EDDY CURRENT TESTING

Faraday’s law:

1=Whenever a conductor is placed in varying magnetic field an EMF is induced in conductor

2=The magnitude of induced EMF is equal to rate of change of flux

Lenz's law:

Lenz's law, in electromagnetism, statement that an induced electric current flows in a direction such that
the current opposes the change that induced it.

eddy current:
An eddy current is a circular electric current induced within a conductor when it is exposed to a
changing magnetic field. These currents are created due to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, which
states that a varying magnetic field induces an electromotive force (EMF) in a conductor.

Generation of EC:

Step 1: Presence of a Conductor

• A conductive material, such as copper or aluminum, is required. This conductor is where the eddy
currents will form.

Step 2: Introduction of a Magnetic Field

• A magnetic field is applied to the conductor. This magnetic field can be created by a magnet or an
electromagnet.

Step 3: Change in Magnetic Flux

• The magnetic field interacting with the conductor must change over time. This can happen in several
ways:

1. Moving a conductor through a stationary magnetic field (e.g., a metal plate moving through a
magnet).
 2. Moving a magnet near a stationary conductor.

3. Varying the magnetic field strength by switching an electromagnet on/off or changing its
current.

Step 4: Induction of Electromotive Force (EMF)

• According to Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction, a changing magnetic flux through the
conductor induces an electromotive force (EMF). The induced EMF is proportional to the rate of change
of magnetic flux.

Step 5: Formation of Eddy Currents

• The induced EMF creates closed-loop currents within the conductor. These circular currents, called eddy
currents, flow perpendicular to the magnetic field.

Step 6: Opposition to Magnetic Flux Change (Lenz's Law)

• According to Lenz's Law, the direction of the eddy currents opposes the change in magnetic flux that
caused them. This is why eddy currents can create resistance or drag in systems like brakes.

Step 7: Conversion of Energy

• The flow of eddy currents generates heat due to the electrical resistance of the conductor. This is why
eddy currents can lead to energy losses in systems like transformers and motors.

Properties of Eddy Current Testing:

1. Principle: ECT uses electromagnetic induction to induce currents in a conductive material and detects
changes caused by flaws or material properties.

2. Sensitivity: It is highly sensitive to surface defects and can detect subsurface flaws to a limited depth
depending on frequency and material properties.

3. Depth of Penetration: Eddy currents penetrate shallower in highly conductive or thick materials, but
lower frequencies allow slightly deeper inspection.

4. Non-Contact: The probe does not need to touch the material, making it useful for inspecting curved or
delicate surfaces.

5. Speed: ECT provides fast, real-time results, making it ideal for large-scale inspections and automated
processes.
 6. Material Requirements: Only conductive materials like metals can be tested; non-conductive materials
like plastics cannot be inspected.

7. Versatility: ECT can detect cracks, corrosion, thickness, coating variations, and differences in
conductivity.

8. Limitations: It struggles with detecting deep flaws and is affected by surface roughness, requiring
skilled operators for accurate results.

9. Advantages: ECT is safe, portable, precise, and non-destructive, suitable for many industrial
applications.

10. Applications: Commonly used in aerospace, automotive, and manufacturing for defect detection,
material sorting, and thickness measurements.

TESTING PROCEDURE OF ECT:

1. Preparation
• Material Identification: Confirm the material is conductive and suitable for testing.
• Surface Cleaning: Ensure the surface is free of contaminants to avoid interference with the test.
2. Equipment Setup
• Probe Selection: Choose the appropriate probe for the geometry and inspection needs.
• Equipment Setup: Configure the ECT instrument with the correct settings (frequency, gain, etc.).
3. