Drainage basin as a hydrological/water system

Definitions
Drainage Basin: it is area from where a river obtains its water from/ the area that is drained
by the river. In essence, if anbgt5 4rfy raindrop falls on the surface of a drainage basin and
chooses to take the surface route it will eventually enter into the main river.
Watershed: this is the area of highland that seperates two drainage basins. In the diagram
below, the water that drains to the right of the watershed shown as A, will join the the main
river shown, whereas the water that drains to the left watershed line shown as B, joins the
river to the left that is not shown on the diagram.
Gauging station-place located at the end of the drainage basin where river flow data is
collected.
The Drainage Basin is regarded as a Hydrological System which recieves water from
precipitation as its major INPUT. The water then takes several routes, either infiltrating,
overlandflowing etc which are called TRANSFERS. Also, the water is stored in various ways
in the drainage basin as STORES. Water leaves the drainage basin either through
evapotransipiration or through flowing into next bigger river or into the sea as an OUTPUT.
These aspects are shown on the diagram below:
Besides the Flow diagram shown above, the same processes are shown in a block real life
diagram below.

Now let us explore the different aspects shown on the diagrams, looking at definitions of
each, and the factors that influence them.

Input: Precipitation
Precipitation delivers the water to the drainage basin in various forms: -
Rainfall: if the water is 100% liquid water
Snowfall: if the water is 100% solid water
Sleet-fall: if the water is more solid than liquid.
Hailfall: if the water is more liquid than solid
Interception Storage
When precipitation reaches the surface in vegetated areas, a certain percentage of it is
retained on or intercepted by the vegetation. This amount is called interception storage.
Rainfall that is not intercepted is referred to as throughfall. This is the water that passes
through the foliage of the leaves to the surface without being intercepted, in other words,
the water ‘falls through the foliage”. Water that is released from interception storage by
flowing towards the surface along the stems of trees or grass is called stemflow. The water
that comes from interception storage by dripping off the tips of leaves is called drip.

Factors that influence interception

The interception storage capacities of the vegetation vary with the type and structure of the
vegetation and with meteorologic factors. Measurements have shown that up to eight millimetres of
rainfall can be intercepted by some vegetation canopies. The intercepted water is evaporated back
into the atmosphere at rates determined by the prevailing meteorologic conditions and the nature
of the vegetation. Forest areas have been shown to have greater interception losses to evaporation
than adjacent grassland areas.

Type of Vegetation:

Interception varies with the species, its age and density of stands. About 10 to 20% of precipitation
occurring in the growing season is intercepted. It is lost substantially by way of evaporation from
leaves. In dense tall vegetation interception is quite substantial.

So interception by low-lying vegetation is usually negligible for hydrologic studies. But if such
vegetation cover exists below the forest canopy it affects runoff substantially. Dense grasses and
herbs approaching full growth intercept as much precipitation as forest cover. However, since their
season is short total amount intercepted is considerably less than the forest cover.

Wind Velocity:

If the wind accompanies the precipitation the leaves become incapable of holding much water as
compared with the still air condition. On the other hand, due to blowing of wind the evaporation
rate also increases.
Duration of Storm

Interception storage is filled up in the first part of a rainstorm. Therefore, if yearly precipitation is
made up of several small duration storms separated by dry spells evaporation will be high and
interception will be consequently more. However, if storms of long duration occur and if weather
remains cloudy, relatively interception loss will be less.

Intensity of Storm:

When precipitation occurs in still air conditions with low intensity interception will be more. On the
contrary if raindrops come with great speed their impact dislodges intercepted drops and leaves
cannot hold much water.

Season of the Year:

During summer or dry season, the interception rate is quite high because of high evaporation.
Summer interception is 2 to 3 times more than the winter season interception.

Climate of the Area:

In arid and semiarid regions due to prevailing dry conditions the interception loss is more than that
occurring in humid regions
River runoff (Discharge) an output

Is the total amount of water that leaves the drainage basin via surface routes. It is also
called channel flow or discharge. It is measured at the exit point of the drainage basin, at a
place called the Gauging station.
Components of Runoff/sources of water in the river
§ Overland flow
§ Throughflow/Interflow
§ Baseflow
§ Direct precipitation

§ Overland flow
It is a thin sheet of water rarely a few millimetres in depth flowing over the surface.
It is the component that is the first to get to the river after a rainstorm. Compared to
the other two components, it provides the largest volumes of water to a river after a
rainstorm, and for that reason, it is the one responsible for causing river floods.

How is overland flow formed?

Hortonian Overland flow Model, by Robert E Horton.

According to Horton, whether overland flow is produced or not, is a function of two

variables, the Rainfall Intensity, and Infiltration Capacity of the soil. Rainfall intensity
is a measure of the rate at which rainwater is delivered from the atmosphere to the
surface, as measured in a rain gauge in mm per hour. Infiltration capacity, also
measured in mm per hour, is the maximum rate at which rainwater soaks or
infiltrates into the soil. According to Horton, as the rainstorm starts and progresses,
the infiltration capacity of the soil exponentially decreases as shown below.
The rate will decrease because the pore spaces in the soil are slowly filled with rain water
causing saturation from the top or surface. If the decreasing infiltration capacity is still
above the Rainfall Intensity, then most of the rainwater infiltrates into the soil.
(RI Infiltration Capacity).
However, when the decreasing infiltration capacity just becomes less than the Rainfall
Intensity, then the excess rainfall fails to infiltrate (RI Infiltration Capacity) and so the
water begins to accumulate at the surface, initially occupying depressions, and surface
irregularities. This is what is called depression/surface storage.
The depressions slowly fill up, until they overspill their water onto the general surface to
form a thin sheet of water that then flows on the slope to form what is called overland flow.
Therefore, according to Horton, overland flow occurs that moment when Rainfall Intensity
becomes greater than the Infiltration Capacity.

Comments about the application of HOF

Horton model was said to be more active in the arid and semi-arid regions of the world
where sun baking has reduced the surface’s infiltration capacity to low levels, to the extent
that even a gentle rainstorm of mild intensity fails to infiltrate.
In the humid regions of the world, the model will have limited application because of the
following reasons: -
§ The presence of vegetation in the humid regions has the effect of increasing the
soils’ infiltration capacities because the roots of vegetation opens the soils and so
increases the soils’ infiltration capacity. Besides the roots, the humus produced by
decaying vegetation tends to soften the soil and so increases the soils’ infiltration
 capacity beyond any intense rain rainstorm. Also, the vegetation tends to reduce the
rainfall intensity by first intercepting the rainfall. Therefore, when the rainwater is
transferred by drip or stem flow, its intensity would have been reduced and so can
readily infiltrate into the soft soil beneath. Lastly, the vegetation protects the soil
against sun baking and the infiltration capacity is kept high.

§ It was also observed that since overland flow is responsible for the formation of
gullies and rills, the seldom encounter of these ugly effects of sheet and gully erosion
on earth suggests that Hortonian overland flow occurrence was not as widespread as
would be the case in 4.5 GA history of the earth.

§ Therefore, the Hortonian model would be apparent in arid areas or in human

damaged ecosystems such as the overpopulated communal areas of Zimbabwe
where indeed overgrazing has stripped the soils’ vegetative protective cover. The
exposed soils’ infiltration capacity has therefore been reduced to the extent that
even a gentle rainstorm can readily form overland flow.

§ It was against this background that an alternative model was drawn up by Hewlett
(et al) and the model became known as the Saturation Overland Flow model (SOF).

SATURATION OVERLAND FLOW MODEL (SOF)

§ According to this model, most of the rains in a drainage basin should infiltrate, since
in these vegetated ecosystems, Rainfall intensity Infiltration Capacity. The
infiltrating water in the long term begins to saturate the soils, from below. Once
saturated, any additional precipitation fails to infiltrate but becomes surface
runoff/overland flow.

[let us look for animated models of Saturation Excess Overland Flow]

There are, therefore, only small certain areas of the drainage basin that easily
become saturated from below that can generate overland flow, (and not the general
assumption by Horton that all areas of the drainage basin can readily form overland
flow as soon as Rainfall intensity exceeds the soil’s infiltration capacity). Therefore,
the propensity of an area to produce runoff is largely independent of rainfall
intensity.

Moreover, as rainfall continues the saturated area grows in extent, increasing the
area generating runoff (hence the term variable source area, VSA). This is in contrast
with Hortonian infiltration-excess runoff generation, which depends on soil type
(infiltration rate vs. rain intensity) but is independent of position in the landscape,
with the runoff generating area always the same.
 Which areas of the Drainage Basin become easily saturated? :-

§ Areas that are close to the river channel whose water table is always higher
and therefore are easy to saturate.
§ Areas that have thin soils and so are easy to saturate from below.
§ Areas of the Drainage Basin that have been supplied with a large amount of
water by irrigation prior to the rain event. (higher antecedent moisture)

Whether HOF OR SOF, how do human activities influence overland flow?

THROUGHFLOW/INTERFLOW
§ It is the horizontal movement of water after infiltration.
§ The process occurs in the vadose zone or aeration zone.
§ The destination of through flow is the nearby channel even though it is possible for through
flow to exit onto the surface and join over land flow.
§ It is usually ignored by hydrologists when making computations because its contribution to
discharge is negligible.
§ It is the 2nd component after Overland flow to contribute to channel flow, after a rainstorm.
Factors that influence through flow

i) Presence of clay pans

Deflocculation is a process whereby clay minerals are eroded vertically via a porous
regolith.
As shown above, these clay minerals are removed from the upper soil layers and may
become deposited in a specific area within the vadose zone to form a claypan.
Water that has infiltrated the upper soil layers is prevented from moving further
downwards (percolation) by the impermeable clay pan.
It is therefore forced to take the horizontal path as throughflow.

ii) Presence of percolines

These are ready made paths through which water moves horizontally as through flow.
They are formed from burrowing animals like rats, termites and ants or they can be
formed by the decay of horizontally oriented plant roots.
Water infiltrating above these percolines is readily changed to through flow when it is
changed to a horizontal flow.

iii) Impermeable sub soil

Where the subsoil becomes gradually compacted and impermeable may also give rise to
through flow.
Therefore, the water that is infiltrating the porous upper soil layers find it's difficult to
move further as percolation, and therefore chooses the throughflow route

iv) Presence of horizontal joints, bedding planes or a platy soil structure

 Presence of horizontal joints or horizontal bedding planes or presence of a platy soil
structure all promote the horizontal flow of water within the aeration zone.
Water that is infiltrating into a porous soil surface

BASEFLOW/GROUNDWATER FLOW

§ Base flow is the horizontal movement of water in the phreatic zone below the water
table.
§ It only occurs for those rivers whose riverbeds intercept with the water table.
§ The destination of base flow maybe a nearby river or a spring site or a nearby
borehole.
§ Percolation, which is the vertical movement of infiltrated water towards the water
table, because of the pull of gravity is the source of groundwater storage.
§ It is the last component after a rain event to contribute river discharge, after
overland flow or through flow. This is because of the numerous delays the water has
pass through as it negotiates its path via the several pore spaces in the soil.
§ The total amount of water (Q) contributed by baseflow to a river is determined by
two factors, that is according to Darcy’s Law:

i) The hydraulic gradient of the water table

ii) The hydraulic conductivity of the soil material

(i) The Hydraulic gradient

§ The hydraulic radius of situation a) is low, i.e., the gradient of the water table is low.
Therefore, the amount of Baseflow that flows under such a situation is low.

§ The hydraulic radius of situation b) is high, i.e., the gradient of the water table is
high. Therefore, the amount of baseflow that flows under such a situation is high.

(ii) Th Hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer material

§ This refers to the ease with which water flows in an aquifer.

§ Clayey soil has a low Hydraulic conductivity and as such the amount of
baseflow that passes through a clayey aquifer to a river or a borehole or a
spring is small.

§ On the other hand, a sandy soil has a high Hydraulic conductivity and as
such, the amount that baseflow that passes through a sandy aquifer to a
river or a borehole or a spring site is quite high.
EVAPORATION

This is the change of state of water from liquid to gas. About 600 calories of heat energy are
required to evaporate 1 gram of water. Most of this energy comes the sun. The evaporation
that takes place from the drainage basin comes from evaporating bodies such free water
surfaces such as dams and lakes, the soil, snow, interception storage, the soil and surface
storage depressions.
Factors influencing the process of evaporation.
(i) Insolation

Since evaporation is an energy exchange process, the amount of energy received

by an evaporating body determines the rate of evaporation. Therefore,
evaporation rates vary with:-
§ Latitude
§ Seasons
§ Time of day
§ Sky conditions

§ Latitude
Lower latitude areas have high levels of insolation and so experience high
evaporation rates. However, high latitude areas receive low levels of
insolation, and so experience low evaporation rates.

§ Seasons
For the southern hemisphere savanna climate in Zimbabwe, evaporation
rates are high in summer because of the longer days and concentrated
insolation because of the high angle of the incident ray. However, in
winter, evaporation rates in Zimbabwe midyear times, are lower because
of the shorter days and low insolation because of the low angle of the
incident ray.
 § Time of day
During the day, evaporation rates are high because of high insolation
levels compared to the night times.

§ Sky conditions
When the skies are clear evaporation rates are higher because there is
more solar radiation that is supplied than when the skies are overcast.
The latter a lot of solar radiation is reflected away which reduces the
amount of energy available to evaporate the liquid water.

(ii) Wind Speed

§ Under gusty conditions, evaporation rates tend to be higher because the
water vapour is quickly swept away from above the evaporating surface,
creating unsaturated conditions that encourages more evaporation.
§ However, under conditions, the evaporated particles, tend to accumulate
above the evaporated body, creating water vapour saturated conditions
that discourage further evaporation.

(iii) Do human actions influence evaporation?

§ Man has applied monomolecular films of acetyl alcohol above lakes and
dams as a way reducing evaporation.

This has been observed in the USA to reduce evaporation by 40%.

Unfortunately, it is rarely possible to cover 10-20% of the reservoir total
surface area because the substance becomes too expensive. Also, the
reduction in evaporation has been observed to increase water
temperature, which is an undesirable consequence.

§ Wind breaks are also very effective in reducing evaporation. It has been
observed in the USA, that a 25% reduction in air speed has the effect of
reducing evaporation rates by 5%. Unfortunately, it is only effective for
small reservoirs and virtually useless for very large ones.
§ Floating granular materials can be used to cover the surface of reservoir
to reduce the amount insolation reaching the water body.

Unfortunately, such materials can be expensive to cover large reservoirs.

§ In agriculture, mulching, recently widely used in the Agritex sponsored

‘PFUMVUNZA’ scheme, is an effective method to reduce the amount of
water loss from the soil surface.

The crop residue reduces the amount of solar radiation reaching the soil
moisture, and this way, less evaporation takes place.

§ Creation of a mosaic of concrete pavements and tarmacs in urban areas

have a high thermal capacity. These substances absorb a lot of heat
during the early morning hours of the day. When a rain shower occurs in
the late afternoon, steam is observed to be leaving the urban surfaces
due to high rates of evaporation.
TRANSIPIRATION

§ Is the evaporation of water from the internal structure of the leaf through the
stomata.
§ Plants lose their water those moments their guard cells open during photosynthesis
and respiration. If the meteorological conditions outside the leaf allow, water
evaporates during those moments when the guard cells are open.
§ Transpiration is the principal mechanism by which water falling on continental areas
is returned to the atmosphere, because only minute portions of water absorbed by
the root systems remain in the plant to make plant tissue. The ratio is 1:800, i.e. 1
out of 800 are used to make plant tissue, 800 are lost as transpiration.
Factors influencing transpiration.

a) Vegetation type

The Deciduous Savannah vegetation

o They are said to be deciduous because they shed off their leaves during the
dry winter seasons to reduce water losses.
o They develop quite small leaves to reduce the surface area of the leaves that
is exposed to sunlight & transpiration.
The Xerophytes of deserts
o Some desert species have their stoma closed during the day when evaporation
rates are high, only opening during the night when evaporation rates are low.
o Cactus develops thick waxy cuticles which reduce the amount of insolation
penetrating the leaf.
o Some species have their main bodies buried below the soil, with a little tissue
exposed to photosynthesize, all to stay away from the sun.
 o Some grass species for example the irises, annual lilies have developed special
adaptations for example, they thickened outer layers, their leaves in roll and
develop many hairs to reduce the amount of insolation reaching the internal cells
and causing transpiration.
b) Meteorological conditions
§ Latitude
§ seasons
§ Time of day
§ Sky conditions
§ Wind speed

c) Influence of human activities on transpiration.

§ Use of anti-transpirants
It has been reported in the USA that mixing fatty alcohols into the soil esp. aqueous
solution of silicon oil has the effect of reducing transpiration. Unfortunately, the use
the chemical has been observed to retard plant growth, making the chemical s not
the best transipirant.
§ Deforestation
Large scale tree removal for agricultural or industrial purposes has been blamed for
the fall in moisture levels in Sub-Saharan regions of Africa. This has enhanced the
human desertification. This is because there is a general decline in transpiration
levels if massive deforestation takes place.
§ Afforestation
Even though there is so much zeal for afforestation or reforestation, there is very
little evidence of serious follow ups on the woodlots planted to take care of the
young trees. These programs would increase the plant cover density and ultimately
increase the amount of transpiration.

