UNIT 2 ENHANCING VOCABULARY

Structure

2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Active and Passive Vocabulary
2.3 Content Words and Function Words
2.4 Some Difficulties in Learning English Vocabulary
2.5 Word Building: Affixation and Compounding
2.6 Using a Dictionary and a Thesaurus
2.7 Let Us Sum Up
2.8 References and Suggested Readings
2.9 Answers

2.0 OBJECTIVES

After you have gone through this unit, you should be able to:

 differentiate between active and passive vocabulary;

 distinguish content and function words;
 discuss with appropriate examples homonyms, homophones, homographs or idiomatic
expressions;
 enumerate the use of suffixes and prefixes; and
 understand the necessity of using the dictionary and thesaurus to expand vocabulary.

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Like bricks when laid out properly, correctly and with some imagination can build up simple
walls or complex designs for buildings and mansions, not to talk of other structures, similarly
a language user uses different words to construct sentences – both single word sentences and
longer ones. But just as bricks alone are not adequate, and they need to be strengthened by
the use of mortar/concrete mixture, similarly words alone may not be adequate. The
appropriacy of the word chosen, the word order in which it is placed, the nuance of the
meaning – everything plays an important role. In this lesson, we will read how words – oral
or written – are gradually learnt and how you as a learner can gradually increase your word
base.

2.2 ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOCABULARY

Just think for a moment. Can you use all the words the moment you have heard them or have
read them once? Do you use all the unfamiliar words – the meanings of which you have
guessed while reading or listening – in your speech or writing? Some words you may, some
you might not. But you start understanding those words if you hear or read them again and
again. Our listening and reading vocabulary is much more than our speaking or writing
vocabulary.

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The words that you can use appropriately when you say or write something form what is
known as your active vocabulary and those that you have an idea of or can guess the meaning
of, but cannot use confidently form a part of your passive vocabulary. Our active vocabulary
is more limited (smaller) than our passive vocabulary. As students we try our best to increase
the repertoire of both active and passive vocabulary and gradually try to convert our passive
into our active vocabulary.

Check your progress 1

1 Given below are a few words. Under which category ‘Active’ or ‘Passive’ would you
put them in?
antiseptic anomaly forte herbarium paroxysm
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i Consult a dictionary to find out the meaning and pronunciation of the words (given
above) if you do not know them.
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ii Compare your list with someone in your family or one of your friends. Does the list
differ?
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2 Look at the following words:
Rapport Abdicate
Recede Maverick
Would memorizing the meaning and pronunciation of these words help you in using
them immediately in your speech? Give at least one reason for your answer.

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2.3 CONTENT WORDS AND FUNCTION WORDS

Read the following sentences:

1 I saw a beautiful bird sitting on a branch of a gulmohar tree.

2 Pari, my five-year-old granddaughter, wants to wear blue jeans all the time. She cries
loudly whenever her parents ask her to put on a frock, however beautiful.
Look at the underlined words carefully, once again. Even as isolated discrete words
they carry some meaning. These words, if you observe carefully, are nouns,
adjectives, verbs and adverbs. These words are called content words. On the other
hand, the words which are not underlined are function words. These words are more
frequently used and carry some grammatical meaning. These words which are also

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 known as structure words, are modal and auxiliary verbs, determiners, prepositions
and conjunctions.

New learners learn content words first. The list of such words is open, in the sense
that new words are added to this list over the years, e.g. think of the word helipad or
smart phone. Did these words exist a hundred years ago? Why were these words
added to the list of words that are so commonly used today? Think and write your
answer here.
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………

On the other hand, function words are a much smaller set, although more frequently used and
the word list is a closed one, i.e. no new determiners or prepositions have been added to this
list.

Check your progress 2

1 Which of the following words would you consider of recent origin?

phishing hand blender milk shake
cute clone pod
flash mob blue tooth smart card smiley
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2 Look for the meanings of the words given in question 1. Use a dictionary to decide
the part of speech these words belong to.
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3 Find out how long these words have been in circulation.
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2.4 SOME DIFFICULTIES IN LEARNING ENGLISH VOCABULARY

As Second Language users we may find a few stumbling blocks in mastering this language.
In this section we shall look at a few of these difficulties.

