving in a
magnetic field:-
1. The magnetic force (FB) which a moving charged particle experiences in the magnetic field is
proportional to the charge ‘q’ and speed ‘v’ of the particle and the magnitude of the
magnetic field ‘B’ and the sine of angle between the magnetic field and the velocity of
charged particle.
2. Magnetic force’s (FB) direction depends on the direction of the charged particle’s velocity
and magnetic field’s direction.
3. This magnetic force is also called as Lorentz magnetic force.
⃗
F B =q( ⃗v × ⃗
B)

F B=qvBsinθ

4. When angle (θ) between velocity and magnetic field is 0o or 1800, i.e., when charged particle
is moving parallel or antiparallel to the magnetic field, then sin sin 0 o=0and sin sin 180o =0
which means magnetic force on the charged particle is zero.
5. When angle (θ) between velocity and magnetic field is other than 0o or 180o, the magnetic
force acts in the perpendicular direction to both v and B.

6. The direction of magnetic force acting on a positive charge is opposite to that of the force on
a negative charge moving in the same direction.

Direction of force on moving charge in magnetic field:

 1. FLEMING’S RIGHT-HAND PALM RULE:
The thumb and fingers of the right hand should be stretched at a right angle to one another,
according to the right-hand palm rule. The normal to palm will then point in the direction of
the force if the fingers point in the direction of field B and the thumb points in the direction
of motion of charged particle or in the direction of current flow. Right hand palm rule is
generally gives the direction of force on positive charged particle, if a negative charge is
moving in the magnetic field, then we will reverse the direction of force obtained using the
right hand thumb rule.

2. FLEMING’S LEFT HAND RULE:

According to Fleming's Left-Hand Rule, when the thumb, middle finger, and forefinger are
stretched perpendicularly to one another, the thumb indicates the direction of force, the
middle finger indicates the direction of current or motion of a charged particle, and the
forefinger indicates the direction of the magnetic field. If a negative charge is moving in the
magnetic field, then we will reverse the direction of force.

Motion of charged particle in a magnetic field:

As we know the magnetic force on a charged particle in a magnetic field is given by:
F B=qvBsinθ

If θ=0o or θ=180o, the force on the charged particle will be zero but if θ=90o , the force on the
charged particle will be maximum and equal to qvB due to which the particle follows a circular path.

When a charged particle moves with velocity v through a magnetic field, the field can change only
the direction of the velocity but cannot change the speed of the particle.
It should come as no surprise that a current-carrying wire experiences force when it is in a magnetic
field as a single charged particle moving through a magnetic field experiences a magnetic force as
well. This is because the current is made up of numerous charged particles that are in motion; as a
result, the force that the magnetic field ultimately applies to the wire is the total of all the individual
forces that are applied to each of the charged particles that make up the current. When the particles
and the atoms that make up the wire collide, the force applied to the particles is transferred to the
wire. That we are going to study next.

FORCE ON A CURRENT-CARRYING CONDUCTOR IN A MAGNETIC FIELD:

As we previously discussed, Oersted's experiment demonstrates how a wire carrying current exerts a
force on a compass needle, deflecting it from its typical north-south orientation. We can also state
that a current-carrying wire imposes a mechanical force on a magnet, and if the magnet is free to
move, this force can produce a motion in the magnet. If a current-carrying wire applies a force to a
magnet, the magnet will also apply an equal and opposite force on the current-carrying wire,
according to Newton's third law of motion. Faraday made the following discovery in 1821: A current-
carrying conductor can move when it is subjected to a mechanical force in a magnetic field.

Let’s do an activity to understand the force on a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic
field. Take one small aluminium rod named as AB. Using two connecting cables, hang it horizontally
from a stand. Now position a powerful horseshoe magnet so that the rod is between the two poles
and the magnetic field is upwards. We will see that the rod shifts if a current is now run through it
from B to A. The force applied to the rod that carries the electric current is what causes this
displacement. The deflection of the rod will reverse if the current is reversed or the magnet's poles
are switched, indicating a change in the direction of the force acting on it.