EVAPOTRANSIPIRATION
§ When studying the hydrological cycle of the whole drainage basin,
hydrologists are usually interested with the total water loss from the soil,
snow, vegetation interception, free water surfaces and transpiration.
§ This total water loss from the drainage basin to the atmosphere is what is
called evapotranspiration.
 Potential evapotranspiration
§ This is the total water loss that would occur from the drainage basin that
is fully covered with vegetation and whose soil moisture content is above
field capacity.
§ Field capacity is the soil moisture content when the soil is said to be
saturated with water.
Actual evapotranspiration
§ This the total water loss from the drainage basin whose surface is not
necessarily fully covered by vegetation and whose soil moisture content is
not necessarily at field capacity.
§ AET is that which is measured at any given point in time at a place.

Factors influencing Evapotranspiration.

§ Latitude
§ Seasons
§ Time of day
§ Sky condition
§ Wind speed
§ Type of vegetation
§ Human influence
Measurement and display of discharge data.
§ Discharge is measured at a gauging station that is located at the exit point of the
drainage basin.
§ Traditionally it is calculated as follows:

Q= Velocity X Cross-sectional Area of the river

§ Velocity is obtained by calculating the time at which a float, e.g. an orange peel takes
to travel a known distance within the river, m/s
§ Cross sectional area is obtained by adding the areas of the trapeziums across the
river as shown below, m2
§ The units are m3/s.
§ However, toady, discharge data is no longer obtained using these traditional
methods, but hydrologists use stage-discharge relationships to obtain the data faster
and at every required time.
§ The data that is quickly obtained using the stage-discharge methods is plotted
against time to produce a storm hydrograph,

§ From the beginning of the rainstorm up to the end, discharge is observed to be

decreasing at the gauging station.
o This is shown on the storm hydrograph as the falling limb of the previous
storm.
o This is because from the beginning of the rainstorm up to its end,
precipitation falling on the drainage basin is being held elsewhere. Processes
such as interception, surface storage, and the initial formation of Overland
flow are the ones that are holding the rainfall. Therefore, the rains have not
yet arrived at the gauging station. The decrease is also because the source of
discharge, which is baseflow, is drawing from a depleting groundwater
source, which has not yet been replenished by the current rainstorm.
§ Sometime later after the end of the rainstorm, discharge is observed to be rapidly
increasing.
o This is shown on the storm hydrograph as the rising limb of the current
storm.
o Discharge increases sharply because all the other stores that were holding
onto the rainwater have finally released the water, and it has finally joined
the 1st order tributaries, 2nd order tributaries and eventually into the
mainstream. The water has therefore finally joined the mainstream which
delivers the water to the gauging station.

§ Discharge should continue to increase up to a peak which corresponds with the

amount of rainfall that has been received in the drainage basin. This highest level of
discharge is what is called peak discharge.

§ If the peak discharge of the rainstorm is above the bank full discharge of the river ,
the river goes into flooding. However, if the rain’s peak discharge is lower than the
river’s bank full discharge, then all the water is contained within the river, resulting
in no flooding.

§ Several hours later, after the cessation of the rain event, discharge sharply
decreasing.
o This on the storm hydrograph is called the falling limp or recession limb of
the current storm.
o This is because by this time, most of the rainwater that is been converted to
over land flow has finally passed by the gauging station and has finally left
the drainage basin. Remember, overland flow is the first component and the
fastest, to deliver water to a River after a rain event .
§ Hydrologists came up with a method of showing relative importance of the three
components that deliver water to a river. The three components are namely
Overland flow, Throughflow and Base flow. The assumption is that the area under
the curve is equivalent to the total discharge delivered to the river by the rainstorm.
This method is called hydrograph separation and is shown in the above and below
diagrams. Usually, Throughflow is neglected and so we dealing with only Overland
and Base flow that is considered.

§ The time period between Maximum rainfall and Peak discharge is called Lag time. The
general idea is that the more overland flow contributes water to the river, the shorter the
lag time. The more infiltration takes place in s drainage basin, the longer the lag time.
§ The TIME difference between the lowest discharge and the Peak Discharge is known as the
Riding time.

FACTORS INFLUENCING SHAPE AND CHARACTERISTICS HYGROGRAPHS

Flood predictions
These are attempts by hydrologists to foretell when a flood of a specific magnitude is likely to
occur in a drainage basin. The predictions are based on the study of the drainage basins
discharge for a long period of time. The method used is based on the study of recurrence
intervals or return periods.

§ Recurrence interval/ return periods

This is the time it takes for a flood of a specific magnitude to reoccur in a drainage
basin. The idea of prediction comes from the idea that there is a positive correlation
between magnitude of a flood and the recurrence interval of the floods.

From the complete record of discharge data, the magnitude of the floods is plotted against
the recurrence intervals as shown below.

To predict the flood using a scatter graph above following steps are taken:
Step 1
Record the magnitude of a new flood in the drainage for example in 2003, a new flood of
15000m3/s has been recorded.
Step 2
Use a scatter graph to find its recurrence interval which should be true because we have a
long flood history of the drainage basin. In this case it is 20 years.
Step 3 Calculate the exact year in which the flood is supposed to reoccur by adding the
recurrence interval obtained from the graph to the last year the flood was recorded. In this
case it is 20 years + 2003 which is 2023. Therefore, it is predicted that the flood will recur in
the year 2023!
Step 4
As the year approaches necessary steps are the taken to save life and property.
How may such predictions not come true?

1. Human modifications change the nature of drainage basins, such that floods of given
magnitude do not occur at regular intervals. For example, the drainage basin might have
been heavily urbanised over the years to an extent that overland flow is generated from
concrete and tarmacs leading to flooding of the same magnitude predicted to occur more
frequent.
2. Other human factors include deforestation which increase surface runoff, agriculture may
increase infiltration capacity of the soils as cultivation loosen the soil thereby reducing
flooding and dam construction can reduce flooding downstream even if a rainstorm was
predicted to give us a flood occurs in the drainage basin. The volume of water is reduced in
the downstream end of the dam wall therefore floods may not occur as predicted. However,
when the upstream end of the dam wall becomes flooded by this flooding is controllable.
3. Long term climate changes may cause flooding or droughts making the drainage basin
wet or drier which will affect the recurrence interval predictions.

Flood forecasting
Whilst flood prediction is a long-term way of saying when a flood is likely to occur, flood
forecasting is a short-term way of telling whether a rainstorm that has been recently received
in a drainage basin is going to cause flooding or not.
§ Initially the drainage basin should have a long history of discharge
measurements which are going to help the hydrologists to derive a typical/
general storm hydrograph for the drainage basin.
§ From the typical storm hydrograph, a unit hydrograph is derived which shows
variation of discharge if the drainage basin received 1mm of rainfall.
§ When the storm occurs in the drainage basin, the hydrologists quickly acquire
rainfall data from several weather stations across the drainage by making
phone calls to the weather stations.
§ Once the total amount of rainfall is obtained, it is then used to create a
synthetic storm hydrograph (unit storm hydrograph × amount of rainfall)
§ If the resultant synthetic storm hydrograph’s peak discharge lies above the
river’s bankfull discharge, then a flood has been forecasted. Hence,
precautionary measures are taken to save life and property such as: -
o Helicopter patrols along river valleys to rescue marooned
fishermen.
o Radio announcements advising people in low lying areas of
the forecast flood.
o In the case of Zimbabwe, the Civil Protection Unit to send men
on he ground to rescue affected people.
o Pamphlets can be sent to the affected areas through
helicopter.
Bangladesh

Background Information

Bangladesh is in Southern Asia in between Burma and India, bordering the Bay of Bengal.
With a population of over 41.7 million people, Bangladesh is a populous country, well
known for experiencing annual floods that have impacted on the country in various ways.
Home to the world's 3 most powerful rivers, Bangladesh has an increased flooding
propensity since the late 1990s. As a result, the country has been coping with various flood
hazards, resulting in an economic crisis.