One Word Many Meanings (Homonyms)

Homonyms are words which have the same spelling and pronunciation but different
meanings in different contexts. In the following sentences, the word club has different
meanings.

As a child, you might have gone to a local club in your locality. You might have seen the
picture of Bhim with a club in his hand in Mahabharat serial on television, and if you play
cards, you have to deal with clubs in the pack. Your teacher might suggest to you to club two
paragraphs together to make the writing more compact.

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  A club is an association of people with common interest (first sentence).

 A club is a heavy stick with a thick end, used as a hand weapon (Bhim with a club in
his hand).

 Club is one of the four suits in a conventional pack of playing cards.

 In the third sentence, club means combine.

Let us take another example.

1 She went to her room and lay down on the bed.

2 My husband is busy preparing a bed for the roses.
3 Heat the curry thoroughly and serve it on a bed of rice.

You will notice that the word bed has different meanings in the examples given above. You
understand the meaning from the context in which the word has been used, e.g. the context of
the first sentence is a piece of furniture, in the second sentence the context is the area in a
garden so that plants can be grown in it, whereas “a bed of rice” in a recipe would mean a
layer of rice.

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These contexts give the clues about the meaning of the word bed or club. Read the examples
given above again and look at the words that give you the clues about the situation.

In English, there are many such words where the spelling (written form) and pronunciation
(sound) are the same but they have different meanings in different contexts.

Check your progress 3

1 There are many fans in the room.

Is this sentence ambiguous in meaning? Give a reason for your answer.
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2 What are the different meanings of the word light? Use the word in sentences to bring
out the different meanings. Compare your answers with any dictionary.
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Same Sound, Different Form and Meanings (Homophones)

Look at the following set of words.

A B
1 great grate
2 flour flower
3 break brake
4 there their
5 stationary stationery
6 bow bough

What is common in the different set of words?

Yes. You have got it right. The pronunciation (sound) of both the words are exactly the same
but the written form (spelling) are different. The meaning of the words is also different.
Which spelling to use is decided by the context in which the word is used. Such pair of words
– with identical sounds but different spelling and different meaning – are known as
homophones.

homo = same
phone = sound

Check your progress 4

1 You must have noticed the warning on many cars / taxies in India - Keep distance.
Power Break. What is wrong? Why?
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2 Give examples of five sets of homophones.
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Same Form Different Sound and Meaning (Homographs)

Now let us look at a different set of examples.

1a The Director’s Secretary took down the minutes.

1b Even minute details are taken care of by a diligent organizer.

2a Warriors, in earlier days, fought with bows and arrows.

2b We bow our head to the martyrs of our freedom movement.

What do you notice in the above examples? Write it in a sentence here.

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Did you notice that the spelling in both the sets of sentences are the same? What about the
sound (pronunciation) and meaning? Consult a dictionary if you are not sure. Such pair of
words are termed homographs.

homo = same
graph = writing

In the above examples, did the context of the word help you in deciding the meaning? If yes,
then write down the pronunciation and meanings of the words minute in sentences 1a and 1b
and bow in sentences 2a and 2b.

Check your progress 5

1 ‘The words lead (v) and lead (n) are homographs as are the words live (v) and live
(adj.). Explain with suitable example.
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2 Give examples of another set of homographs (other than the ones mentioned here).
Use them in your sentences to bring out the difference in meaning. Consult a
dictionary to check the pronunciation.
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Idiomatic Expressions

Does lend an ear to someone mean the same as to lend someone money? What does from
hand to mouth mean? Who in your family is the apple of your eye? Or what is it to have a
green thumb?

As an experienced user of the language, you know the meaning of such ‘idiomatic
expressions’ and you are well aware that these frozen expressions mean something which is
totally different from the sum total of the individual words. The meaning cannot be derived

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from individual words and must be learnt as a complete unit of meaning. And this
understanding is acquired slowly, gradually and with constant contact with the language.

Check your progress 6

1 Explain the meaning of the underlined idioms.

A I refuse to play second fiddle to my younger sister any more. I have had enough.
B I am sorry I cannot listen to you now. I am pressed for time.
C I’d better write the information in my notebook. I have a head like a sieve.
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2 Substitute the underlined words with the appropriate idiom given in the box. You may
have to change the form of the idiom if required.

a skeleton in the cupboard make short work of

drop a line get the message

A You needn’t look at your watch again. I’ve understood what you want me to do and
I’ll go now.
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B It is commonly said that every family has a secret or embarrassing fact which no
one likes to discuss.