The force acting on the current carrying conductor depends upon the following factors:
1. The force on the conductor is directly proportional to the current in the wire.
FαI
2. The force on the conductor is directly proportional to the strength of the magnetic field.
FαB
 3. The force on the conductor is proportional to the length of the conductor.
Fα l
4. The force on the conductor is directly proportional to sin sin θ where θ is the angle between
current and the direction of magnetic field.
Combining all the equations, we get:
F=BlIsinθ

F =I ( ⃗l× ⃗
In vector form, ⃗ B)

To find the direction of force on the current carrying conductor, we can use right hand palm rule
or fleming’s left hand rule that we have used to find the force on charge moving in the magnetic
field.

a. When θ = 00 or 1800, sin θ = 0 ⇒ F = 0 which means force on a current - carrying conductor

Special cases:

placed parallel or antiparallel to magnetic field is zero

b. If θ = 90°, sin θ =sin 90° = 1, F=BIl is the maximum force. Force experienced by the
conductor is maximum when placed perpendicular to magnetic field.

A few examples of devices that make use of magnetic fields and current-carrying conductors are
electric motors, electric generators, loudspeakers, microphones, and measuring instruments.

FORCE BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL STRAIGHT CONDUCTORS:

When two current carrying conductors are placed parallel and nearby to each other, they experience
a force between them.

When the currents in the two wires are in the same direction, they attract each other with a force.

When the currents in the two wires are in the opposite direction, they repel each other with a force.
The magnitude of this force of attraction or repulsion between two conductors is given by:

THE ELECTRIC MOTOR (DC MOTOR):

A motor is a device which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. Electric motors are
utilised in a plethora of equipment, including electric fans, vehicles, refrigerators, mixers, grinders,
and washing machines, etc. Direct current is used to power a standard electric motor. Thus, it is also
referred to as a "Direct Current motor," or D.C. motor.

Principle of a Motor:
A motor operates on the idea that a force applies on a rectangular coil to cause it to rotate
continuously when it is put in a magnetic field and current is carried through it. The shaft that is
attached to the coil rotates together with it. In this manner, the motor's electrical energy is
transformed into rotational mechanical energy.

Parts of an electric motor:

1. Permanent magnet (M): The permanent magnet produces the necessary magnetic field. Its
poles are made concave in shape so as to give radial field.
 2. Armature coil (ABCD): An armature coil is made up of many insulated copper coils wound
around a soft iron core that has been laminated. When current is run through the coil, its
purpose is to create a magnetic field.
3. Commutator (Split rings- X and Y): The function of the commutator is to change the direction
of the current after half a rotation of the coil.
4. Carbon brush: The purpose of the two brushes is to provide an electrical connection
between the moving and stationary components of the electric circuit by connecting the
battery wire to the rotating coil.
5. Battery: The function of the battery is to give the motor the necessary electrical energy.
Construction of motor:
The components of an electric motor are a rectangular coil ABCD made of insulated copper wire that
is positioned flexibly on a shaft between the curved poles of a permanent magnet M in the shape of
a horseshoe. The coil's two ends (A and B) are securely soldered, or welded, to the copper ring's two
half rings (X and Y), which make up a commutator. The commutator rings are fixed to the coil's shaft
and rotate along with the coil. After each half rotation of the coil, commutator rings change the
direction of current flow through the coil. It should be noted that any one brush touches only one
ring at a time, so that when the coil rotates, the two brushes will touch both the rings one by one.

Working of motor:
A magnetic field is created surrounding the rectangular coil when an electric current flows through
it. The current-carrying coil then rotates (or spins) constantly as a result of interactions between the
magnetic fields of the horseshoe-type magnet and the coil.

Assume that the coil ABCD is initially oriented horizontally. When the switch is pressed, current from
the battery passes via the commutator half ring X and carbon brush P and into the coil. The current
exits through brush Q and ring Y after flowing in the direction ABCD.

a) The current is flowing from A to B in side AB of the rectangular coil ABCD. Additionally, the
current in the coil is flowing from C to D on side CD. The magnet's N pole to S pole is where
the magnetic field is directed. Fleming's left-hand rule is applied to the coil's sides AB and
CD, and the results show that the force on side AB is directed downward, while the force on
side CD is directed upward. As a result, the coil's side CD is pushed up and side AB is pushed
down. As a result, the coil ABCD rotates anticlockwise.

