See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/256545464

Ragnar Nurkse's Development Theory: Influences and Perceptions

Chapter · August 2009

DOI: 10.7135/UPO9781843318194.011

CITATIONS READS

11 30,555

1 author:

Hans H. Bass
Bremen City University
164 PUBLICATIONS 359 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Hans H. Bass on 01 June 2014.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Ragnar Nurkse’s Development Theory:
Influences and Perceptions

Hans H. Bass∗

1. Introduction
The present discussion on a “rebirth” of systematic development economics (Herrera 2006)
renders it appropriate to look more closely at its theoretical foundations before it became
absorbed in an ad-hoc reasoning vis-à-vis the increasingly complex reality of (many) falling-
behind and (few) catching-up processes, eventually falling into near oblivion for three
decades (Krugman 1993). Undoubtedly, Ragnar Nurkse, the great Estonian-American
economist, was undoubtedly one of the most rigorous theoreticians and therefore his
contribution to the sub-discipline of development economics deserves special attention when
discussing the relevance of classical development economics for today.
Ragnar Nurkse’s contribution to economics was in three areas, the later being an
extension of the previous ones (for details on the bio-bibliographical background see Basu
1987, Kukk 2004, Bass 2007): The first period of his work (in the 1930s) was dedicated to
research on international capital movements. In the middle period (in the 1930s/1940s), he
additionally covered issues of international trade and finance. Finally (from the mid-1940s to
his death in 1959), he considered the international commodity and factor movements and their
financial framework as merely one aspect of a broader issue in the world economy, to which
he then turned his attention: the overcoming of structural underdevelopment. His three most
eminent publications are hallmarks of these three phases: Internationale Kapitalbewegungen
(in German, 1935), International Currency Experience (1944), and Problems of Capital
Formation in Underdeveloped Countries (1953).
The founding fathers of development economics, from Rosenstein-Rodan in his
ground-breaking essay of 1943 to Hirschman’s 1958 publication considered ‘development’ as

∗
The author is grateful for a grant by Konrektorat Forschung of Bremen University of Applied
Sciences, which allowed research in Princeton University Library. The author also gratefully
acknowledges valuable comments on a previous version of this paper by J. Krishnamurty and Hans
Martin Niemeier. The usual disclaimer applies.

Forthcoming in: Rainer Kattel / Jan Kregel / Erik S. Reinert (eds), Ragnar Nurkse – Classical
Development Economics and its Relevance for Today, London / New York 2008: Anthem Press.
 2

tantamount to output growth by industrialization. Contrary to the static idea of realising

welfare gains by adhering to absolute or comparative advantages of a country – be it in
agriculture, in minerals, or in labour – development economists thus promoted a dynamic
diversification of an economy. This still appropriate, albeit already then somewhat
‘heterodox’ approach implied an active role of the state in changing the economic structure by
generating and re-allocating rents (i.e. gains which the non-interfered market would not
create).
On the other hand, early development economists shared some ‘orthodox’ views,
which would soon prove to be shortcomings, when applied to development politics. The main
issue was probably that the pioneers of development economics regarded the relation of the
macro-economic aggregates (employment, consumption, saving, and investment) as the main
or even sole determinant of underdevelopment or development. More than a decade was to
pass before development economists became aware of other, and equally important aspects of
development, such as access to food, health, and education, or issues of economic
vulnerability, income distribution and spatial agglomeration. Dudley Seers’ (1967) emphasis
on social issues represented as a turning point in development thinking: development
economics became more specific. Eventually, the differentiation of the developing world –
most prominently the emergence of newly industrialising countries and least developed
countries respectively – triggered focussing on cultural country-specific factors as relevant
determinants of development (Hofstede 1980). Finally, the Brundtland Report (WCED 1987)
made clear that development had to be defined and approached on a global and inter-
generational level, taking into account the long-term environmental balances. At about the
same time Amartya K. Sen pointed to normative issues such as empowerment, freedom for
people to lead the kind of life they value, and justice as integral elements of the development
process (Sen 1999, with antecedents in the 1980s).
The development of the development doctrine (Thorbecke 2007, Nafziger 2007)
finally culminated in such complex definitions of development as those underlying the
‘Millennium Development Goals’ (for a critical view of the arbitrary proliferation of the
development goals: Vandemoortele 2007). Without doubt, all the above-mentioned
considerations – social, cultural, environmental, value-related – were important amendments
in framing development processes. Nevertheless, in spite of the enlargement of the
 3

development idea, the notion of diversifying economic growth – by increasing the division of
labour, i.e. by moving from subsistence agriculture to a diversified industrial society, and by
sacrificing today’s consumption for tomorrow’s, i.e. by saving and investment – remains at
the core of all development concepts, other aspects forming additional layers (the only
exception being the ‘zero growth’ school (Daly 1996): here the core of the model remains
hollow).
Under these circumstances the present author finds it most appropriate to aim at a
diachronical “historical reconstruction” (Blaug 2001, 150-1) of Nurkse’s development theory
rather than at an anachronical “rational reconstruction”. This paper therefore does not aspire
to the “almost irresistible” temptation to reconstruct in the light of all we now know. It rather
wishes to reconstruct one of the classical theories, Nurkse’s idea of the circular causation of a
lack of real capital in poor countries, “as faithfully as possible to the times in which they were
written” (Blaug 2001, 151).
It is in this attempt that we look at how contemporaries perceived the main ideas of
Ragnar Nurkse in the field of development economics. This approach will also include a
study of “the previous generation of thinkers in order to understand the context in which the
economists in question were writing” (Blaug 2001, 151). In particular, the paper will trace the
relation of Keynes and Schumpeter to Nurkse. Finally, it will look into Nurkse-inspired
present thinking on the causes of persistent poverty in developing countries.