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C Don’t forget to write to us as soon as you arrive in Delhi.

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3 Think of four idiomatic expressions in your mother tongue that uses different body
parts e.g. to have a finger in every pie. Find out if there are English equivalent to
those expressions in your mother tongue. Two examples in Hindi are given below:

Oongli pe nachaana
Sar aankon pe bithaana
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Formal-Informal Expressions / Approved – Disapproved

Levels of formality and the connotations of some words also pose practical problems for
students of a second language. In learning a new language there is a tendency to use the more
formal language in normal conversational situations or vice versa i.e. use a slang or colloquial
expression inappropriately. Similarly, the positive or negative connotations of some words
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might create difficulty for you. We all know how we applaud the firmness, determination or
resoluteness (words indicating approval) of people we like whereas we deplore the
stubbornness, obstinacy and pigheadedness (terms indicating disapproval) of those whom
we don’t like in exactly the same situations. Similarly, the same person can be fat or plump
to different persons. It takes a long time for most of us to catch such nuances of the language.
Check your progress 7
1 Write formal (f), informal (inf), approved or disapproved against the words given
below. Consult a dictionary, if necessary.

Laudatory ………………… Smart alec …………………

Sissy ………………… Felicitous …………………

Dirt cheap ………………… Dude …………………
Soporific ………………… Clobber …………………

Hyponyms (word categories)

Orange is a fruit and so is an apple, banana or a mango. The word fruit is a superordinate
while the name of other fruits given above are the hyponyms. Similarly, learners are familiar
with different items in the world around them. Given below are some examples of this
category of sense relationship.
Superordinate Hyponyms
Clothes Shirt, trousers, frock, kurta…
Trees Neem, banyan, gulmohar, acacia…
Different methods of cooking Boil, simmer, bake, roast, deep fry, stir fry,
sauté…
Colours Blue, Red, White, Crimson, aquamarine, sea
green, ochre…

Collocation (word partnerships)

Collocations are essentially word partnerships. A collocation is two or more words that often
go together. Native speakers intuitively know which words frequently combine and are
acceptable and which do not. Knowing the frequent collocations is essential for accurate
natural English.
We can use the word colour in the following combination:

Adjective Bright colour, favourite colour

Noun Colour blind, eye/hair colour,
Colour film/ photograph,
Colour television
Preposition In colour

(Source: Collins Co-build Advanced Illustrated Dictionary)

Some other collocations could be: ideal character, central figure, gained status, met her fate,
make your bed, do your homework, and so on.

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 Check your progress 8
1 Read the words given below in the rectangle. Put them in proper categories. One is
done for you as an example. In some you have to write the categories in the boxes.
Human
dwellings
1 wigwam
Apartment Canada Mansion
Iceland Mammoth Sofa
Norway Villa Wigwam
Dinosaurs Chaise Denmark
Chair Duckbilled platypus Lounge Countries
Igloo Tent Bungalow

2 We often use certain words in combination with others. An example is given for you.
Use a dictionary, if necessary.
Money make, …………..
Friend close, ……………
Hair (colour) …………………..
Hair (style) …………………..

Antonyms (Opposites)

The term antonym is used to refer to words which have an opposite meaning. But there are
pairs of words which contrast in terms of a scale, e.g. hot/cold; tall/short; easy/difficult. These
opposites are gradable. For example, if we put hot/cold (water) at two ends of a continuum,
we get something like this.
Scalding hot → boiling hot → warm →lukewarm → tepid → quite cold → freezing cold
But think of opposites, male/female. Such meanings are non-gradable or mutually
exclusive. A boy cannot be a girl or a dead person cannot be alive/living.

Synonyms (Similar Meaning)

Every language has groups of lexical items which are very similar in meaning (Synonym) but
are never identical. For example: angry, annoyed, upset and irritated may be synonyms but
each word differs slightly from the others. You have to pay attention to synonyms if you wish
to choose appropriate words in different types of writing.

Check your progress 9

1 Make a word continuum for the pair big/small.

Huge → very big →……………………………………………… → very small →
tiny

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 ……………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………….