b) When the coil reaches its vertical position while rotating, current to the coil is cut off when
the brushes P and Q come into contact with the space between the two commutator rings.
The coil does not stop rotating even though the current is cut off when it reaches the precise
vertical position because it has already accumulated speed and is moving beyond the vertical
position.
 c) The two commutator half rings automatically switch contact from one brush to the other as
the coil rotates halfway through and reaches its vertical position, with side CD of the coil
moving to the left and side AB to the right. Accordingly, following a half revolution of the
coil, brush P is in contact with the commutator half ring Y, and brush Q is in contact with the
commutator half ring X. As a result, the coil's current flow is reversed. The forces operating
on the coil's sides AB and CD reverse in direction when the current flows in the other way.
This makes the coil rotate anticlockwise by another half rotation

d) An electric motor's revolving shaft can power a multitude of machines connected to it

because the reversing of current in the coil is repeated after every half rotation, causing the
coil (and its shaft) to continue rotating as long as current from the battery is transferred
through it.

In commercial motors:
(a) The coil of a commercial motor is twisted around a soft iron core. The magnetic field
intensifies as a result of the soft iron core becoming magnetised. The motor gains power as a
result. An armature is a coil and soft iron core combination.
(b) The insulated copper wire is wound around a significant number of times in the coil.
(c) Instead of using a permanent magnet, a strong electromagnet is employed.

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION (ELECTRICITY FROM MAGNETISM):

An electric current can produce magnetism. This also holds true in reverse. In other words, That is,
magnetism (or magnets) can produce electric current. Through a series of experiments, Michael
Faraday demonstrated that moving a coil in a magnetic field or moving a magnet relative to the coil
can induce current in it, which is known as induced current and if current is induced there, then we
can say EMF will also be induced called as induced EMF. Electromagnetic induction is the process by
which electricity is generated from magnetism.

To understand the effect of electromagnetic induction, a device is used to detect the presence of
current in the circuit called as galvanometer. An instrument that can identify whether electric
current is present in a circuit is a galvanometer. It is connected to the circuit in series. A
galvanometer's pointer is at the zero mark, or the middle of the semi-circular scale, when there is no
current passing through it. Depending on the direction of the current, the galvanometer's pointer
will move or deflect to the left or right of the zero mark when an electric current flows through it.
Let’s do an activity (Faraday’s Experiments) to understand the phenomenon of electromagnetic
induction.
Take a coil and connect the ends of the coil to a galvanometer and move the north pole of a bar
magnet towards the coil. Then a current is produced in the coil which causes a deflection in the
galvanometer pointer. Similarly, when the magnet is moved out quickly from inside the coil, even
then a current is produced in the coil. This current also causes a deflection in the galvanometer
pointer but in the opposite direction (showing that when the direction of movement of magnet
changes, then the direction of current produced in the coil also changes). So, the current produced
in this case is also alternating current or a.c.

In the above figures, the current/emf is induced in the coil due to the change in the magnetic field
associated with the coil. And the magnetic field or the number of magnetic field lines passing
through a given area of the coil perpendicularly is called as magnetic flux (ϕ ).
 ● Magnetic flux is a scalar quantity.
● Its SI unit is Weber (Wb) and CGS unit is Maxwell.

After performing numerous experiments, following observations were made about electromagnetic
induction:
1. When a coil is rotated or moved in relation to a stationary magnet, a current is induced in it.
2. Moving (or rotating) a magnet relative to a fixed coil likewise induces a current in the fixed
coil.
3. When the coil and the magnet are both stationary with respect to one another, no current is
induced in the coil.
4. The direction of current produced in the coil reverses along with the coil's (or magnet's)
direction of motion.
5. There are four ways to increase the amount of current induced in a coil:
(a) winding the coil around a soft iron core;
(b) increasing the number of turns in the coil;
(c) increasing the magnet's strength;
(d) raising the coil's (or magnet's) rotational speed.

Based on the above observations, Faraday gave his two laws of electromagnetic induction.
1. Whenever the magnetic flux linking a coil changes, then an EMF is induced in the coil.
2. The magnitude of the induced EMF is directly proportional to the rate of the change of
magnetic flux/field lines.
− Δϕ
E=
Δt
where E = Induced emf
Δϕ
= Change of magnetic flux with time
Δt

If there are ‘N’ number of turns in the coil, then EMF induced is given by:
Δϕ
E=−N
Δt

Here in the above equation, negative sign indicates that the direction of induced EMF is such that it
tends to produce a current which opposes the change in magnetic flux that produced it. And this is
the statement of Lenz’s law.
Fleming’s Right-hand Rule:
To determine the direction of induced current in a conductor, when it is moved across a magnetic
field, Fleming proposed the ‘Right-hand rule’.