2. The Nurkse Model in the View of its Contemporaries

2.1 A Disciplinary Classification of the Nurkse Model

Given today’s increasing awareness of development thinkers and practitioners regarding the
necessity of interdisciplinary approaches to their subject, it should be emphasized that Ragnar
Nurkse’s diagnosis of ‘underdevelopment’2 and his policy suggestions are strictly confined to
economics. Contemporary book reviews already criticized Nurkse’s 1953 opus for neglecting
non-economic factors in development, such as his failure to consider capital formation in
education, skills and health (Richmond 1953, 467, thus anticipating ideas of the human capital

2
In fact, Nurkse himself was understandably not happy with this term: Nurkse, 1953, 1.
 4

theory), even for “economic myopia” (Hagen 1955, 233). At various instances, however,
Nurkse had commented on “educational investments” as one of the basic targets for capital
formation (such as Nurkse 1957, 199). But why did Nurkse not make such factors of
development explicit in his model?
Nurkse’s concentration on the formation of capital in the explanation of poverty and in
the formulation of policies to overcome this was not so much because he was not aware of
social and cultural determinants of poverty. He rather intended to deliberately confine himself
to a problem, to the solution of which he as an economist could contribute most. This
becomes apparent in the introduction to his 1953 book: “Economic development has much to
do with human endowments, social attitudes, political conditions – and historical accidents.
Capital is a necessary but not a sufficient condition of progress.” (Nurkse 1953, 1)
As an economist, Nurkse had been trained in Edinburgh3 and in Vienna in the tradition
of the Anglo-American ‘formal’ school rather than in the tradition of the then still important
German Historical School. Consequently, in development economics he refrained from
subscribing to ‘substantivist’ approaches4. This contributed to an abstraction from real-world
societies to a degree that nearly no allowance was made for country-specific institutional
factors in the ‘typical’ developing country as analysed in his studies – although he was
definitely aware of such factors, particularly when it came to policies. However, “the question
of method [of development; HB.] must be decided on the ground of broader considerations;
on the ground especially, of the human qualities and motive forces existing in any particular
society. The economist, as an economist, has no categorical imperatives to issue on this
subject.” (Nurkse 1953, 16). In an unpublished note on ‘excess population’, Nurkse even
amended this argument: “Low productivity is the problem […]. The econ.[omic] remedy for

3
For details regarding his studies at Edinburgh see The University of Edinburgh 2007 as well as the
correspondence between Nurkse and Dr Rankin, such as Nurkse, unpublished 1941 and Nurkse,
unpublished 1945.
4
Formalist economics argues that economics is the study of utility maximisation under conditions of
scarcity and therefore it is about making choices – be it Robinson on his island or the globalised world
of the 21st century. Substantivists argue that economics is about societies organizing their production,
distribution and consumption. A society’s strategy as an adaptation to its environment and its
resources may or may not involve utility maximisation (Polanyi 1944). Probably Nurkse and Polanyi
knew each other: Karl Polanyi was at Columbia University in New York from 1947 to 1953 (teaching
general economic history) – while Nurkse worked at Columbia from 1945 to 1958.
 5

the problem is capital creation (though I […] readily agreed that non-economic remedies may
be more important)” (Nurkse unpublished [n.d., a]).

2.2 Nurkse’ Poverty Trap Model

From the idea that in poor countries poverty as under-consumption results from under-
production of material commodities (which in the light of A. K. Sen’s ‘entitlement’ theory is
not at all trivial), Nurkse identifies the lack of real capital as the main bottleneck in economic
development. Lack of real capital is both the starting point and the end of a causal chain.
Nurkse analyses the deficiency of real capital both from the supply side and from the
demand side. The supply of capital is determined by the ability and the desire to save. In poor
countries saving is restricted due to low income, which mainly has to be used for consumption
(‘Engels’ Law’). In addition, low income countries save little because of the demonstration
effect5 not only valid inside a country, but also between countries: higher standards of living
elsewhere encourage levels of consumption which are higher than feasible. Low income, on
the other hand, results from low labour productivity, which again is a result of deficient
capital. Thus the circle is closed on this side. The demand for capital depends on the
propensity of enterprises to invest. They invest little in a country with low purchasing power,
which is the case, as the real income is low – thus closing this part of the circle.
The system’s condition thus described has two characteristics: the economy is in a
state of stable equilibrium, and the equilibrium is sub-optimal. Nurkse chose the term
underdevelopment equilibrium, analogously to the underemployment equilibrium analysed by
Keynes. We may also call it a ‘poverty trap’ (see Bowles/Durlauf/Hoff 2007), as no
endogenous forces exist to overcome poverty. Consequently, Nurkse rejected the market
optimism of the liberal school: “Economic progress is not a spontaneous or automatic affair”
(Nurkse 1953, 10). According to Nurkse, nor could monetary and fiscal policy measures alone,
such as those advised by Keynes to increase monetary demand in a state of cyclical economic
stagnation, overcome the vicious circle of deficient real capital and poverty in developing
countries. What would rather be necessary would be an extraordinary effort, aiming directly at
the provision of real capital: the big push.

5
The term in its narrower sense was originally coined by Duesenberry, but later, with respect to the
international dimension, often ascribed to Nurkse.
 6

As investment for an individual entrepreneur is ruled out due to the small size of
markets, it becomes necessary that enterprises all at once create demand for all others. Only
by “a wave of capital investments” (Nurkse 1953, 13) would it be possible to overcome the
stationary equilibrium, to get a self-enforcing growth process off the ground and to turn the
vicious circle into a virtuous circle.
The process should be sustained by private investment, encouraged by growing
markets. To initiate this process, Nurkse thought that governmental mobilisation of ‘virtual’
domestic saving, especially in the form of disguised rural unemployment, could be feasible,
such as the use of rural surplus labour for the construction of capital goods, especially
infrastructure. A further source of initial capital was seen in the form of credit provided by
international organisations. If there were enough initial investment, an avalanche of private
investment would be set in motion.
It is interesting to note that Nurkse thus did not consider the developing countries as
poor in resources, forever dependent on the development aid flow of rich countries to
overcome their development bottleneck. He rather stressed that the mobilisation of their own
resources would have to be the starting point for development.
With regard to the industries this avalanche should be directed towards, Nurkse argued
for “a balanced pattern of investment in a number of different industries, so that people
working more productively, with more capital and improved techniques, become each other’s
customers” (Nurkse 1962, 247). While Paul N. Rosenstein-Rodan, W. Arthur Lewis and
others shared this idea, Nurkse was undoubtedly its most influential advocate.