2 Can words like limp, hobble, stroll, saunter, march, stride, trudge and trek be used
as synonyms of walk? Consult a dictionary and give reasons for your answer.
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………

3 How many synonyms are there for the word glamour? Write them here.
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………

2.5 WORD BUILDING: AFFIXATION AND COMPOUNDING

Affixation
We can build new words in English by adding prefixes and suffixes to the base word. For
example, to the word mortal we can use the prefix im to make a new word immortal and we
can get the word immortalise by adding the suffix-ise. Similarly, the word agree can take the
prefix dis- to make a new word disagree and another word disagreement with the suffix -
ment.

Use of prefixes like im-, dis- or multi- when added to the root word gives it a different
meaning. For example:

un - uncommon, unable
in - inconvenient, injustice
dis - disadvantage, disagree
il - illegal, illegible
ir - irregular, irrelevant
im - impossible, impatient
multi - multilingual, multifaceted
fore - forenoon, forewarn

Here are some suffixes:

-age bag-baggage, post-postage

-dom kind-kingdom, star-stardom
-hood state-statehood, boy-boyhood
-ism hero-heroism, Hindu-Hinduism

Compounding

Compounds are made up of two or more parts which can also occur independently as words.
These separate words are combined to form other new words which are listed separately in
the dictionary and have separate meanings.

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Blackboard
Flowerpot
Armchair

Check your progress 10

1. Choose the correct prefix from the prefixes given in brackets to express the kind of
meaning indicated for each of the words given below:

i Contented (mal-, dis-, un-) negative …………………………….

ii Represent (non-, mal-, mis-) ‘wrongly’ …………………………….
iii Inform (mal-, mis-, dis-) ‘incorrectly’ ……………………………
iv Active (ultra-, in-, hyper-) ‘extremely ……………………………
v Comfortable (un-, dis-, non-) negative ……………………………

2. Match the words in Column A with those in Column B to form compounds.

A B
brain pour
down felt
draw case
heart back
stair storm
pin

2.6 USING A DICTIONARY AND A THESAURUS

Dictionaries are of help in checking and learning of

pronunciation with the correct stress pattern, meaning
in contexts (with examples) or grammar of a word (e.g.
the part of speech it belongs to; whether transitive or
intransitive in case of a verb or whether countable or
uncountable in case of a noun). Some dictionaries like
the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2002
edition) (OALD) gives the origin of the word.

For example, Gordian Knot means a very difficult or impossible task or problem. Then the
origin of the word it mentioned:

ORIGIN: From the legend in which King Gordius tied a very complicated
knot and said that whoever untied it would become the ruler of Asia.
Alexander the Great cut through the knot with his sword.

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Moreover, dictionaries like the Cambridge International Dictionary of English (1995 edition),
includes a picture dictionary (e.g. on kitchen, bicycles, etc.) as does Advanced Oxford or
Collins Co build.

The last dictionary mentioned here also includes Word Webs or topic related vocabulary
through encyclopedia – like readings combined with related art work, word partnerships
(collocations) and word links (word origin) e.g. (geo=earth; geography; geology,
geopolitical) or even usage like less and fewer. You also have used the dictionary to decide
whether a particular word is formal, informal, and shows approval and disapproval to
complete your task set in Check your progress 7. While the language of literary criticism of
OALD is very informative, the Text Messaging and Emoticons included in Collins Cobuild is
very handy in an age of e-mails and SMSs. In other words, a dictionary is not only a useful
reference material but also a treasure house of information to build up the vocabulary of your
learners.

In higher classes, you will find both the thesaurus and the dictionary extremely beneficial in
reading and writing tasks.

Check your progress 11

1 Substitute the word nice in the following paragraph. Change sentence construction, if
necessary.

It was a nice morning. We went out for a nice picnic to a nice park near our house.
The food was nice and we played nice games. We enjoyed the nice outing.

…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………..

2.7 LET US SUM UP

Isolated words are difficult to remember. When we learn words and phrases, our memory
tries to group words that go together so that one word of phrase reminds us another. We have
discussed some of these in different sections of this unit e.g.