Stretch the forefinger, middle finger and thumb of your right hand in three mutually perpendicular
directions, such that the forefinger points the direction of magnetic field(B), the thumb indicates the
direction of motion(M), then the middle finger represents the direction of induced current (i) in the
conductor.

DIRECT CURRENT AND ALTERNATING CURRENT:

Direct current Alternating current

1. If the current flows in one direction 1. If the current reverses direction after
only, it is called a direct current. equal intervals of time, it is called
alternating current.

2. Direct current is abbreviated as D.C. 2. Alternating current is abbreviated as

A.C.

3. The positive (+) and negative (–) 3. The positive (+) and negative (–)
polarity of a direct current is fixed. polarity of an alternating current is not
fixed. They changes at regular intervals.

4. Some of the sources of direct current 4. Some of the sources which produce
(or d.c.) are dry cell, dry cell battery, car alternating current (or a.c.) are power
battery and d.c. generator. house generators, car alternators and
bicycle dynamos.
 5. DC cannot travel over long distances. It 5. AC is safe to transfer over long
loses electric power. distances without much loss of
electrical power.

6. DC has no or zero frequency. 6. The frequency of AC is dependent on

country. For ex: In India, the frequency
is 50 Hz, i.e., the alternating current
produced in India reverses its direction
every 1/100 second.

7. 7.

ELECTRIC GENERATOR:
An electric generator is a device which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

Principle of Electric Generator:

The electric generator is an application of electromagnetic induction. The electric generator works
on the principle that when a straight conductor is moved in a magnetic field, then current is induced
in the conductor. A rectangular coil with straight sides is made to rotate quickly in an electric
generator by creating a magnetic field between a horseshoe-shaped magnet's poles. A current is
created in the coil as a result of the coil's rotation cutting the wires carrying the magnetic field.

Electric generators are of two types:

1. Alternating Current generator (A.C. generator), and
2. Direct Current generator (or D.C. generator)

A.C. GENERATOR:
"A.C. generator" stands for "alternating current generator." Put another way, an alternating current
generator continuously changes the direction of the current it produces. Another name for an A.C.
generator is an alternator.

Parts of an AC generator:
The main parts of an AC generator are the horseshoe magnet, armature (coil), slip rings and carbon
brushes about which we have already studied in DC motor except slip rings.
A slip ring is an electromechanical device that passes the signals and power over the rotating surface
with the help of electrical contacts.
Construction of an A.C. Generator:
An electric generator and an electric motor share a similar construction. An armature, or rectangular
coil ABCD, is the basic component of an AC generator. The armature of a permanent horseshoe
magnet is rapidly rotated between its poles. Two circular metal components known as slip rings R 1
and R2 are connected to the ends of the rectangular coils A and D. The coil and the slip rings both
revolve. B1 and B2, the two carbon brush components, are maintained in contact with the slip rings.
The current generated in the rotating coil can be received by the carbon brushes.

Working of an A.C. generator:

1. Assume that at first, generator coil ABCD is positioned horizontally. While the coil rotates
anticlockwise, the magnetic field lines close to the magnet's N and S poles are cut off by side
AB of the coil moving downward and side CD moving upward. Because of this, the coil's sides
AB and CD experience induced current production.
2. We may determine that the currents are flowing in the directions D to C and B to A by using
Fleming's right-hand rule on the coil's sides CD and AB. As a result, the effective induced
current flows in the direction of BADC since the induced currents on both sides of the coil
are pointing in the same direction. As a result, during the coil's initial half-revolution, brush
B1 to brush B2 get electricity from the external circuit.

3. The coil's sides, AB and CD, will switch places after a half revolution. Side CD will appear on
the left, and side AB will appear on the right. Thus, side AB begins to move up and side CD
begins to move down after half a rotation. Consequently, after half a rotation, the direction
of the induced current in each side of the coil is reversed, resulting in the net induced
current flowing in the direction CDAB (of the reversed coil). Brush B 2 to B1 is now the source
of current flowing through the external circuit.
 4. The polarity (positive and negative) of the coil's two ends also changes after a half revolution
because the direction of the induced current in the coil is reversed. As a result, the current
reverses direction twice in on revolution of the coil. This generator generates alternating
current in this manner.