Economy
Despite having an annual economic growth of 5.8%, Bangladesh is still a Less Economically
Developed Country (LEDC). The country is poor, overpopulated and inefficiently governed.
The population below the poverty line in 2010 is about 31.5% of the whole population. The
primary, secondary, and tertiary industries division in 2008 are 45%, 30% and 25%
respectively.
Geography
Bangladesh features a flat, low-lying terrain, subject to annual flooding. Its hilly terrain
constitutes one tenth of the nation's land area. Much of the fertile soil is deposited by
floodwater.
The total area of Bangladesh is 144,000 sq. km, with much of it arable and forest or
woodland (67-83%). Permanent crops take up 2% of the total area and meadows and
pastures 4%. Bangladesh is a land of rivers that crisscross it throughout the mostly flat
territories of the country. Most homes built in the delta must be constructed on earthen
platforms or embankments high enough to remain above the level of the highest floods.
There are six seasons in Bangladesh, all of which have their own names in Bangladesh
culture, they are: Grismo (summer), Barsha (rainy), Sharat (autumn), Hemanto (cool), Sheet
(winter), Bashonto (spring). Bangladesh has a tropical monsoon type climate, hot rainy
summers, and dry winters. It has one of the wettest climates in the world with most places
receiving 1525 mm of rain a year. It has a mild winter from October to March, humid
summer from March to June and humid, warm, and rainy monsoon from June to October.
Being in South East Asia, 80% of Bangladesh is a flood plain, with 70% of the country being
at least 1 m below sea level. Home to the world's 2 largest rivers, a vivid range of minerals
flow down to the country from the Himalayas, depositing silt and sediment in the bank.

Overview of Bangladesh' Drainage Basin

The rivers of Bangladesh are very extensive and affect both the physiography of the country
and the life of the people. Bangladesh is called a land of rivers as it has about 700 rivers
including tributaries. Most of the river drainage basin is in the neighbouring countries and
forms the Bengal Basin.
The figure below shows the Bengal Basin:
The rivers are not evenly distributed in the Bengal Basin. For instance, they increase in
number and size from the northwest of the northern region to the southeast of the
southern region.

Some of these rivers have the largest river length and volume of discharge on Earth. The
rate of water flow through Bangladesh is tremendous. Moreover, the enormous volume of
sediments that the rivers carry to the Bay of Bengal each year builds new land along the sea
front, keeping hope alive for future extension of settlement. Hence, this great river system
is the country’s fundamental resource as well as its greatest hazard. Furthermore, the
Bengal drainage basin can be divided into five major river systems: the Tista river system,
Brahmaputra-Jamuna River system, Ganges-Padma river system, Surma-Meghna river
system, and the Karnafuli river system. The Tista river system is primarily the result of
floods in Bangladesh, but also of land movement, earthquakes, and geological structural
changes. The Tista river system originates in Chitamu Lake in the Sikkim Himalayas and enter
Bangladesh at the Kharibari border. In hot seasons, most of the melted ice enters the Tista
and flows directly into the Ganges. For instance, the excessive rains of 1787 and additional
discharge from the Himalayas created a vast flood bursting into the Ghaghat.
Flood Control Technology

Flood Action Plan (FAP)

Following the consecutive floods during the 1990s, Bangladesh began to take part in what is
known as a Flood Action Plan (FAP). This plan consists of 26 steps, and aims to minimize the
extent of hazards and damage floods will cause to the country, with regards to the
resources and funding the country must deal with such natural disasters. Some main flood
control plans Bangladesh has includes boats to rescue people, food storage systems for both
the livestock and the people, as well as requesting aids from other countries when a flood
arrives.

Embankments

One of the main infrastructures Bangladesh has made to reduce the damage flooding may
cause, is the $6 billion dollar embankments they have made around their two largest rivers.
The embankment, which is 7,555km long, 7m high, is a wall built from cobble, stone and
earth, aimed at increasing the discharge of water the river channel can hold, reducing the
risks of flooding in the process. The embankments were built since the 1960, and are
considered the only long term plan Bangladesh has to reduce the chances of flooding. This
allows more homes and cities to be built in the flood plains of Bangladesh, reducing the
chances of flooding in the area. However, due to lack of workers and economic funding of
resources, the embankments are not quite strong, and along with the great discharge and
yearly floods Bangladesh is experiencing, there is a great chance that the embankments will
erode and eventually collapse. However, as Bangladesh lacks funding and resources, they
are unable to build any more flood control infrastructures to further protect the country
from flooding hazards.

Flood Shelters

Aside from embankments, Bangladesh also has built 5000 flood shelters around the country
to provide citizens with shelter, helping them survive from a flood. Additionally, a Flood
Warning Scheme has been generated, involving signals and symbols around the country, to
warn people about floods in time for people to make preparations and flee for safety. These
schemes also provides farmers with time to protect their crops, get cattle and poultry out of
harms way, reducing the harm it has on their agriculture and businesses.

Causes of Flooding in Bangladesh

Like many other countries in the world, floods in Bangladesh are caused by a great number
of factors. These causes can be categorized into 2 main groups: Human Causes and Natural
Causes. Below is a list of causes that led to flooding in Bangladesh, with a short explanation
underneath for additional depth and detail.

Human Causes
Other than the natural causes, human activities can as well cause an area to be prone to
flooding. They can affect the environmental factors such as land levels, soil conditions and
forest density by altering its features into a state in which the flood can occur rapidly and
rigorously. The main human causes for the river floods are urbanization, riverbed
aggradation, ploughing and deforestation as explained below.

Rapid Urbanization
Rapid urbanization occurs when there is a sudden population growth. The population
density in Bangladesh is increasing every year due to the drastic growth in population.
According to the statistics, Bangladesh's population has increased from 1.81 million to 30
million within forty years since 1951. In 2013, the country population has exceeded the
estimation: 50 million and have reached 163 million people. This unexpected rapid growth
in population can impact the drainage basin and the flooding in the watershed through
urbanization. Due to the constructions of buildings, flat lands as well as bare roads, it allows
more water to enter the area and increase the drainage basin capacity. This can be viewed
from the data where stated 60% of the lands are covered with high ways and buildings. As
more and more people are moving in to the cities, agricultural lands that were initially
providing a better condition for floods prevention are dominated by cements and other
constructions. Consequentially, the lag time has been shortened and the peak flow has been
increased making the urbanized city to be six times more susceptible to intense flooding.

Deforestation in the Upstream Region

Along with the rapid population growth, the rate of deforestation has been increased due
to the increases in food and fuel wood demands. Especially the regions with steep slope that
have deforested, landslides and soil erosion occur during the monsoon season. Specifically,
deforestation on the uphill regions affected on the size and the scale of the floods. Such
events will support the intensity of the flooding during heavy precipitation by accelerating
the speed of water. Most of the time, the flooding in Bangladesh is blamed on the
deforestation of Himalayan foothills. Deforestation of Himalayan foot hills allowed more
rainwaters entrance to the Ganges and Brahmaputra, the two rivers in the vicinity of
Bangladesh, with increased magnitude of the water flow that increased the intensity of the
floods. In addition, absence of trees due to deforestation minimized the interceptions of the
rainwater allowing it to travel along with the eroded soil, which increases the speed of the
rainwater that allowed it to reach the ground level in a short amount of time.

Fresh Water Demand

The fresh water demands have been escalated with increased number of population in
Bangladesh. One of the closest rivers to Bangladesh, the Ganges, has been widely used by
the people living in the country. For instance, irrigation, industrial water supply and
agriculture. These human activities done by using the water in the Ganges removed the silt
from its river load, which ceased the natural construction of the floodplain that is made
from the compiling of silt. The government in the country has also built for about 100,000
wells to satisfy the fresh water demands. The construction of the wells declined the water
table and the land level by 2.5cm annually. As the land level has been subsided, the country
has become more susceptible to the flooding increasing the flooding inundation.

Stability Of Flood Defenses

One minor human impact on flooding is the quality of the current flood defenses.
Bangladesh is known to be in debt, which the country has insufficient expenses to construct
flood protection measures. On top of that, the present flood defenses are ineffective and
reconstruction are highly recommended. For instance, the level of the dyke as well as the
depth of it are minimal resulting it to have insufficient storage capacity for rainwater.
Furthermore, some areas of the floodplains are deforested that increased the speed of the
waterflow. These vulnerable flood protection schemes are then corrupted during the
flooding resulting in increase in debt and economic corruption. As a result of the poor
condition of the flood defenses, levees are collapsed during the period of high discharge.

Economic Debts
As a result of Bangladesh's annual monsoon season, flooding incidents is inevitable in the
country. As a result, Bangladesh is in an economic crisis, due to the great amounts of money
it needs to repair the country before another flood occurs. Due to the damage floods have
caused to the country, Bangladesh has no time to prepare or fully recover from the floods.
As a result, its economy is constantly deteriorating and thus unable to repair or improve
flood defenses and embankments they have set up in the country. This further increases the
chances of a flood, and also makes the country less able to cope with flood disasters.

