Chapter One

Introduction
 Introduction 2

Digital Computer:
 It is a digital system that performs various computational tasks
 Digital computers use the binary number system, which has two
digits: 0 and 1.
 Information is represented in digital computers in groups of
bits.
 By using various coding techniques, group of bits can be made to
represent not only binary numbers but also other discrete
symbols, such as decimal digits or letters of the alphabet
 By judicious use of binary arrangements and by using various
coding techniques, the groups of bits are used to develop
complete sets of instructions for performing various types of
computations.
Contd… 3

A Computer system is sometimes subdivided into two functional

entities: Hardware and Software
The Hardware:
 The hardware of the computer consists of all the electronic
components and electromechanical devices that comprise the
physical entity of the device.
Software:
 Computer software consists of the set of instructions and related data
that the computer manipulates to perform various data-
processing tasks and telling a computer what to do and how to do
it.
 A sequence of instruction for the computer is called a program.
 So that, Software is a set of programs, procedures, algorithms and
its documentation concerned with the operation of a data processing
system.
 Definition 4

Computer Architecture:
Computer architecture refers to
 Attributes of a system visible to programmers
 Attributes that have direct impact on the
execution of programs
Attributes
 Instruction set
 Number of bits used for data representation
 Input/Output mechanisms
 Memory addressing techniques
 Definition 5

Computer Organization:
- Is how operational attributes/units are together &
contribute to realize the architectural specifications
- HOW the ISA is implemented (physical view)

Attributes: hardware details transparent to

programmers such as
 Control signals
 Interface b/n computer & peripherals
 Device implementation technologies
 Memory technology used
 Architecture and Organization 6

Architecture: interface b/n hw & sw

E.g. instruction set, registers, how to access memory
Organization: components & connections
E.g. how “mult” is implemented
Architecture – is attributes visible to programmers
Organization – is how features are implemented
Example:
- Architecture: multiply instruction?
- Organization: hardware multiply unit or done
by repeated addition? (how is it implemented?)
 Architecture and Organization 7

Family Concept
- All Intel x86 family share the same basic
architecture
- The IBM System/370 family share the same
basic architecture
- This gives code compatibility (at least
backwards
Organization differs between different versions
 Architecture and Organization 8

Computer design:
- an activity that translates architectural
specifications of a system into an
implementation using a particular
organization
Computer programming:
- involves expressing the problem at hand in a
language that the computer can understand
 9
Summary:Operation of a Computer System
Computer accepts information in the form of
programs & data through an input unit and stores it in
the memory.
Information stored in the memory is fetched under the
program control into the ALU, where it is processed.
Processed information leaves the computer through an
output unit.
All activities inside the machine are directed by CPU.
To perform a given task, an appropriate program
(consisting of a list of instructions) is stored in the
memory.
 10
Computer Evolution
Evolution of computers has been
characterized by:
increasing speed,
decreasing component size,
increasing memory size, and
increasing I/O capacity and speed.
 11
First Generation: Vacuum Tubes
ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator &
Computer)
 first general purpose electronic digital computer
 designed to calculate trajectory tables for weapons
 decimal (not binary)
 Its memory consisted of 20 “accumulators”, each
capable of holding a 10-digit decimal number
 140kw power consumption
 5,000 additions per second
 18,000 vacuum tubes
 70,000 resistors, 10,000 capacitors, 6,000 switches
Drawback – programmed manually
 Second Generation: Transisitor 12

Transistor were used to design ALU & CU

Magnetic core- memory
HLL used: FORTRAN, COBOL & ALGOL
To convert HLL to MLL compiler were used
System software: compilers, subroutine libraries, batch
processing
E.g., IBM 7094
Separate I/O processor were developed to operate in
parallel with CPU, thus improving the performance
Invention of the transistor which was faster, smaller
and required considerably less power to operate
 Third Generation: IC 13

IC technology improved
Improved IC technology helped in designinglow
cost, high speed processor and memory modules
Multiprogramming, pipelining concepts were
incorporated
DOS allowed efficient and coordinate operation of
computer system with multiple users
Cache & virtual memory concepts were developed
More than one circuit on a single silicon chip
became available
 Fourth Generation: VLIC 14

CPU –Termed as microprocessor

INTEL, MOTOROLA,TEXAS,NATIONAL
semiconductors started developing microprocessor
Workstations, microprocessor (PC) & Notebook
computers were developed
Interconnection of different computer for better
communication LAN,MAN,WAN
Computational speed increased by 1000 times
Specialized processors like Digital Signal
Processor were also developed
 Fifth Generation 15

Also termed as knowledge information processing

systems
Scientists have also tried to develop new
superconductors that can conduct electricity with no
resistance, thus generating no heat but great speed.
These generations are with new parallel architecture,
new memory organization and new languages.
These are functionally and conceptually different
from the first four generations.
Most of these are used in artificial intelligence,
Satellite connectivity etc.
 Von Neumann Model 16