 Related to the same topic (Associated words e.g. the picture of a kitchen)
 Examples of a more general word (superordinate – Hyponyms, e.g. Furniture – table,
chair etc.)
 Similar in meaning (synonyms e.g. lazy – indolent)
 Opposite in meaning (antonyms lazy – active)
 Arranged along a scale, word continuum e.g.
letter – word – phrase – sentence – paragraph – page – chapter – book
 Built from the same basic word (Affixation, Compound words e.g. Type – retype
(prefix) , child – children (suffix), type + write (compound words)

A word is rarely learnt at one go. Hence, the need to review, revise and recycle words at
frequent intervals so that the learning is spiral and a new aspect is added gradually over the
years.

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Moreover, vocabulary learning does not end in school. It continues well into our adult life.
It is a life-long process. Also, our passive vocabulary is much larger than our active
vocabulary.

2.8 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS

Redman, S. and Ellis, R. 1995. A Way with Words. Books 1 and 4. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.

MC Carthy, M. and O’Deu, F. 1996. English Vocabulary in Use. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press.

Morgan, J. and Rinvolucri, M. 1986. Vocabulary. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

UKOU. (1980). Words and Their Meanings. Milton Keynes: UKOU

2.9 ANSWERS

Check your progress 1

1. Open ended and therefore answers will vary.

2. We do not learn those words which we don’t use. Also, to use a word one must know
the meaning, the pronunciation, the context in which the word can be used, the other
words that need to be used with that particular word and also the grammar of the
word.

Check your progress 2

1. Phishing, iPod, Blue tooth, Smart Card, Smiley

2. a) Phishing (noun) – The practice of trying to trick people into giving secret financial
information. (computing)
b) Hand blender, Milkshake, Clone (n/v),
c) iPod, Flash mob, Bluetooth, smart card, smiley (noun)
d) cute (adjective)

3. Answer in your own words.

Check your progress 3

1. The context is not clear. Which fan are we talking about? – The ceiling, table or
pedestal fans in a room or the ardent admirers (as in the fans of Aamir Khan)
2. There was no light in the room.
I prefer light colour paint on walls.
I am very light sleeper.
Let have some light refreshment.

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Check your progress 4
1 The correct word should have been brake. The person who has got it written does not
know the difference of meaning between break and brake.
2 blue – blew; see – sea; sale – sail; son – sun; piece – peace.
Check your progress 5
1 a) Good leaders lead (v) from the front.
Use a lead (n) pencil to draw and sketch.
b) We live (v) in the capital city of India.
Be careful of live (adjective) wires. / A live (adjective) telecast of the final
tennis match.
2 Write in your own words.
Check your progress 6
1 a) If you play second fiddle to someone, your position is less important although
you work together; if you have had enough, you are unhappy with a situation
and want it to stop.
b) have no time.
c) If you have a head like a sieve you do tend to forget important things.
2 a) got the message.
b) a skeleton in the cupboard.
c) drop a line.
3 Write in your own words.
Check your progress 7
Laudatory – formal
Smart alec – informal, disapproval
Dirt cheap – informal
Dude - informal
Sissy - informal, disapproval
Felicitous- formal
Soporific- formal
Clobber- informal
Check your progress 8
1
Super ordinate Hyponyms
1 Dwellings (human) Villa, wigwam, apartment, mansion, bungalow, igloo,
tent
2 Countries Canada, Iceland, Norway, Scotland, Denmark
3 Furniture Sofa, coffee table, chaise longue, chair
4 Animals (Extinct) Mammoth, dinosaurs, duckbilled platypus

2 Make: mess; comment; money; suggestion

Close: contest/election; contact; friend; family; connection; attention
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 Hair (colour): golden; red; black; white; grey; auburn; salt and pepper; blonde
Hair (style): long; short; frizzy; permed; straight; shoulder/waist/knee length; curly

Check your progress 9

1 Huge – very big – big – quite big – medium sized – quite small – small – tiny
2 Do it yourself.
3 Do it yourself.

Check your progress 10

1 i. Contented (mal-, dis-, un-) negative discontented

ii. Represent (non-, mal-, mis-) ‘wrongly’ misrepresent
iii. Inform (mal-, mis-, dis-) ‘incorrectly’ misinform
iv. Active (ultra-, in-, hyper-) ‘extremely hyperactive
v. Comfortable (un-, dis-, non-) negative uncomfortable

2 Brainstorm
Downpour
Drawback
Heartfelt
Staircase

Check your progress 11

Write the answer in your own words.

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