Natural Causes
Flooding is a natural phenomenon in Bangladesh and occurs on an annual basis. Some
physical features of Bangladesh, as well as human causes also allow the country to be
subject to these large floods which bring about severe damages to the country costing
millions of dollars. Below is a list of the significant causes of flooding, including it's climate

Monsoon Climate
Bangladesh has a monsoon climate, bringing heavy rain and snow and thus causes main
rivers to overflow between monsoon seasons during July and mid-August. Soils are leached
and heavy runoff results in soil erosion. The convectional rainfall of the monsoon is added
by the relief rainfall caused by the Himilayas, as melting water is also a significant input to
the flood every year. As an example, a normal monsoon downpour in the Ganges,
Brahmaputra-Meghna drainage system was thought to be the primary cause of the 1988
flood in Bangladesh, inundating 82,000 sq. km of land, or approximately two thirds of the
nation. Although it is not known whether the heavy downpour was an effect of other
processes such as the greenhouse gases or destruction of forests in the upstream region.

Tectonic Uplift
The tectonic uplift of the himalayas means that erosion rates of sediment increases as the
rivers have more potential for erosion. This mass of residue is dumped in Banglaesh choking
the river channels and thus making them more inefficient in reducing hydraulic radius.

Relief Runoff
In Bashonto (spring) and hot seasons, snow in Himalayas melt and flow down the rivers into
Bangladesh, increasing discharge via the Tista and Ganges river system. While the monsoon
seasons always bring flooding in Bangladesh, major river systems are frequently filled up
with melting snow in the Himalayas. Deforestation may be partly to blame, causing soil
erosion which reduces the ability of the land to absorb water. According to climate experts,
global warming is partly to blame, by increasing monsoon rainfall and speeding up the
melting of Himalayan snows.

Sea Levels
The ultimate destination of all rivers is the ocean. The land elevation is measured with
regards to the sea level in an area. Hence, any change in sea level also causes land elevation
to change. At present, sea levels are rising globally. If the sea level rises in an area at a rate
faster than the rate of land deposition due to sedimentation, then land elevation decreases.
This also results in inundation by rivers when they overflow. The rate of local relative sea
level rise is approximately 7mm/year around the coastal area of Bangladesh. Furthermore,
an increase in sea level raises the base level of rivers, which in turn reduces the gradient of
river flow.

River Processes
Some are some of the river processes occurring in the river systems that allow Bangladesh
to be prone to flooding.
Erosion
River erosion and submerging of the coastal islands are the national phenomenon being
one of the main natural disasters. Ploughing makes the land surface more susceptible to soil
erosion. Surface run-off can easily wash away the topsoil from the surface of land. This
surface erosion in turn reduces land elevation and thus increases flood intensity in an area.
The Centre for Environment and Geographic Information Services (CEGIS) shows in a recent
research that 0.1 million people become homeless every year in the country due to river
erosion. In the last 34 years submerging of river side lands are 219,286 acres in river
Jamuna, 69,135 acres in river Ganges and 93,119 acres in river Padma. As of 2001, it was
predicted that if the rate of erosion in river Jamuna continued it would cause 3408 acrea of
land, 543 localities, 3360 metres of embankment, 5160 metres of roads, 4 educational
institutions and 2 market places to be submerged by 2007.

Causes of Erosion

Immense pressure of downward tides and intensity of waves cause erosion to coastal
islands every year. Coastal estuaries and channels are filled with approx 30868 cubic metres
of tidal water.
As the result of greenhouse gas emissions the atmosphere is getting warmer day by day
resulting in glacier liquifying. The huge quantities of melted water from the Himalayas are
speeding up through the Ganges and Brahmaputra and crashing to the coastal estuaries of
Bangladesh. The intensity of tidal waves causes erosion in the south-western coast of
Bangladesh.
Lack of national forecasting system for the erosion.
Coastal areas of Bangladesh are submerged due to the global warming and sea level rise.
The collision between downwards current of fresh water and uprising sea level creates
strong twirling that causes erosion to the coast.
Due to combined sudden flood, heavy rain, and downwards freshwaters causes collision to
the riverbank and cause erosion to the coastal areas.
Deforestation and removal of mangrove protection. Mangroves are continually destroyed
by the Shrimp culture and salt fields.
Unseen change in the tidal surge due to the climate change.

Impacts of Flooding on Bangladesh

Over the years, Bangladesh has been affected by floods in various ways. Having experienced
annual floods during the rainy season, Bangladesh is said to have "experienced some of the
worst floods in history." Below are examples of major flooding incidents that have occurred
in Bangladesh, with full coverage of the causes and effects of these floods on the country.
1998 Flooding Incident (July - September)

The flooding incident during 1998 was mainly caused by the ice caps melting in
the Himalayan Mountains. The melting snow flowed down the Ganges and Brahmaputra
mountains connected to Bangladesh. At the same time, a heavy monsoon occurred in the
north eastern part of the country, causing large amounts of precipitation and water
discharge in these areas. Being a less economically developed country (LEDC), Bangladesh
was in debt, resulting in minimal, ineffective flood defenses and flood protection measures.
Many regions surrounding the Himalayan foothills were deforested and urbanized to keep
up with the population increase in the country, resulting in greater surface runoffs and a
great decline in interception. With 80% of the country being a flood plain, and over 50%
located below sea level, Bangladesh was unprepared for this natural disaster, hence causing
major damages to the country.

Size and Scale of Flood

The flood was said to have covered over 57% of the country, destroying 7 million houses
and contaminating at least 2 million tonnes of rice. Nearly half a million cattle and poultry
was lost or killed from the flood, with some people claiming this incident as “1 of the most
destructive flood incidents” to have ever occurred in the country.

Effect on the People

News reports from BBC stated that at least 1,300 citizens were killed during the incident,
with an additional 25 million others displaced and left homeless. The flood deposited mud
and soil into the country's sewage system, causing a huge shortage in drinking water and dry
food. As people were forced to drink contaminated water, many suffered from diseases
such as Diarrhea, Bronchitis, and Cholera. Electricity supplies were closed, and a number of
roads and bridges were damaged and unusable. Rural villages were isolated from major
cities, causing exports and resource production to decline. Statistics showed that exports
and production in the country dropped by nearly 80%, with many farmers being jobless and
impoverished as a result of the flood. It was said that repairs costed the country almost $1
Billion dollars, leading the country in debt.

Positive Impacts
Like many of Bangladesh's flooding incidents, the discharge and velocity of water flowing
down the three largest river systems in the country deposited fresh nutrients, silt, and other
minerals, providing the country with a vast range of natural resources. This was beneficial to
Bangladesh's economy, as it slightly boosted its economy and pay for the repairs it needed.

Implementing Flood Control Systems

Following this incident, the Bangladesh government has announced that it will begin to take
measures to reduce flood risks and minimize the damage it will cause to the country. The
Flood Action Plan (FAP) was made, which consisted of 26 steps which outlined what people
should do in case of a flood incident (refer to Flood Control Technology). The country also
invested into flood infrastructures, such as embanments and dykes, as well as flood warning
systems to keep the community informed about floods and heavy monsoons. However, due
to the country's failing economy, these infrastructures and plans were not maintained or
regulated. As a result, it has became one of the human causes of flooding in the country
(refer to Human Causes).

2004 Flooding Incident (July - August)

The 2004 flooding incident was quoted as the "worst flood in 6 years." Aside from the heavy
monsoons that the country experiences, this flood was said to have also been caused by
melting snow in the Himalayan Mountains, which caused a sudden rise in river discharge.
Additionally, the country's excessive urbanization has also led to rapid deforestation, which
is quoted to have "[caused] soil erosion......which reduces the ability of the land to absorb
water." (BBC. 2004). Being an LEDC, many people were impoverished and were unable to
develop better infrastructures and technology to protect the country from flooding,
following the 1998 incident. As a result, many civilians suffered from the natural disaster.

Size and Scale of Flood

The flooding incident was said to have covered at least 60% of the country, affecting an
estimated 140 million people. The flood caused mud to mix into the country's sewage
water, meaning there is no clean water for people to drink. 2.6 million homes, 11,000
schools, 3,000 bridges, and 30,000 km of roads were destroyed. Many people are forced to
stay in flood shelters, as the flooding has blocked off roads and pathways, making it hard for
people to travel about. Many electrical wires and cables sunk into the water, making it
dangerous for civilians to move about. The flood lasted for nearly a month, as rain
continued to precipitate following the first flood. This incident, has prompted the United
Nations to take action, as they have provided resources in hopes it can help those in need.
This shows how great of an issue the flooding incident was, as numerous countries have
been donating supplies to help Bangladesh cope with this natural disaster.