D.C. GENERATOR:
A D.C. generator is used to produce direct current, which only flows in one direction. In reality, an
A.C. generator can be converted to a D.C. generator by substituting the slip rings with a commutator.
One carbon brush is always connected with the coil arm going downward in the magnetic field when
the two half rings of the commutator are connected to the two ends of the generator coil, and the
other carbon brush is always in contact with the coil arm moving upward in the magnetic field. As a
result, the outer circuit's current only ever flows in one direction.

DOMESTIC ELECTRIC CIRCUITS:

1. Electricity is supplied to our homes by a main supply, often known as mains, which is either
supported by underground cables or overhead electric poles. Live wire, often known as
positive, is one of the wires in this supply that is typically covered in a red insulating
covering. Neutral wire (also known as negative) is another wire that has black insulation on
it. The potential difference between the two in our nation is 220 V.

2. These cables enter an electricity metre in the house's meter-board via a main fuse. They are
connected to the house's line wires via the main switch. These cables provide power to
various household circuits. A separate circuit with a 15 A current rating is typically utilised
for equipment with larger power ratings, such air coolers and geysers. The other circuit has a
5 A current rating, suitable for fans, lightbulbs, etc.
 3. The earth wire, which is covered in green insulation, is often attached to a metal plate buried
close to the home. This serves as a safety precaution, particularly for products like electric
presses, toasters, table fans, refrigerators, and so on that have metallic bodies. The earth
wire, which connects the metallic body, offers the electricity a low-resistance conducting
path. As a result, it makes sure that any current leakage to the appliance's metallic body
maintains its potential relative to the earth, preventing a potentially fatal electric shock for
the user.

4. Above diagram is representation of mostly used domestic circuit. Different appliances can be
connected across the live and neutral wires in each individual circuit. Every appliance has a
unique switch to turn the current flowing through it "ON" or "OFF." Each appliance is
connected parallel to the others so that their potential differences are equal.

Electrical fuse:
An electric fuse is a necessary part of every home circuit. A fuse is a type of safety device that
consists of a short length of thin copper wire that has been plated with tin. It has a high resistance
and low melting point. When the current exceeds a safe limit, the fuse melts and breaks the circuit.
The highest current that is permitted to flow through the circuit determines the fuse wire's thickness
and length. The fuse melts as a result of Joule heating, cutting off the electrical circuit. Electric fuses
are connected in series in electrical circuits and are used to stop the flow of excessively high electric
current that could damage the appliance or the electric circuit. Pure copper wire is not suitable for
use as a fuse wire because of its high melting point, which means that it will not melt easily in the
event of a short circuit.

Electrical problems:
An extremely large current can flow in domestic wiring under two circumstances: short circuit and
overload.
1. Short Circuit: The live and neutral wires will come into contact with one another if the
plastic insulation covering them is torn. A short circuit occurs when the live and neutral
wires come into direct contact with one another. The resistance of the circuit created when
the two wires come into contact is negligible. A fire could develop because of the extremely
low resistance, which causes the current to flow through the wires to increase dramatically
and heat them to a dangerously high temperature.
 2. Overload: The power ratings of the appliances being used determine how much current is
flowing via household wiring at any given time. An excessive amount of current is drawn
from the circuit by numerous high-power electrical appliances (such as air conditioners,
water heaters, irons, and air conditioners) when they are turned on simultaneously. We call
this overloading of the circuit. An excessive number of appliances connected to a single
socket might also result in overloading. Now, the copper wires in domestic wiring heat up to
a very high temperature and could catch fire because of the massive current that is going
through them.

Achiever I:
1. In an AC generator, maximum number of lines of force pass through the coil when the angle
between the plane of coil and lines of force is _________.
(a) 0°
(b) 60°
(c) 30°
(d) 90°

2. Magnetic field inside the solenoid is_______.

(a) radial
(b) uniform
(c) Both (a) and (b)
(d) circular

3. The power of a DC motor can be increased by

(a) increasing the area of the cross section of the coil.
(b) increasing the current flowing through the coil.
(c) laminating the soft iron core.
(d) All of the above

4. The right hand thumb rule is used to find

(a) force on a charged particle passing through the magnetic field.
 (b) force on a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field.
(c) direction of induced current.
(d) direction of B around a current carrying straight conductor.

