République du Cameroun Republic of Cameroon

Paix- Travail – Patrie Peace- work- Fatherland

******** ********
Ministère de l’Enseignement Ministry OF Higher Education
Supérieur *********
******** The University of Maroua
Université de Maroua **********
********* National Advanced School of
Ecole Nationale Supérieure Engineering
Polytechnique de Maroua *********
********** Department of Environnemental
Département des Sciences Sciences
Environnementales

Dr Nde Samuel Che

Department of Environmental Studies, University of
Maroua, National Advanced School of Engineering

Module Code: GEN 325

Topic: Energy & Renewable energy

Google Scholar link:

Research gate link:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/scie
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/S
nce/article/pii/S014765132100072
amuel-Nde 1
DR NDE LECTURE NOTE: PLEASE SORT PERMISSION TO REDISTRIBUTE (COPYWRITE)
5
LECTURES NOTES:
SOLAR ENERGY
 This PowerPoint is
supportive and
complementary.
Remember to always
refer to the study
articles and
textbooks!!

DR NDE LECTURE NOTE: PLEASE SORT PERMISSION TO REDISTRIBUTE (COPYWRITE) 3

 LEARNING MATERIALS
❑ Use the following link to access the study materials but not limited to it.

❑ N.B. Must Read articles!!

 Renewable energy, non-renewable energy and sustainable development:

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/epdf/10.1080/13504509.2019.1595214?needAccess=true
 Progress in renewable energy https://doi.org/10.1016/S0160-4120(02)00130-7

 https://rael.berkeley.edu/old_drupal/sites/default/files/old-site-files/2001/Herzog-Lipman-
Kammen-RenewableEnergy-2001.pdf Please must read this...
▪ INTEGRATION OF ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF ENERGY https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Fa-
Farret/publication/4377913_Integration_of_Alternative_Sources_of_Energy/links/616596a1e79
93f536ccc4a02/Integration-of-Alternative-Sources-of-Energy.pdf (Please click here and read this
book. Very Important).
 Introduction to solar energy
• The sun is of great importance for the planet Earth and the ecosystem of our
society. Rays emitted by the sun, gamma rays, reach the terrestrial orbit a few
minutes after they leave the sun surface, crossing approximately 150 million
kilometres.
• Clouds reflect about 17% of sunlight back into space, 9% is scattered backward
by air molecules, and 7% is actually reflected directly off the surface back into
space.
• Therefore, the travel through the atmosphere decreases the radiation at
Earth’s surface to about 35% less than the level in the stratosphere.
• At noon on a clear day, the luminous power at the ground level is
approximately 1000 watts per square meter (or 1 sun = 1000 W/m2).
 Solar Photovoltaic and Solar Thermal Technologies
• There are two basic categories of technologies that convert sunlight into useful
forms of energy.
➢Solar photovoltaic (PV) modules convert sunlight directly into electricity. Or
The photovoltaic effect consists of the direct transformation of the radiant
energy into electricity without the intermediate production of heat.
➢Solar thermal power systems use focused solar radiation to produce steam,
which is then used to turn a turbine producing electricity
• There are enormous possibilities for the use of solar energy as a thermal and
photovoltaic source.
 Solar Photovoltaics

• Solar PV modules are solid-state semiconductor devices with no moving parts

that convert sunlight into direct-current electricity.
• Semiconductor characteristics define the electrical energy conversion
efficiency of solar cells
❑A brief historical perspectives
➢The basic principle underlying the operation of PV modules dates back more
than 150 years, but significant development really began following Bell Labs’
invention of the silicon solar cell in 1954.
➢The first major application of PV technology was to power satellites in the late
1950s, and this was an application where simplicity and reliability were
paramount and cost was a secondary concern
• Since that time, enormous progress has been made in PV performance and
cost reduction.
 Solar Photovoltaics conti…
• The relationship between the electric power generated and the power of the
incident radiation on the semiconductor is of 10 to 15%. For instance, at noon
on a clear day, a photovoltaic module can generate the average of 100 W/m2.
• Crystalline silicon and hydrogenated amorphous silicon are currently the most
appropriate semiconductor materials for photovoltaic conversion
❑How electricity is generated by photovoltaic effect
• Semiconductor materials have bands of allowed and forbidden energy in their
spectrum of electronic energy (the energy gap).
• Inside the allowed band, there are valence and conduction bands, separated by
such an energy gap
• The electrons occupy the valence band and can be excited in the conduction
band by thermal energy or by absorption of photons with energy quantum
higher than the energy gap.
 How electricity is generated by photovoltaic effect conti…