Effect on the People

Many people have been affected by the flood in numerous ways. At least 30 million people
are homeless and stranded, with another 600 people found dead from the flood. Many
people have been forced to drink the muddy flood water for survival, of which has caused
massive outbreaks of diarrhoea. News reports from BBC, for instance, have stated that
100,000 people showed symptoms of diarrhoea 1 day after the flood, and numbers were
expected "to rise sharply in the coming weeks." (BBC. 2004). In total, the costs required to
repair all the country's facilities went up to 4 billion euros, further leaving the country in
debt.

2012 Flooding Incident (June - August)

Being one of the most recent floods that has occurred in Bangladesh, the main cause for this
flood was mainly due to the heavy monsoon season the country was experiencing. Along
with the ongoing flood that has taken place since 2004, it has been shown that the constant
cycle of flooding has made it nearly impossible for people to recover. The poor flood
warning systems and inefficient flood defense systems provides people with inadequate
time to prepare for the flood. Another cause for this incident, is the fact that the countries
donating resources and supplies for Bangladesh decreased. This is mainly because they
believe that Bangladesh "flood-affected people have learnt to cope" and don't think it is
necessary to help them. (Al-Mahmood. 2012). However, with the weakened economy, it is
becoming increasingly hard to overcome such incidents. As a result, this flooding incident
has also cause an immense impact in the country.

Size and Scale of Flooding

Reports have shown that the flood lasted for over six weeks, arriving just after the harvest
and dry season rice crops. The flood mainly occurred in the North-Eastern part of the
country, with reports from researchers in Chittagong (Bangladesh's second largest city)
stating that they received "40cm (15.75in) of rain in a single 12-hour period on Tuesday, one
of heaviest days of rainfall over the last five years." (BBC. 2012).

In addition to the rainfall, tinned-roof houses and mud banks were said to have been
destroyed. Numerous landslides have occurred as a result of soil erosion caused by flooding
and precipitation. Communication have been disrupted as a result of the damage caused by
the flood, with reports showing that lightning storms is causing severe damage to the area,
and possibly electrifying the flood water, making it even more dangerous.

Effect on the People

Approximately 110 people were killed from the flood, with another 53 being killed by
landslides during the same time period. An estimated 600,000 people were displaced and
stranded between June and July, with a number being forced to stay in high rise buildings to
avoid the flood. The long monsoon season has inhibited farmers from planting next season's
crops, blocking off roads and preventing them from selling their crops to the market. As a
result, many farmers are growing impoverished, with a large percentage of them falling
below the poverty line. Firewood, the main source of fuel in these flood-affected
communities, are wet and damp as a result of flooding and high levels of precipitation.
Civilians are unable to light them up and are forced to live without heat or light, meaning
that they have to eat raw food and drink unclean water. Families lost valuable income, and
homes are receiving poor sanitation as a result of the long monsoon floods. Civilians have
no source of food or water, struggling to survive until the flooding s -tops.

Other Effects of Flooding

Poverty
As a result of flooding, many people are forced below the poverty line. In an article from The
Guardian, it was mentioned that "studies carried out after a major flood in 2004 showed
that flooded households often fall into a vicious cycle of debt and roughly a fifth of flood-hit
families are pushed below the poverty line." (Al-Mahmood. 2012). With 80% of Bangladesh
living in rural areas, and 54% of the population relying on agriculture as their main source of
income, the harvest and growing of crops is crucial for many families to survive. However,
due to the annual floods and monsoons, many families are struggling to harvest their crops
or even sell it to the market, as flooding causes the soil to erode, contaminates the crops,
and also blocks off roads leading into the city. Many people living in rural areas are isolated,
thus becoming increasingly poor and economically unstable after each flood.

Malnutrition
Being heavily reliant on agriculture, many people living in Bangladesh rely on vegetation as
their main source of nutrition. However, as a result of flooding, many crops and plantations
have been washed away or contaminated, forcing civilians to starve and possibly die from
famine. Surveys conducted on the North-Eastern district of Bangladesh have shown that
"more than 90% [of the flood-affected families in Bangladesh] sometimes reduce the size of
their meals, and close to 60% sometimes skip a meal altogether." (Al-Mahmood. 2012).
Presently, 55% of the children in Bangladesh aged 5 or below are underweight, mainly
resulted from the hazards that floods have caused to the plantation of crops in the area. The
lack of clean food and water reduces the nutrition that citizens need to survive, hence
making them more prone to diseases, leading to various health issues.

Fishing
As a result of flooding, Bangladesh's economy is becoming economically unstable. Being
unable to grow crops or vegetations, many farmers have resorted to fishing, as the overflow
of water has provided them with adequate supplies of sea life that they believe will help
sustain their income. However, due to the country's poor economic development, the
government has began to lease their rivers and lakes to big contractors, whom sets these
areas as their private property. As quoted by a flood-affected civilian following the 2012
flood, "the rivers and lakes are off limits to us because the government has leased them out
to big contractors...We can't catch fish any more. So if the crops fail due to a flood, we have
to starve." (Al-Mahmood. 2012). Although this may benefit Bangladesh's economy, it also
poses various issues to many families, as they do not have any source of income after their
crops are destroyed. The inability to fish further pushes them below the poverty line, and
also forces them to starve and possibly die.
Fluvial processes

River Energy
The amount of energy available to a river to perform the processes of erosion and transport
depends on several factors.
a) Volume of water in the river
The flow of water in a river is in response to the pull of gravity. Since the pull of
gravity is higher for large masses, it therefore follows that the higher the volume of
water in a river, the higher the amount of energy available in the river. This explains
why rivers in flood can erode and transport lots of material.
The upper course of a river has relatively lower volumes of water because of the only
source of water for these rivers is the overland generated by precipitation falling in
these regions. Therefore, the Upper course river has less energy to erode and
transport. However, the middle in the lower courses have higher volumes. This is
because they receive water from the upper course as well as water coming from
precipitation that falls in the region. Therefore, the middle and the lower courses of
a river have more energy to erode and transport .
b) Channel shape in cross section

The influence of channel shape on rivers energy is best illustrated by studying what is
called the hydraulic radius of a channel.

NB the wetted perimeter is the length in cross section of the riverbed and banks but
is in contact with water.
Conclusion
The first stream has a large hydraulic radius and a small amount of water in contact
with the riverbed and banks. Therefore, less friction is encountered which means it
has more energy to erode and transport .
The second stream has a smaller hydraulic radius and therefore has a larger amount
of water in contact with the riverbed and banks. Therefore, more friction is
encountered which means it has less energy to erode and transport.

§ Upper course rivers are deeper; therefore, such river sections have high
amounts of energy to erode in transport .
 § Lower course rivers are wider and shallow; such channels have lower
amounts of energy to erode and transport.

c) Channel roughness

§ The Upper course streams have high levels of roughness because of

interlocking spurs, angular nature of the load and waterfalls. Therefore,
these sections of a River have less energy for erosion in transport because
of the energy is used to overcome friction.

§ The middle and the lower course streams have lower levels of channel
roughness because the channel is smooth, with little protrusions.
Therefore, these sections of the river have more energy for erosion and
transport.

d) Gradient of slope
 § The Upper course of a river has a steeper gradient which allows the water to
flow very fast. Therefore, in as far as gradient is concerned, the Upper Course
has more energy to erode and transport.
§ The Lower course of a river has a gentle gradient which slows down the river.
Therefore, in as far as gradient is concerned, the downstream end of a river
has less energy to erode and transport.
Overall conclusion
If all these factors can interplay, as is in real nature, then the middle and lower course of a
river is observed to have higher levels of energy to perform erosion and transport,
compared to the Upper course.

Types of river flow

a) Laminar flow

The more basic type of streamflow is referred to as laminar. This is when water is
organized in parallel layers and moves in an orderly manner. Water particles stay
within their layer and move along the stream at that level. This structure is often
possible because there are minimal rocks or other physical barriers in these types of
streams.
The orderly manner of the stream results in water moving straight down the stream
channel in a line. Due to the straight direction of the water flow, the water often has
low velocity and moves very quietly. An example of a stream with laminar
streamflow would be a small, meandering waterway.

b) Turbulent Flow
 Turbulent streamflow is when water does not remain within parallel layers and does
not move in an orderly manner. Streams with turbulent streamflow have rocks and
other physical barriers within the water. When water particles collide with these
barriers, they are forced to mix between the parallel layers. Instead of water flowing
in a direct line down the stream, the water moves in random and erratic directions.