2.3 Critical Debates on the Nurkse Model

Contemporary critical debates on the Nurkse model refer to various issues, including the
industrialisation strategy (balanced vs. unbalanced growth), the coordination agency (state vs.
markets), and the international implications (free trade vs. import substitution).
(1) A major debate in early development economics was on the subject of balanced vs.
unbalanced growth. Contrary to the Balanced Growth adherents, contemporaries such as
Albert O. Hirschman, Paul Streeten and others argued that due to the lack of capital in
developing countries investment projects had to be selected according to the strength of their
backward and forward linkages (‘unbalanced growth’). The empirical fact of sectoral and/or
 7

regional polarisation in economic development rather than presuming equalisation has a long
history in (heterodox) economic thinking: probably commencing with the ideas of Joseph
Schumpeter and continuing to Paul Romer’s New Growth Theory, in which knowledge as a
factor of production with increasing marginal productivity is responsible for cluster
generation, and to the Gravity Theory of International Trade. Why was it that Nurkse not only
showed no awareness of this thinking, but actually argued for a strategy counter to the factual
development? Basically, he was afraid that the Hirschman approach would only allow for
progress at a snail’s pace. According to Nurkse, the vertical transmission of growth impulses
along the value chain would take longer than a strategy starting from the demand for a
multitude of consumer products, thus the argument for a horizontally oriented approach to
finally achieve “diversification”. Some of Nurkse’s remarks show that he became obsessively
involved in a rather sterile debate on ‘balanced vs. unbalanced growth’ strategy in his latter
years. In fact, “the similarities between the balanced and unbalanced growth theses are more
important than their apparently different prescriptions” (Thorbecke 2007, 9).
(2) Another issue discussed among contemporaries concerned the role of markets or
the state as possible coordination mechanisms. As Nurkse considered a balanced pattern to be
one where investment would be according to the income elasticity of demand for the final
products, he did not want to rule out market forces in determining the growth pattern of an
economy – but rather assist their realisation (for different understandings of balanced growth
see Scitovsky 1987).
There are, of course, specific demands of the balanced-growth model regarding
planning. Nurkse even stated: “From the technical viewpoint of capital theory, the case for
socialism is that it cuts the connection between investment activity and consumption change;
all investment becomes autonomous.” (Nurkse 1959, 297). Nevertheless, Nurkse should not
be considered as an unconditional follower of central planning methods: “as regards the
mechanics I am inclined to be ‘liberal’, accepting as alternative possibilities: central planning;
[…] spontaneous advance on a wide front; or the ‘disequilibrium’ method of zigzag growth”
(Nurkse 1962, 80). Actually, Nurkse can be best addressed as an advocate of a “mixed”
economic system: “To rely merely on the price system for the structural changes that
constitute development may not be enough. But mere “programming” […] is probably not
 8

enough either. In the last resort we must rely on the acts of faith that spring from enterprise
private or public, or both.” (Nurkse 1957, 2)
The propagation of a mixed economic system did not only refer to the coordination
mechanisms, but also to property rights: Nurkse considered independent collective bodies to
be the main agents for the accumulation of overhead capital: “some independent and
continuous body, unaffected, if possible, by shifting cabinets and parliamentary fortunes.”
(Nurkse 1953, 154). Overall, this is a non-dogmatic approach (see also Hancock 1954, 315).
Nevertheless it is obvious that an application of this model in reality could not have
abstained from complex planning techniques, the adherence to which was much in accordance
with what Stiglitz had called the first (state-optimistic) phase of development thinking on the
relation between state and markets (Stiglitz 1998) with India as a role model – but which, as
von Hayek argued, is an effort in principle doomed to failure due to the unpredictability of
consumer decisions.
It is interesting to note that Eugenio Gudin, a Brazilian, i.e. an economist with first-
hand experience of the actual situation of a developing country, was particularly critical in
this respect of Nurkse’s state-optimism:
The big-push model cannot very well avoid a bias toward Government action.
It is not quite conceivable as a joint and simultaneous procedure of a group of
entrepreneurs. And in countries of a precarious level of political education such
as these Government’s intervention in the private economic sector has proved
very harmful indeed. On the other hand I do not think that the spirit of
enterprise and private initiative lacks in these countries. What lacks is “know-
how” and what is excessive is “industrial protection”, these two factors
together being largely responsible for the comparatively slow pace of
development. (Gudin, unpublished, n.d., 5)
(3) Another much-debated issue was the presumed consequences of balanced growth
on the international division of labour. Would it demand dissociation from the world economy
to carry out investments in such a planned manner? And would horizontal diversification of
production run contrary to specialisation in absolute and comparative advantages and thus
abstain from urgently needed efficiency gains?
 9

The issue was targeted by balanced growth adherents by pointing to the fact that
classical trade theory is static: welfare effects will originate from specialization only once and
cannot be replicated if there is no change in the production structure – or economic
development. According to Nurkse, a balanced-growth model could best produce such
dynamics of superseding cost advantages: “Balanced growth is the best friend that
international trade can have” (Nurkse 1961, 257). Nurkse definitely did not see trade as an
engine of growth – but probably as an additional device. A successful integration of
developing countries into the world economy, however, demands security in the planning
framework: this would be the case when following a further model, to the temporary
realisation of which Ragnar Nurkse had contributed substantially: an international regime of
fixed exchange rates.
From these contemporary discussions one might conclude that the Nurkse model was
remarkably coherent albeit not a completely convincing concept. Some blind spots may be
seen with hindsight and misdirections taken by development policies in the following decades
seem to have been inherent in the views of the early development economists, including
Nurkse: the alleged direct link between growth and poverty reduction (which was rejuvenated
only recently by the ‘revisionist’ school, cf. Dollar and Kraay 2001) and, closely connected, a
disregard of “pre-modern” forms of production (small-scale family-based agriculture, rural
industry) partly due to an imperturbable belief in the ubiquitous existence of increasing
economies of scale and of utility-maximizing behaviour of economic agents. This becomes
particularly clear when reading Nurkse’s comments on the Indian Development Plan (Nurkse
1957), arguing in favour of a concentration of land holdings, in favour of urban agglomeration
and against cottage industry. There are also scattered comments on Russia and China in his
work pointing in the same direction.
Yet it has to be noted that the disasters of the Stalinist and Maoist collectivising of
agriculture had not yet surfaced: Nurkse commented on Russia before historians began to
unearth the truth about the Ukrainian famine of 1932/33 and other results of collectivising in
agriculture, before China had even set out on the Great Leap Forward (1958/59), before state-
owned enterprises around the world had collapsed – but also before the dynamics of the
informal sector had been discovered (Hart, ILO, de Soto) and agriculture-led industrialisation
had been discussed as an option (Adelman). However, an early hint on the neglect of
 10

agriculture connected with the Nurksean assumption that peasant livelihoods should be
limited in order to direct ‘virtual’ saving [in the form of disguised unemployment] to capital
construction projects can already be found in Condliffe (1954).