The task of entering and altering programs for the ENIAC

was extremely tedious. Reprogramming the machine took
most of a day, as it had to be done physically with plug
cords and switches.
The invention of stored program computers has been
ascribed to a mathematician, John von Neumann, who
was a cotemporary of Mauchley and Eckert
Stored-program computers have become known as
von Neumann Architecture systems
A stored program concept is one in which first the
program and data are stored in the main memory and then
the processor fetches instructions and executes them, one
after another
Contd… 17

Today’s stored-program computers have the following

characteristics:
- Three hardware systems:
• A central processing unit (CPU)
• A main memory system
• An I/O system
- The capacity to carry out sequential instruction
processing
- A single data path between the CPU and main memory
Almost most computers in use today – stored-program
computers, what ever it be a multi-million dollar
mainframe or Palm pilot
Contd… 18

The von Neumann architecture describes a general

framework, or structure, that a computer's hardware,
programming, and data should follow
19
 Stored Program Concept 20

Instructions are bit sequences, just like data.

Programs are stored in memory
- to be read or written just like data

memory for data, programs,

Processor Memory compilers, editors, etc.

Fetch & Execute Cycle

- instructions are fetched and put into a special register
- bits in the register control the subsequent actions (=execution)
- fetch the next instruction and repeat
 Von Neumann Architecture 21

Von Neumann & his colleagues

 developed concept of storing a program in memory –
IAS (Institute for Advanced Studies) computer
 Features:
- Data & instructions (programs) are stored in a single
read-write memory
- Memory contents are addressable by location,
regardless of the content itself
- Sequential execution
- ALU operating on binary data
- Control unit – interprets instructions in memory &
causes them to be executed
- Input & output equipment operated by control unit
Structure of the IAS computer 22
 IAS –Details 23

Memory of IAS
 consists 1000 storage locations – words, of 40
binary digits (bits) each
 both data & instructions are stored there
 each number represented by sign bit & 39-bit value
 Word – may contain two 20-bit instructions, with
each instruction consisting of
- 8-bit operation code (opcode) – specifying the
operation to be performed and
- 12-bit address designing one of the words in
memory (0 - 999)
IAS Memory Formats 24
Contd… 25

Control unit operates the IAS by fetching instructions from

memory and executing them one at a time
Both control unit & ALU contain storage locations - registers
(storage in CPU)
Register – fast stand-alone storage locations that hold data
temporarily
- Memory Buffer Register (MBR) – contains a word to be
stored in memory or sent to I/O unit or is used to
receive a word from memory or from I/O unit
- Memory Address Register (MAR) – specifies the address
in memory of the word to be written from or read into
the MBR
- Instruction Register (IR) – contain the 8-bit opcode
instruction being executed
Contd… 26

- Instruction Buffer Register (IBR) – employed to

hold temporarily the right-hand instruction from a
word in memory
- Program Counter (PC) – contains the address of the
next instruction-pair to be fetched from the memory
- Accumulator (AC) & Multiplier Quotient (MQ) –
employed to hold temporarily operands & results of
ALU operations.
• E.g., result of multiplying two 40-bit numbers is
80-bit number,
• most significant 40 bits (result) stored in the AC &
the least significant in the MQ
 Register Summary 27

Register Number Register Register

symbol of bits name Function .
DR 16 Data register Holds memory operands
AR 12 Address register Holds address for memory
AC 16 Accumulator Processor register
IR 16 Instruction register Holds instruction code
PC 12 Program counter Holds address of instruction
TR 16 Temporary register Holds temporary data
INPR 8 Input register Holds input character
OUTR 8 Output register Holds output character
Structure of IAS –detail 28
 Summary of Generations 29

First Second Third Fourth Fifth

1985
Time Frame 1942-1955 1955-1964 1964-1975 1975 - 1985
onwards

Integrated
LSI (Large VLSI (very
Circuit Vacuum Circuit
Transistor scale Large scale
Component Tube (Silicon
Integration ) Integration)
Chip)
Magnetic
Internal drum, Tape Magnetic Magnetic Integrated Integrated
Storage & Punched Cores Disks Circuits Circuits
cards
Memory
Capacity 4,000 32,000 128,000 100 million >100 million
(Characters)
IBM 360,
Popular IBM 650, IBM-1401, IBM 303X,
Honeywell ?
computers Univac – I CDC 36000 Univac 6000
200
 Summary of Generations 30

G Example Hardware Software Performance

e Machines
n.
1 ENIAC, UNIVAC Vacuum tubes, Machine code, 2 Kb memory, 10
I, IBM 700 magnetic drums stored programs KIPS

2 IBM 7094 Transistors, High level 32 Kb memory,

Core languages 200 KIPS
memory
3 IBM 360 370, Ics, Time sharing, 2 Mb memory,
PDP 11 semiconductor graphics, 5 MIPS
memory, structured
microprocessors programming

4 IBM 3090, VLSI, Packaged 8 Mb memory,

Cray XMP, Networks, programs, OO 30 MIPS
IBM PC Optical languages, expert
disks systems

5 Sun Sparc, ULSI, GaAs, Parallel languages 64 Mb memory,

Intel Paragon Parallel systems symbolic 10 GFLOPS
processing, AI
 31

Reading Assignment : Chapter 2, Performance concepts