Streams with turbulent streamflow often have high velocities, which creates more
dramatic and uncontrolled water movement. These types of streams are also often
quite loud because the water is colliding with barriers and being moved around more
forceful.

c) Helicoidal flow

This the cork-screw-like flow of water in a meander.

Helicoidal flow is a contributing factor to the formation of slip-off slopes and river
cliffs in a meandering section of the river. The helicoidal motion of the flow aids the
processes of hydraulic action and corrasion on the outside of the meander, and
sweeps sediment across the floor of the meander towards the inside of the
meander, forming point bar or slip off slope deposits.

Fluvial erosional of processes

a) Corrasion

In this case the River uses the load it is carrying to wear out the bed and banks by
rubbing the load onto the banks and bed.

• This is the most effective method used by rivers especially during floods
when the river’s load increases appreciably.
• It is the process that forms potholes where pebbles may become trapped by
the uneven riverbed . As the water swirls above the pebbles, in a typical
turbulent flow, the particles are forced to move in a circular motion. This
way, the pebbles drill into the riverbed rocks forming potholes as shown in
the image. Vertical erosion is achieved when two adjoining potholes
coalesce.
b) Hydraulic action

There are three ways in which hydraulic action operates in a river .

• The first one involves the sheer force of flowing water for example below a
waterfall where the force of water is enough to dislodge unconsolidated
sediments and weaker rocks.
 • Hydraulic action may also take place where the force of moving water pushes
water into rocks’ cracks. The air in these cracks is compressed to great limits.
When the water retreats to river, the air suddenly expands, and this forces
the rock banks to collapse.
• The last method of hydraulic action is called cavitation. This is where air
bubbles collapsing in water send shockwaves that slowly weaken the banks
over a long period of time.

c) Corrosion or a solution

This involves the dissolution of soluble rocks but are found on the riverbanks and
bed. This is quite effective a method where the water has a large concentration
of acids and where the geology making up the riverbed and banks is highly
erodible rocks such as limestone, chalk, dolomite, or halite.

d) Attrition

This method does not erode riverbanks and bed but erodes the load being
transported by the river. it is where the load strike against each other and break
down to smaller pieces. In the process, the particles become well rounded and small.
As the river erodes its channel using the methods described above, it can extend its
channel vertically through vertical erosion, laterally through lateral erosion or
increasing its length through headward erosion.

a) Vertical erosion

In this case the rivers erosional processes concentrated onto the riverbed. Vertical
erosion leads to the formation of deep narrow V shaped gorges. Vertical erosion is
more common in the upper course of a river due to the steep gradient that allows
the fast-flowing water to entrench it's bed.

b) Lateral erosion

The channel's erosional processes are concentrated onto the riverbanks. Lateral
erosion is quite common in the middle and the lower course of a river where the
increases in volume provides the river with a full load of sediments that allows it to
attack its banks. Lateral erosion may also be assisted by weathering and mass
wasting operating on the valley sides.

c) Headward erosion

This is where the river extends its length towards the source or headwaters of the
river.
It progress is as follows:-
Overland flow entering the river at its source produces a plunge pool that develops
below the waterfall. With time, the plunge pool develops in size, causing the
overhanging wall above the pool to be undermined. Eventually, the overhanging wall
collapses into pool, causing the source of the river to retreat upstream.

River transportation processes

a) Suspension
This is the way very fine particles, clay, and silt, are moved within the moving
body of water. The greater the rivers velocity and turbulence the larger the
quantity of clay and silt that are transported.
Suspension Load gives the water its color, depending on the on the local soils.

b) Saltation
This is the movement of sand and pebbles where they are temporarily lifted from
the riverbed and thrown into the water current but later bounce back onto the
riverbed. Such movement occurs because the particles are too heavy to be
suspended in the water body, but at the same time too light to remain on the
riverbed as traction load.
c) Traction
 This together with saltation is commonly referred to as bedload.
This is the process that moves the largest sized particles, for example cobbles
and boulders, by rolling them along the riverbed.
It usually takes place during floods when the rivers energy increases significantly.
As water moves over a big particle at rest, the particle is subjected to a drag
force. If the drag force overcomes the inertia of the particle, then the particle
begins to move by rolling along the riverbed.
d) Solution
This is the movement of dissolved material within the water. Usually, the water
would be carrying dissolved limestone, chalk, or dolomite.

Variation in river load

Competence
This is the maximum weight of the largest fragment that a stream of a given velocity
can transport.
If the velocity increases, so does the maximum weight of the particles it can
transport. If the velocity becomes twice as great, then the maximum particle weight
is be increased 64 times.
The influence of velocity on competence is best illustrated using a Hjulstrom graph
as shown below.

Capacity
This is the maximum amount of load that a River moves.

Influence of velocity on River competence

§ Clay particles require very high velocities for them to be eroded from the
riverbed and banks.
§ This is because clay particles bond very well together making it very difficult
to erode.
§ However, once eroded and now being moved as suspension load, the clay
and silt particles hardly become deposited. They remain in suspension even if
the river water become close to stagnation.

§ Sand particles, on the other hand, require the lowest velocities for them to
be eroded from the riverbed and banks.
§ This is because sand particles have very little cohesion, therefore are easily
erodible.
§ However, once eroded and are now in motion is saltation, a drop in velocity
below 4 centimeters per second the particles easily become deposited, unlike
clay particles.
§ This is because sand particles are heavier than clay so easily become
deposited once the critical deposition velocity is reached.
 § Very large particles such as cobbles and boulders can only be eroded by very
high stream velocities more than 500 centimeters per second!
§ This is because these particles are so heavy to be eroded from the riverbanks
and bed by slow moving water.
§ However, are once eroded and are now in motion as traction, the river's
velocity should remain very high for their continued motion. A slight drop in
velocity just below the critical velocity of around 400cm/s easily results in
their deposition.
§ This is because these particles are so heavy and therefore easily come to rest
should the river velocity drops below the critical transportation velocity.

Landforms produced in the Upper Course of a river.

Upper course rivers are characterized by their general lack of energy to perform
lateral erosion but have the potential to perform more of vertical erosion. Therefore,
most of the landforms bear the imprint of vertical erosion.

§ Potholes

Potholes are cylindrical holes drilled into the bed of a river. They vary in depth &
diameter from a few centimetres to several metres. They are found in the upper
course of a river where it has enough potential energy to erode vertically, and its
flow is turbulent. In the upper course of a river, its load is large and mainly
transported by traction along the riverbed. When the load becomes trapped in a
depression, the flow of eddie currents above the trapped pebbles causes move in a
swirling motion. This way, the pebbles drill into the riverbed, a process called
corrasion/abrasion. In time, the pothole becomes more circular and deeper.

NB. Pebbles will only be able to erode a river’s bed though if the rock the pebble’s
made of is stronger than the rock the riverbed is made of.

§ Interlocking spurs
 The upper course river, as
earlier indicated, has less
energy to perform lateral
erosion. Therefore, the river
takes the easiest path down
the slope, by avoiding the
resistant mountain ends, the
spurs.

§ V-Shaped Valleys

V-Shaped valleys are found in the upper course of the river and are a result of
vertical erosion by the river, weathering of the valley sides and mass wasting of the
weathered materials. V-Shaped valleys are deep river valleys with steep sides that
look like a letter V when a cross section of them is taken, hence the name.

They are found in the upper course because this is where the river has the greatest
potential to erode vertically. It does so during periods of high discharge when the
river’s discharge is high, and so it is able to transport its large bedload by traction
vertically eroding the river’s bed and valley by corrasion, deepening it. Not much
lateral erosion takes place, so the channel and valley remain relatively narrow.

As the channel and valley deepens the sides of the valley are exposed and become
susceptible to weathering. The weathered material is mass moved into the river’s
 channel, adding to its erosive power, and causing the valley sides to take up a V
shape.

Factors influencing river valley cross profiles.

There are other factors that influence the shape of river valleys. There may be need for us to
distinguish between river channels and river valleys. The former refers to the actual dug out
semi-circular path where river water flows. River valleys, on the other hand, are the
depressions before the actual river channel is crossed. The diagram below shows the
difference.

Factors that influence the shape of river valley profiles.

• Vertical uplift of land or a fall in base level rejuvenates the river meaning it becomes
young again. This causes the river to actively incise into the riverbed through vertical
erosion creating a deep river. Such a situation creates tight V-shaped valley because
the retreat of the valleys slopes is superseded by vertical erosion.