3. Looking back: Theories Influencing Nurkse’s Circular Model

The general idea of a circular causation of poverty, a vicious circle, does not originate in
Nurkse, for whom it was already “a phrase that crops up frequently” (Nurkse 1953, 5) – the
idea that in a precarious situation everything is blocked by everything is obvious. However,
Nurkse did not intend to create a formula covering all aspects of poverty generation, but to
analyse the circular causation of a lack of real capital. Here, particularly influences by Keynes
and by Schumpeter can be discerned.
Schumpeter and Keynes are, to a considerable extent, antipodes (for a comparison of
Keynes and Schumpeter published during Nurkse’s lifetime see: Smithies 1951). Keynes
argued that abstaining from consumption could not only lead to decreasing demand for
consumption goods but also to a decrease in demand for investment goods. Saving could thus
set a depression spiral in motion. Schumpeter on the other hand argues that saving provides
capital for innovation (although only of secondary importance after creation of money by
bank credit). Innovations provide new production opportunities, which set off an expansive
process. And while Schumpeter’s interest is in the advantages in the long run (i.e. techniques
of production changing), Keynes argues with the problems of the present (i.e. techniques of
production unchanged). How can such differences be reconciled by Nurkse? The answer lies
in his holistic view of the underdevelopment situation.
Furthermore, Nurkse could build on similarities in Keynes’ and Schumpeter’s
approach. Both deviate from the (neo-)classical opinion of equilibrium: Keynes analyses the
fact that an equilibrium can exist without the clearance of markets, Schumpeter defines the
disequilibrium as the normal situation of capitalism. As a consequence for Nurkse in view of
the problems of the developing world, scepticism toward market forces and optimism
regarding central planning seemed to be in place. ‘Balanced Growth' was therefore the correct
answer in terms of economic policies to what had been analysed in terms of economic theory.
 11

3.1 Nurkse and Keynes

Nurkse was well acquainted with various aspects of Keynes’ (1883-1946) oeuvre: during his
student days in Edinburgh (1929-1932) Nurkse had already been introduced to the work of
Keynes and had carefully read, as proven by his exercise books (Ragnar Nurkse Papers, Box
3, Public Policy Papers, Department of Rare Books and Special Collections, Princeton
University Library), books such as “Indian Currency and Finance” (1913) and “A Treatise on
Probability” (1921). Nurkse also seems to have met Keynes personally during the Bretton
Woods conference, and also took a great interest in the publishing process of Seymour E.
Harris’ “The New Economics” (1947) – the first book to provide a complete picture of
‘Keynesianism’ immediately after the death of its hero in 1946.
In the second phase of his own work, Nurkse made explicit implications of Keynesian
theory for international economic relations, while he enlarged Keynesian theory in the
formation period of development economics, to which Nurkse contributed in the third phase
of his own oeuvre.
Nurkse elaborated on Keynes’ theory in his 1947 contribution to the book by S. E.
Harris on “Domestic and International Equilibrium”. While Nurkse considered the
(neo)classical theory of international economic relations to be concerned with the
compositional or allocation aspects of international trade only, Nurkse applied Keynesian
macroeconomics (“Keynes gave us no positive and systematic account of international
relationships in his system”, Nurkse 1947, 284) to the results of imports and exports on the
volume of national income (Nurkse 1947, 268), and aimed at providing links between
international trade theory and business cycle theory (Nurkse 1947, 264).
The international division of labour – rather than being at the centre of economic
analysis and economic policy to realize (static) welfare gains – became instrumental in
Nurkse’s view of how to generate employment: “Just as free trade by itself cannot ensure full
employment, so the suppression of trade, though it might increase employment numerically,
can never bring real prosperity. It is utterly senseless to create employment by reducing the
level of economic efficiency. There are other ways of solving the employment problem.”
(Nurkse 1947, 276).
 12

This already foreshadowed Nurkse’s idea that the balanced-growth strategy is

supplemented rather than questioned by the specialisation of regions and nations according to
comparative advantages.
Another interesting foreshadowing of Nurkse’ later ideas can be seen in the idea of
simultaneity, which is also used as a reference to Keynes in his assessment of Keynes’
contribution to the problems of international economics. Keynes is quoted by Nurkse
regarding the notion that policies to overcome national equilibria-cum-unemployment should
be safeguarded by a simultaneous proceeding of many countries in order to avoid pressure
from outside:
We should attach great importance to the simultaneity of the movement
towards increased expenditure. For the pressure on its foreign balance which
each country fears as the result of increasing its own loan-expenditure, will
cancel out if other countries are pursuing the same policy at the same time.
(Keynes, The Means to Prosperity 1933; quoted in Nurkse 1947, 281)
This idea becomes juxtaposed in Nurkse’s later writing to overcome the international
problem of (relative) underdevelopment by balanced growth. Nurkse’s 1947 article can
therefore also be understood as an important step in his deviation from the subject of
international economics to the emerging subject of development economics.
Undeniably, Nurkse appreciated Keynesian economics: “Keynesian economics is a
powerful and flexible tool of analysis. At any rate formally, it can be adapted to all kinds of
different situations.” (Nurkse 1953a, 148). However, in spite of being labelled as a
‘Keynesian’, as Haberler for instance can be understood (“like most economists of his
generation, Nurkse was quickly drawn into the stream of Keynesian thought”, Haberler 1962),
a somewhat anti-Keynesian position in terms of criticising the Keynesian “bias against saving
and in favour of spending” by Nurkse was discovered by book critics of Condliffe (1954, 454)
and particularly Bronfenbrenner (1954, 176).
In my opinion, Nurkse actually stood aloof from Keynesian economics and in fact
there are various arguments in his development theory which are not in accordance, if not in
contrast, to Keynes’ argumentation – Nurkse either elaborating on differences between the
monetary sphere and the real sphere, considering different time frames, seeking a middle way
 13

between classical and Keynesian views, or classing Keynesian arguments as biased or