• When an electron passes from one

band to other, it leaves in its place a
hole that can be considered a positive
charge.
• When voltage is applied across the
semiconductor, the electrons and
their holes contribute to the electrical
current, since the presence of that
electric field makes those particles
move in opposite directions with
respect to each other
 PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS

• Photovoltaic electric system consists of photovoltaic modules, an electronic

converter, a controller, and a bank of batteries
• Each module is made of photovoltaic cells connected in series, parallel, or
series/parallel, as part of a panel supported by a mechanical structure.
• A power converter may be used to regulate the flux of energy from the panel to
the load so as to assure energy quality within certain limits.
• The electricity converted from solar modules should be stored in banks of
batteries of high capacity to make the overall system feasible economically.
The bank of batteries should store enough energy to minimize the night
and/or low-light-intensity periods
 Maintenance of PV

• Maintenance of the modules should be limited to a wipe with a damp cloth,

always using maximum care. Getting leaves or deposits on the panels should
be avoided because these are very sensitive structures
❑Factors should be considered at the design stage of a photovoltaic-based
power supply system
▪ The site should be open, without constant shadows for the solar light.
▪ Use one or more solar modules.
▪ Use structures or a support of aluminum.
▪ Use a load controller.
▪ Use a bank or set of batteries.
▪ Consider using an indicator of the level of battery charge.
▪ Use points of load consumption
 Structure of a PV

❑Solar Modules and Panels

• Solar modules are a group of cells that transform the radiant light in dc electric
power, usually in standard connections of 12, 24, or 48 V.
• They are usually composed of mono crystalline silicon cells, protected by
antireflexive glass and by a special synthetic material.
• The number of modules to be used in a system is determined by the electric
power consumption needs
➢Aluminum Structures
• Light aluminum structures act as supports for the mechanical assembly of
solar modules. Their purpose is to position the solar cells, preventing
movement of the modules and maximizing the sun’s radiation
 Position of PV

• The normal line to the panel face must be directed to the geographical south
on northern hemisphere, or the north in the southern hemisphere.
• The latitude of the site where the solar power plant is to be installed
determines the inclination of the panel. Besides, it is more advantageous to tilt
the panel perpendicularly to choose the maximum radiation
• The maximum energy would be obtained if the perpendicular position of the
panel follows the sun in its daily and seasonal variations of inclination
• It should also be noted that the sun’s inclination varies from April to
September from 5˚ to 23˚ in latitude above and below the same perpendicular
line of the site’s latitude.
• N.B: The position selected for the panel should follow the seasonal power
needs of the facilities
 Reflection question
• How to determine the best inclination for a given location?
• Tips use of a shadow diagram of a perfectly vertical stem tip (for best and easy results, use a
bricklayer’s plumb line) on the soil. Stem tip shadow positions are marked on the ground, let’s
say, from 10:00 to 15:00 hours. Then a line is drawn connecting these points. The
perpendicular to this line will show the north–south direction being the rod shadow
positioned to the north sides if the place is in the northern hemisphere.
➢ Load Controller
• It also protects the battery against excessive overcharging and over discharging.
➢ Battery Bank
• Banks of batteries accumulate the electric power generated during the day, making it available
whenever necessary. They usually consist of lead–acid deep-cycle batteries, preferably sealed
and possibly with no need of water replacement (although those batteries are more
expensive), with a nominal voltage rated at the dc-link voltage.
• A battery bank also requires a healthy monitoring system to indicate the state of charge and to
support the maintenance
 APPLICATIONS OF PHOTOVOLTAIC SOLAR ENERGY

➢There are tremendous opportunities for photovoltaic applications, such as for

residential power and illumination, public illumination, camping, stroboscopic
signaling, fluvial and marine embarkations, electric fences,
telecommunications, telephone booths in remote areas, water supply,
conservation of food and medicines, control of plagues, and general electric
power supply
➢Residential and Public Illumination
• They are available in a varied number of solar modules that provide
illumination in a level and amount adapted for each need.
• Solar energy can provide a good illumination solution for streets, blocks and
parks.
 ECONOMICAL ANALYSIS OF SOLAR ENERGY

• Normalization would limit the use of electric heaters and ovens in new
buildings, perhaps recommending a tariff for overuse during peak periods, and
trying to induce the replacement of electric heaters and ovens by other modes
of generation.
• Thermal solar systems now in commercial operation are designed to integrate
the solar energy in power plants fed by fossil fuel, aiming at a reduction in the
cost of fuel.
• The cost of electricity obviously differs from country to country, but has risen
from an average of $49 per megawatt in 1995 to about $100 per megawatt in
2005.