5. Looking from one side towards the face of a coil, the current in it flows in clockwise
direction. On looking from the opposite side towards the second face of the coil, the current
flows in
(a) anti-clockwise direction and this face represents the south pole.
(b) clockwise direction and this face represents the north pole.
(c) anticlockwise direction and this face represents the north pole.
(d) clockwise direction and this face represents the south pole.

6. An AC generator can be converted into DC generator by replacing _____.

(a) armature with coil
(b) concave magnets with horse shoe magnet
(c) slip rings with split rings
(d) All of the above

7. The magnetic induction field B around a current carrying straight conductor is

(a) perpendicular to the current.
(b) parallel to the current.
(c) opposite to the direction of flow of current.
(d) None of the above.

8. Which of the following statements is incorrect?

In the process of electromagnetic induction, the magnitude of the induced EMF depends on
______.
(a) the number of turns of the coil.
(b) the magnetic flux linked with the coil.
(c) the rate of change of magnetic flux linked with the coil.
(d) area of the coil.

9. In the given figure the electron enters into the magnetic field. It deflects towards:

(a) Positive x-direction

(b) Negative x-direction
(c) Positive y-direction
(d) Negative y-direction

10. If a coil of metal wire is kept stationary in a changing magnetic field, then
(a) an e.m.f. is induced in the coil
(b) a current is induced in the coil
(c) neither e.m.f. nor current is induced
(d) both e.m.f. and current is induced
Achiever II:
1. Write the following steps of an experiment (in a sequential order), to establish that a circular
current carrying wire creates a magnetic field around it.
(a) Sprinkle iron fillings on the cardboard and switch on the circuit.
(b) Make two holes on a piece of cardboard covered with white paper. Pass this copper wire
through the two holes of a cardboard.
(c) Take a copper wire and bend it in the form of a circle.
(d) Now connect the ends of the copper coil to a battery with a rheostat end a switch in
series.
(e) You observe that the iron filings arrange themselves in concentric circles.

(a) a c b d e
(b) c b d a e
(c) c a d b e
(d) b c d a e

2. Write in the sequential order the following steps of an experiment to show that a current
carrying conductor sets up a magnetic field around it.
(a) Pass the insulted copper wire through the small hole at the centre of the cardboard and
perpendicular to it.
(b) Paste a white paper on a rectangular cardboard and make a small hole at its centre.
(c) Connect this wire to a battery, a switch and a variable resistor in series.
(d) Clamp this cardboard to a stand in a horizontal position and sprinkle some iron filings
over it.
(e) Now, when the circuit is closed, the iron filings on the cardboard form concentric circles
around the wire.

(a) b d a c e
(b) b a c e d
(c) a d b e c
(d) e d a b c

3. A long solenoid is shown in figure. If BA, BB, BC and BD are magnetic fields at internal points A,
B, C and D respectively. Then

(a) BD>BA
(b) BA>BC
(c) BA=BB=BC
(d) All of these

4. A straight wire of diameter 0.5 mm, carrying a current of 1A is replaced by another wire of
1mm diameter carrying the same current. The strength of magnetic field far away is:
(a) unchanged
(b) twice the earlier value
 (c) half of the earlier value
(d) quarter of its earlier value
5. A charge q is moving in a magnetic field, then the magnetic force does not depend upon
(a) Charge
(b) Mass
(c) Magnetic field
(d) Velocity

6. A particle with charge 2μC, moving with velocity 2×106m/s, enters normally in a magnetic
field of 4T. The force experienced by the particle is:
(a) 4N
(b) 8N
(c) 12N
(d) 16N

7. A wire of length 0.02 m is placed perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field of magnitude

0.60T. The force on the wire when current through it is 5 A will be:
(a) 0.12N
(b) 0.06N
(c) 0.03N
(d) 0.24N

8. A rectangular loop carrying a current i is situated near a long straight wire such that the wire
is parallel to one of the sides of the loop and is in the plane of the loop. If a steady
current I is established in the wire as shown in the figure the loop will:

(a) rotate about an axis parallel to the wire

(b) move away from the wire
(c) move towards the wire
(d) remain stationary

9. At the time of short circuit, the current in the circuit:

(a) reduces substantially
(b) does not change
(c) increases heavily
(d) varies continuously

10. A 1.25 kW heater works on a 220 V mains supply. What current rating would a suitable fuse
have?
(a) 2 A
(b) 5 A
(c) 10 A
(d) 13 A