peripheral:
(1) In contrast to a crisis in industrial countries when mass unemployment and
overcapacities exist but cannot be overcome by the market forces, Nurkse argues that the
underdevelopment equilibrium is structural, and that it is caused by deficiency of real capital
and real demand and not just by a deficiency of monetary demand (‘effective demand’),
which is shown by the fact that inflation in underdeveloped countries is the rule rather than
the exception. There is a lack of real demand (‘purchasing power’), as there is too little to be
offered in exchange – resulting from low productivity, which in turn results from the lack of
real capital (i.e. the reverse side of the vicious circle) (cf. Nurkse, 1953a, 17). On the
international level, Nurkse’s argumentation runs along the same lines: although he agrees
with the view that the volume of international trade in the short run is a function of
employment and thus the effective demand in the main trading countries, he argues that in the
long run supply-side conditions are more fundamental: the level of productivity and (thus) the
size of the market (Nurkse, 1953a, 21).
(2) In the underdeveloped countries of the 1950s, Nurkse considered consumption and
investment neither in a (classical) trade-off nor in a (Keynesian) synergetic relationship, but
as isolated from each other. That Nurkse did not agree with either view (neither classical nor
Keynesian) can best be explained by the fact that in spite of Nurkse’s mostly theoretical
reasoning he was implicitly aware of the historic limitations of both theories: “Neither the
economics of business enterprise nor the Keynesian theory of employment nor the Anglo-
centric views developed a hundred years ago by Marx were designed to take account of
India’s overcrowded peasant economy.” (Nurkse 1957, 203).
The (British) classical economists wrote after the near completion of the 17th/18th
century agricultural revolution, when such means as the enclosures of commons had not only
allowed for productivity gains in agriculture but had also reduced the basis for gaining a
livelihood for the rural poor, thus turning them into ‘surplus’ population. In this situation,
industrial capital formation seemed only possible by exploiting this cheap labour, i.e. by
keeping their consumption to a bare minimum. Thus the theory that industrial investment was
only possible by forced saving (i.e. forced limitation of labourer consumption) sprang into the
minds of the classical economists. On the other hand, during the Great Depression of the
 14

1930s, idle factors of production – both already existing industrial capital and experienced
and skilled industrial labour – provided the material basis for the idea of the possibility of
simultaneously expanding both (additional) capital formation and consumption.
In the underdeveloped countries of the 1950s, however, Nurkse seems to have seen a
situation which was similar to the one prior to the 17th/18th century agricultural revolution in
Britain: the marginal productivity of agricultural labour was (around) zero. Keeping the
consumption of the labour population (both agricultural and newly industrial) more or less
constant would allow the use of labour directly to build up capital goods – thus more or less
forcibly turning ‘virtual’ saving by disguised (rural) unemployment immediately into
(industrial) investment.6 Of course, in the present day perspective this is a rather limited view,
as this is only possible in terms of very specific projects, such as the Chinese-type building of
dams and irrigation systems in the 1950s by mere manual work (which is not possible of
course with more complex capital goods).7
With regard to policy instruments, Nurkse, contrary to, for instance, W. Arthur Lewis,
considered instruments in the ‘real’ sphere of the economy rather than ‘monetary’ instruments
to be feasible for actualising the saving potential of the rural sector:
I referred to the Japanese land tax, to the Russian collective farms, to some
form of requisitioning (where I had in mind the Sudan’s wartime experience
[…]). […] I would agree with the view that it cannot be done without some
inflation […] which is not the same as saying that it can be done only by
inflation); I would accept inflation as a necessary evil, not as the prime
instrument of forced saving. (Nurkse 1952, 1-2)
(3) Given a sceptical view of Keynes on perspectives of investment opportunities in
industrial economies, Keynesians saw investment abroad as a means to reducing the capacity
effect of investment while at the same time making use of its income effect. Nurkse, however,
considered this problem from the much more pressing point of view of a capital-lacking
underdeveloped world as important:
6
The idea of ‘disguised’ unemployment can be traced at least to Keynes’ disciple Joan Robinson 1936.
7
It is interesting to note the qualification of this argument in a letter by Nurkse to Jacob Viner: “I
wonder who has maintained that disguised unemployment is prevalent in Brazil. For my own part, of
course, I excluded Latin America. […] The fragmentation of peasant holdings typical, for instance, of
Indian farming may be viewed as being, to some extent, a reflection of surplus farm labor.” (Nurkse,
Unpublished, 1956)
 15

The employment effect of foreign investment, which Keynesian economists

tended to stress, is an incidental and unimportant effect; unimportant because,
as Keynesian economics itself showed, it could be equally well achieved by
domestic policies. Concern with employment tended to obscure the much more
important developmental aspects of international investment. (Nurkse,
Unpublished, 1951; see also Nurkse 1953a, 129)
Obviously, the reason for Nurkse’s distance in development theory to the Keynesian approach
is rooted in the holistic approach of his circular theory.

3.2 Nurkse and Schumpeter

Ragnar Nurkse was also well versed in Schumpeter’s (1883-1950) ideas. Excerpts can already
be found in Nurkse’s University notes from Edinburgh, for example on Schumpeter’s
business cycle theory (such as Ragnar Nurkse Papers, Box 4, Public Policy Papers,
Department of Rare Books and Special Collections, Princeton University Library). While
Nurkse to a certain extent had borrowed the demand-orientation of his model from Keynes
(‘the money-income effect’), he focused on the supply side along with Schumpeter: “this real-
income effect […] is indeed the sum and substance of long-run economic progress” (Nurkse
1953a, 13, emph. H.B.). When it comes to Schumpeter’s influence on Nurkse, also the issue
of the big push is also a focal point.
The notion of Schumpeter as being relevant for development economics has long been
rejected (exceptions are Hans W. Singer and Tsuru Shigeto): Developing countries were (and
often still are) considered as a “non-Schumpeterian world“ (a term used by Singer 1953,
albeit a Schumpeter disciple himself) – economically characterized by stagnation and the
passive adoption of technical and commercial achievements from outside. The main reasons
are said to be the lack of entrepreneurial potential and the lack of innovation opportunities
(see for instance Rimmer 1961; only recently have there been more differentiating opinions
particularly under the consideration of abundant entrepreneurial activities in the ‘informal
sector’ economy and under the impression of Neo-Schumpeterian studies of the East Asian
innovation systems, which in the catching-up process focussed on the dynamics of
accumulation of incremental innovations: Reinert 1994a, Reinert 1994b, Bass 1999, Bass
2003).
 16