• Geological structure affects valley profiles where a river has cut down into a horizontal
structure, comprising of hard and soft rock layers. Selective weathering, erosion and
transport produces valley sides that are stepped in profile, with structural benches or
terraces associated with each hard stratum, as shown below.
• Climate affects river valley profiles. In arid areas, rivers called wadis, typically have
tight V-shaped valleys. This is because of limited slope retreat processes such as
landslides due to the absence of water. On the contrary, the more humid climates
experience active slope retreat processes such as landslides, debris flows etc. The
result is that the humid rivers valleys are more open than their desert counter parts.
 Waterfalls & Gorges

Waterfalls develop when a change of lithology (rock type) takes place along the river’s
course resulting in differential erosion. When the rock type of the river’s channel changes
from a resistant rock to a less resistant one (e.g., granite to limestone), the river erodes the
less resistant rock faster producing a sudden drop in the gradient of the river with the
resistant rock being higher up than the less resistant rock. As the river flows over the
resistant rock, it falls onto the less resistant rock, eroding it and creating a greater height
difference between the two rock types, producing the waterfall.

The resistant rock may be vertically oriented, maybe dipping in an upstream direction or it
may lie horizontally as shown below.
When water flows over the waterfall it creates a plunge pool at its base and the splashback

from t he falling water undercuts the

resistant rock. The unsupported rock is known as the cap rock and it eventually collapses
into the plunge pool causing the waterfall to retreat upstream. Over thousands of years, the
repeated collapse of the cap rock and retreat of the waterfall produces a gorge of recession.

Rapids

Rapids are sections of a river where the gradient of the riverbed is relatively steep resulting
in an increase in the river’s turbulence and velocity. They form where the gradient of the
river is steep, and the bed is composed mainly of hard rocks. Usually, the hard rocks would
gently dip in the downstream direction.
 Landforms produced in the Middle & Lower Course of a
river.
Meanders

As the river water flows, the heavier course sediments tend to lag behind the finer
sediments. Therefore, the heavy sediments are deposited onto the riverbed to form riffles.
In between the riffles are deeper section

s of the river that are called pools.

Pools are therefore areas of deep water and greater erosion (due to less friction). Riffles are
areas of shallow water created by deposition of the coarse sediments.

In a pool, the channel is more efficient, while at a riffle, the channel is less efficient. This
causes the flow of the river to become irregular and the maximum flow (represented by the
thalweg line) is concentrated on one side of the river. This increases erosion on the outside
bank of the pool and deposition occurs on the inside bank. This initiates the river bending or
meandering.

Once initiated this way, continuous erosion on the outer bank followed by deposition on the
inner bank causes the meanders to increase their sinuosity.
A cross section from X to Y shows the gradual increase of the river sinuosity due to the
erosion and deposition.

The corkscrew-like flow of water called Helicoidal Flow moves material from the outside of
one meander bend and deposits it on the inside of the next bend.

The cross section of a meander above shows that on the outside bend, the channel is very
deep and concave. This is because the outside bend is where the river flows fastest and is
most energetic, so lots of erosion by hydraulic action and corrasion takes place. River
cliffs form on the outside bend as the river erodes laterally. The inside bend is shallower
with a gentle slip-off slope made of sand or shingle that is brought across from the outside
bend by the helicoidal flow of the river. The river flows much slower on the inside bend, so
some deposition takes place, contribution to the slip-off slope.

In the long term, the situation is as in the diagram below.

Braided channel

A braided river, or braided channel, consists of a network of river channels separated by small,
often temporary, islands called braid bars or, in English usage, aits or eyot
When a river goes into flooding, its energy suddenly increases. The river performs a lot of
lateral erosion and this brings a lot sediments into the river. However, when the flood
waters recede, the river suddenly finds itself with a lot of sediments than it can carry. This
forces the river to deposit its load on the river bed. The deposits slowly grow after
successive deposits until they break water level to appear as islands that separate the river
into annabranches. The sand bars are eventually colonised by vegetation whuch has the
effect stabilising them.

The Flood plain

A floodplain or flood plain or flood-plain is an area of land adjacent to a river which
stretches from the banks of its channel to the base of the enclosing valley walls, and which
experiences flooding during periods of high discharge. The soils usually consist of clays, silts,
sands, and gravels deposited during floods

Floodplains are formed by the downstream migration of meanders. This is because erosion
on each outer bend is mostly concentrated on the downstream end of the bend, and not in
the centre. Therefore, as the meanders migrate, they leave behind series of deposits that
form on the point bars or slip off slope. These deposits in the long term form the flat piece
of land that is made of alluvial deposits that occur in between the two bluffs. This flat land is
what is called the flood plain. Meanwhile, successive river cliffs that are formed on the
outer bank eventually form the bluffs that demarcate both sides of the flood plain.

When a river floods, its efficiency decreases rapidly because of an increase in friction,
reducing the river’s velocity and forcing it to deposit its load. The load is deposited across
the floodplain as alluvium. The alluvium is very fertile, so floodplains are often used as
farmland.

The width of a floodplain is determined by the sinuosity of the river and how much meander
migration takes place. If there is a lot of meander migration, the area that the river floods
on will change and the floodplain will become wider.
Levees

Levees are natural embankments produced, ironically, when a river flood. When a river
floods, it deposits its load over the flood plain due to a dramatic drop in the river’s velocity
as friction increases greatly. The largest & heaviest load is deposited first and closest to the
riverbank, often on the very edge, forming raised mounds. The finer material is deposited
further away from the banks causing the mounds to appear to taper off. Repeated floods
cause the mounds to build up and form levees.

Levees are not permanent structures. Once the river’s discharge exceeds its bank full
discharge, the levees can be burst by the high pressure of the water. Levees increase the
height of the river’s channel though, so the bank full discharge is increased, and it becomes
more difficult for the river to flood.

Oxbow lake

Strong erosion takes place on the outside bend of a meander while deposition takes place
on the inside bend. As a result, the neck of a meander narrows. During extremely high
discharge (e.g., a flood), it is more efficient for a river to flow across the neck of a meander
rather than around it. When discharge returns to normal levels, the river continues follow
this new course. The meander is left connected to the channel as a cut-off. Deposition
eventually separates the cut-off from the main channel leaving behind an oxbow lake. With
its main source of water disconnected, the lake eventually dries up leaving behind
a meander scar.

Deltas
Deltas are depositional landforms found at the mouth of a river where the river meets a
body of water with a lower velocity than the river (e.g., a lake or the sea). For a delta to
develop, the body of water needs to be relatively quiet with a low tidal range so that
deposited sediment is not washed away and has time to accumulate.

When a river meets a stationary body of water, its velocity falls causing any material being
transported by the river to be deposited. Deltas are made up of three sediment beds that
have been sorted by the size of the sediment.

§ The bottom most bed, the bottomset bed, is composed primarily of clay and some
other fine-grained sediments. Clay is the main constituent because when clay meets
salt water a process called flocculation takes place where clay & salt particles clump
together (flocculate) due to an electrostatic charge developing between the
particles. This makes the clay particles sink due to their increased weight producing
the bottomset bed. The bottomset bed stretches a fair distance from the mouth of
the river as the fine sediments can be transported a reasonable distance from the
river’s mouth.

§ The fore-set bed lies on top of the bottomset bed. The fore-set bed is composed of
coarser sediments that are deposited due to a fall in the river’s velocity and are not
transported very far into the stationary body of water that the river flows into. The
fore-set bed makes up most of the delta and is dipped towards deep water in the
direction that the river is flowing in.

§ The topset bed is, as the name suggests, the topmost bed of the delta. It too is
composed of coarse sediment but, unlike the fore-set bed, the topset bed does not
dip, it is horizontally bedded.
Deltas can take on many different shapes. The three primary shapes of delta
are cuspate, arcuate and bird’s foot.

§ Arcuate deltas (e.g., The Nile Delta, Egypt) are shaped like a triangle (which is where
the term delta comes from, the Greek letter delta Δ) and form when a river meets a
sea with alternating current directions that shape the delta so that it looks like a
triangle.

§ Cuspate deltas (e.g., Ebro Delta, Spain) are vaguely shaped like a V with curved sides.
Cuspate deltas form when a river flows into a sea with waves that hit it head on,
spreading the deposited sediment out.

§ Bird’s foot deltas (e.g., The Mississippi Delta) are shaped like (as the name suggests)
a bird’s foot. They extend reasonably far into a body of water and form when the
river’s current is stronger than the sea’s waves. Bird’s foot deltas are uncommon
because there are very few areas where a sea’s waves are weaker than a river’s
current.