Ragnar Nurkse was also in accordance with the first objection against the application
of Schumpeterian theories to underdeveloped countries: “We can never take it for granted that
the human qualities of enterprise and initiative, with which the American economy has been
so amply supplied, are present in the same degree elsewhere.” (Nurkse, unpublished, n.d., 4;
similar: Nurkse 1953, 17). More specifically, he argues: “In communities afflicted with mass
poverty the qualities of enterprise and initiative are usually in short supply” (Nurkse 1953, 10).
However, Nurkse writes: “Schumpeter’s theory seems to me to provide the mould which we
must use, although we may use it with slightly different ingredients.” (Nurkse 1953a, 12).
What does this mean and what are the differences?
(1) First, Nurkse – in contrast to other contemporary economists – refers to what he
called the ‘real’ Schumpeter, i.e. Schumpeterian theory with regard to the long-term
development rather than to the short-term theory of business cycles along the development
trend.
(2) Secondly, while Schumpeter’s main concern is with the individual entrepreneur
who starts a ‘new wave’, Nurkse’s main concern is with the wave, or – the (various) Big
Pushes in economic history:
Schumpeter’s creative entrepreneurs achieved a process of Balanced Growth,
albeit with cyclical setbacks, through the spontaneous action of private
initiative in the past, by carrying out waves of new investment on a wide front.
[Celso] Furtado is sceptical about the usefulness of Schumpeter’s theory for the
underdeveloped countries of the present day – and here I entirely agree with
him. […] I suggested, by contrast, that the problem is, at least in theory,
capable of solution through Balanced Growth […] in the domestic economy
[…]. This is, conceptually, a process whereby capital is applied more or less
simultaneously to a wide range of complementary industries, so that increased
productivity in each of these industries creates an expanding market for the
others. (Nurkse, unpublished, n.d., 4-4a)
(3) Thirdly, while Schumpeter allegedly sees only the entrepreneur as the agent of
economic change and growth, according to Nurkse: “It may be that in other types of society
[other than Western capitalism] the forces that are to defeat the grip of economic stagnation
have to be deliberately organized to some extent, at any rate initially.” (Nurkse 1953a, 15).
 17

Japan is – referring to the work of Schumpeter’s Japanese disciple Shigeto Tsuru –

quoted as a case in point: “In the early industrial development of Japan […] the state was the
great innovator and the industrial pioneer on a wide front.” (Nurkse 1953a, 15). In particular,
in a letter to François Perroux on his book on Schumpeter (Perroux 1951), Nurkse commented
on “Schumpeter’s failure to consider the springs of innovation in a socialist economy”
(Nurkse 1953b). However, it should be noted that Schumpeter had already provided for this
case: “Every social environment has its own ways of filling the entrepreneurial function.”
(Schumpeter 1951, 255).

3.3 Beyond Keynes and Schumpeter

As a development economist, Nurkse, as most of the first generation (Toye 2007), is often
understood to have argued in the footsteps of John Maynard Keynes. This is true at least as far
as Nurkse explains what he regards as the central factor in underdevelopment, the lack of
capital, not only from the supply side but also from the demand side. In this way, Nurkse
avoids the one-eyed view of neo-classical thinking. He also gives due consideration to the
role of expectations and the time-consuming nature of adjustment processes. Nurkse’s
contribution to development economics, however, exceeds the borders of conventional
Keynesian theory in at least two respects: first, the analysis of sub-optimal equilibria is
transferred from short-term to long-term analysis (i.e. from unemployment to
underdevelopment equilibrium). Secondly, while Keynes was a market-pessimist with regard
to the short-term adjustment task, as a consequence of the shift of focus, Nurkse was a
central-planning optimist regarding the long-term task: the balanced-growth approach.
Interestingly, Nurkse also made positive notion of the second ‘giant’ in the field of
economics in the 20th century, Joseph A. Schumpeter. In contrast to Keynes, Schumpeter is
widely considered to have overstressed supply-side factors in economic development as well
as market forces in the adjustment process. Thus, Schumpeter's view of disequilibria as the
‘normal’ situation in capitalist development seems incompatible with Nurkse's balanced-
growth concept. There are, however, good reasons for Nurkse's stance: the long-term
perspective and the focus on big-push development processes (as materialised in the upswing
phase of the Kondratieff-waves) turned Schumpeter the ideal King's evidence against the non-
interventionists and the gradualists in development thinking.
 18

By analysing the influence of Keynes and Schumpeter on Nurkse's contribution to

development thinking it becomes clear that Nurkse’s approach is abound with originality and
individuality.

4. Looking Ahead: Nurkse’s Circular Model Influencing Modern Poverty Theories

As argued in the first section, the heyday of ‘classical’ development economics as a consistent
theoretical body had ceased by the late 1950s and a period of diversified approaches came
into being. In the field of international organisations, however, after a state-optimistic view of
development policy in the 1950s and the 1960s, the neo-liberal turn in the 1970s to 1980s
became the most influential, probably best summarized in the Washington Consensus formula.
Shortcomings of the neo-liberal approach have led development thinkers to a more
complex view of the issue in recent years. It is no wonder that under these circumstances
circles of mutual and cumulative causation of persistent poverty have come to the fore. The
World Development Report of 2000/2001 (“Attacking Poverty”) set up a model where in one
circle extreme levels of material poverty lead to poor risk management capacity and
vulnerability, which then leads to limited savings, investments, and livelihood opportunities
from self-employment, in turn leading to extreme levels of material poverty – while other
parts of the model refer to the circular causation of poor health and poverty, or social
exclusion and poverty (The World Bank 2000a).
To provide one more of a number of examples, The World Bank and other
international organisations in their important document on the perspectives for Sub-Saharan
Africa (The World Bank 2000 b) proposed a model consisting of four circles of mutual and
cumulative causation of development: “improving governance and resolving conflict;
investing in people; increasing competitiveness and diversifying economies; reducing aid
dependence and debt and strengthening partnerships” (The World Bank 2000b, 39).
Based on this model, the publication identified various areas of policy intervention to
spur the catching-up process of economies in sub-Saharan Africa and to provide the level of
per capita growth in output necessary to overcome poverty. The authors argued for improved
governance; a directly targeted reduction of poverty and inequality; better education;
enhanced physical, financial and informational infrastructure; rural development; diversified
 19

external economic relations; and strengthened external partnership. The central message of
the document is that only when simultaneously succeeding in these tasks, will Africa be able
to claim the new century and “to overcome the development traps that kept it confined to a
vicious cycle of underdevelopment, conflict, and untold human suffering for most of the 20th
century” (The World Bank 2000b, x).
Causal connections and points of intervention in some of the above-mentioned policy
areas have recently been discussed in development economics on a particularly controversial
level, especially the growth-to-poverty transmission. Beyond all doubt, sustained economic
growth is considered essential to overcome poverty in Africa, as there is only a small basis for
re-distributive efforts. An important factor in generating economic growth, however, is seen
in the formation of human capital, which in turn depends on better health care and schooling.
Also the financing of physical capital accumulation by domestic saving is seen as based on
social conditions, such as an accelerated demographic transition by lower child mortality and
higher female education. These causality chains provide a strong argument for direct anti-
poverty policies: “reducing poverty and improving social conditions are not simply
consequences of development – they are essential components of any viable development
strategy” (The World Bank 2000b, 84). In addition, economic growth is considered to be less
effective for poverty alleviation in the face of massive inequality. As according to the
sceptical view of the authors of this document, the macro-economic reforms of the 1990s did
not benefit all poor groups to the same degree, targeted public services and public spending
are considered necessary: “Growth that translates into rising consumption is thus essential for
poverty reduction. But growth is not sufficient, given Africa's low incomes and high
inequality and exclusion.” (The World Bank 2000b, 91). Key ingredients of the proposed
poverty reduction strategy are a growth rate of output of more than 7 per cent per year (a big
push?) as well as funds allocation directed at geographically marginalized areas.
In spite of the much more complex nature of these models, partly reflecting a better
understanding of the subject, partly a more complex reality, a certain inspiration of this
approach by Nurksean thought cannot be overlooked.

References
 20

I Unpublished Sources
Gudin, Eugenio. Unpublished. (RNP, 1957), Comments on Professor Nurkse’s Paper on “International
Trade and Development Policy” [Roundtable of the International Economic Association, Rio de
Janeiro, August 19-28, 1957], Ragnar Nurkse Papers, Box 9, Folder 10; Public Policy Papers,
Department of Rare Books and Special Collections, Princeton University Library.
Nurkse, Ragnar. Unpublished. (RNP, 1941), Letter to Mary Rankin, March 30, 1941, Ragnar Nurkse
Papers, Box 12, Folder 3; Public Policy Papers, Department of Rare Books and Special
Collections, Princeton University Library.
Nurkse, Ragnar. Unpublished. (RNP, 1945), Letter to Mary Rankin, August 20, 1945, Ragnar Nurkse
Papers, Box 12, Folder 3; Public Policy Papers, Department of Rare Books and Special
Collections, Princeton University Library.
Nurkse, Ragnar. Unpublished. (RNP, 1951), Letter to Norman S. Buchanan, June 27, 1951, Ragnar
Nurkse Papers, Box 8, Folder 4; Public Policy Papers, Department of Rare Books and Special
Collections, Princeton University Library.
Nurkse, Ragnar. Unpublished. (RNP, 1952), Letter to W. Arthur Lewis, December 24, 1952, Ragnar
Nurkse Papers, Box 11, Folder 6; Public Policy Papers, Department of Rare Books and Special
Collections, Princeton University Library.
Nurkse, Ragnar. Unpublished. (RNP, 1953), Letter to François Perroux, January 17, 1953, Ragnar
Nurkse Papers, Box 11, Folder 6; Public Policy Papers, Department of Rare Books and Special
Collections, Princeton University Library.
Nurkse, Ragnar. Unpublished. (RNP, 1955), To the Columbia University Council for Research in the
Social Sciences: An application for a Summer Grant in Aid of Research, October 29, 1955,
Ragnar Nurkse Papers, Box 5, Folder 6; Public Policy Papers, Department of Rare Books and
Special Collections, Princeton University Library.
Nurkse, Ragnar. Unpublished. (RNP, 1956), Letter to Jacob Viner, May 7, 1956, Ragnar Nurkse
Papers, Box 7, Folder 4; Public Policy Papers, Department of Rare Books and Special
Collections, Princeton University Library.
Nurkse, Ragnar. Unpublished. (RNP, 1957), Comments on the paper by N. Rosenstein-Rodan on
Notes on the Theory of the “Big Push” [Roundtable of the International Economic Association,
Rio de Janeiro, August 19-28, 1957], Ragnar Nurkse Papers, Box 9, Folder 10; Public Policy
Papers, Department of Rare Books and Special Collections, Princeton University Library.
Nurkse, Ragnar. Unpublished. (RNP, n.d., a), Excess population [note], Ragnar Nurkse Papers, Box 7,
Folder 4; Public Policy Papers, Department of Rare Books and Special Collections, Princeton
University Library.
Nurkse, Ragnar. Unpublished. (RNP, n.d., b), A note on investment incentives in underdeveloped
countries, Ragnar Nurkse Papers, Box 13, Folder 9; Public Policy Papers, Department of Rare
Books and Special Collections, Princeton University Library.

II Publications
Bass, Hans H. 1999. “Entwicklungstheorie. Wer ist wer? – Joseph A. Schumpeter (1883-1950).
Innovation und schöpferische Zerstörung: der Unternehmer als Motor der Entwicklung.”
Entwicklung und Zusammenarbeit (7/1999), 215-218.
Bass, Hans H. 2003. “Relevanz und Implikationen Neo-Schumpeterscher Theorien für die KMU-
Förderung in Entwicklungsländern.” In Robert Kappel et al. (eds.). “Klein- und
Mittelunternehmen in Entwicklungsländern. Die Herausforderungen der Globalisierung.”
Hamburg: Deutsches Übersee-Institut, 25-42.
Bass, Hans H. 2007. “Entwicklungstheorie. Wer ist wer? – Ragnar Nurkse (1907-1959). Balanced
Growth und die Rolle der Kapitalbildung im Entwicklungsprozess.” Entwicklungspolitik,
Information Nord-Süd (2-3/2007), 58-60.
 21

Basu, K. 1987. “Ragnar Nurkse.” In The New Palgrave. A Dictionary of Economics. London, Vol. 3,
687.
Blaug, Marc. 2001. “No History of Ideas, Please, We’re Economists” The Journal of Economic
Perspectives 15 (1), 145-164.
Bowles, Samuel, Steven N. Durlauf and Karla Hoff (eds). 2007. Poverty Traps. Princeton: Princeton
University Press.
Bronfenbrenner, M. 1954. [Review of Nurkse, R., Problems of Capital Formation in Underdeveloped
Countries 1953a)]. The Journal of Political Economy, 62 (2), 175-176.
Condliffe, J. B. 1954. [Review of Nurkse, R., Problems of Capital Formation in Underdeveloped
Countries 1953a)]. The American Economic Review 44 (3), 451-454.
Daly, Herman E. 1996. Beyond Growth: The Economics of Sustainable Development. Boston: Beacon
Press.
Dollar, David and Aart Kraay. 2001. Growth is good for the poor, Washington D.C.: The World Bank,
Working Paper No. 2587.
Haberler, Gottfried and Robert M. Stern (eds), Ragnar Nurkse. Equilibrium and Growth in the World
Economy. Economic Essays, Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press.
Haberler, Gottfried. 1962. “Introduction.” In Gottfried Haberler and Robert M. Stern (eds), Ragnar
Nurkse. Equilibrium and Growth in the World Economy. Economic Essays, Cambridge MA:
Harvard University Press.
Hagen, Everett E. 1955. [Review of Nurkse, R., Problems of Capital Formation in Underdeveloped
Countries 1953a)] Econometrica 23 (2), 232-234.
Hancock, W. K. 1954. The Under-Developed Economies [includes Review of Nurkse, R., Problems of
Capital Formation in Underdeveloped Countries 1953a)]. The Economic History Review 6 (3),
310-315.
Herrera, Rémy. 2006. “The Neoliberal ‘Rebirth’ of Development Economics”, Monthly Review 58 (1),
38-50.
Hirschman, Albert O. 1958. The Strategy of Economic Development. New Haven, Conn.: Yale
University Press.
Hofstede, Geert H. 1980. Culture’s Consequences: International Differences in work-Related Values.
Beverly Hills: Sage.
Krugman, Paul. 1994. “The Fall and Rise of Development Economics.”,
http://web.mit.edu/krugman/www/ [07/01/2008]
Kukk, Kalev 2004. (Re)Discovering Ragnar Nurkse. Kroon & Economy, 1, 45-51.
Makower, Helen. 1953. [Review of Nurkse, R., Problems of Capital Formation in Underdeveloped
Countries 1953a)]. The Economic Journal 63 (252), 897-899.
Nafziger, E. Wayne. 2007. “From Seers to Sen: The Meaning of Economic Development.” In George
Mavrotas and Anthony Shorrocks (eds). Advancing Development: Core Themes in Global
Economics. Houndsmill: Palgrave Macmillan, 50-62.
Nurkse, Ragnar. 1935. Internationale Kapitalbewegungen. Wien: Springer.
Nurkse, Ragnar. 1944. League of Nations: International Currency Experience. Lessons of the Inter-
War Period. Princeton: League of Nations.
Nurkse, Ragnar. 1947. “Domestic and International Equilibrium.” In Seymour E. Harris (ed.). The
New Economics, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 264-292.
Nurkse, Ragnar. 1953. Problems of Capital Formation in Underdeveloped Countries. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Nurkse, Ragnar. 1959. “Notes on Unbalanced Growth.” Oxford Economic Papers N.S. 11 (3), 295-297.
Olano, Francis G. 1954. “Views of Economic Development [Review of Nurkse, R., Problems of
Capital Formation in Underdeveloped Countries 1953a)]”. World Politics 6 (3), 413-420.
 22

Perroux, François. 1951. “Les trois analyses de l'évolution chez J. Schumpeter.” Reprint: Perroux,
François. 1993. Œuvres completes: VI. Théorie et histoire de la pensée économique. Marx,
Schumpeter, Keynes. Grenoble: Presses Universitaires de Grenoble, 261-338.
Polanyi, Karl, 1944. The great transformation. New York and Toronto: Farrar and Rinehart.
Reinert, Erik S. 1994a. “Symptoms and causes of poverty: Underdevelopment in a Schumpeterian
system.” Forum for Development Studies 1-2/1994, Oslo: Norwegian Institute of International
Affairs NUPI, 73-109.
Reinert, Erik S. 1994b. “A Schumpeterian theory of underdevelopment – a contradiction in terms?”
STEP Report 15/94.
Richmond, F. E. 1953. [Review of Nurkse, R., Problems of Capital Formation in Underdeveloped
Countries 1953a)]. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series A 116 (4), 467-469.
Rimmer, Douglas. 1961. “Schumpeter and the Underdeveloped Countries.” The Quarterly Journal of
Economics 75 (3), 422-450.
Robinson, Joan. 1936. “Disguised Unemployment.” The Economic Journal 46 (182), 225-237.
Rosenstein-Rodan, Paul N. 1943. “Problems of Industrialization of Eastern and South-Eastern
Europe.” The Economic Journal 53 (210/211), 202-211.
Schumpeter, Joseph A. 1951. Essays on Economic Topics, Port Washington NY: Kennikat Press.
Scitovsky, Tibor. 1987. “Balanced Growth.”, In The New Palgrave. A Dictionary of Economics.
London 1987, Vol. 3, 177-179.
Seers, Dudley. 1967. The meaning of development. Institute of Development Studies Brighton,
England. IDS Communication No. 44.
Sen, Amartya K. 1999. Development as Freedom. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
Singer, Hans W. 1953. Obstacles to Economic Development, Social Research 20, 19-31.
Smithies, Arthur. 1951. “Schumpeter and Keynes.” The Review of Economics and Statistics 33 (2),
163-169.
Stiglitz, Joseph. 1998. “Staat und Entwicklung. Die Überwindung des Konzeptes vom
minimalistischen Staat.” Entwicklung und Zusammenarbeit, (4/1998), 101-104.
Streeten, Paul. 1959. “Unbalanced Growth.” Oxford Economic Papers, N.S. 11, (2), 167-190.
Sutcliffe, Robert B. 1964. “Balanced and Unbalanced Growth.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics
78 (4), 621-640.
The University of Edinburgh. 2007. Complete History of Economics at Edinburgh.
www.econ.ed.ac.uk/history.html [04/02/2007]
The World Bank 2000a. World Development Report 2000/2001: Attacking Poverty, Washington D.C:
The World Bank.
The World Bank 2000b. Can Africa Claim the 21st Century? Washington D.C: The World Bank.
Thorbecke, Erik. 2007. “The Evolution of the Development Doctrine, 1950-2005.” In George
Mavrotas and Anthony Shorrocks (eds). Advancing Development: Core Themes in Global
Economics. Houndsmill: Palgrave Macmillan, 3-36.
Toye, John. 2007. The Significance of Keynes for Development Economics, mimeo.
Vandemoortele, Jan. 2007. “The MDGs: ‘M’ for Misunderstood?.” Wider Angle 1/2007, 6-7.
WCED = World Commission on Environment and Development (Chairperson: Gro Harlem
Brundtland). 1987. Our common future. Oxford etc.: Oxford University Press.
Weyforth, William O. 1955. [Review of Nurkse, R., Problems of Capital Formation in
Underdeveloped Countries 1953a)] The Journal of Finance 10 (1), 91-92.

View publication stats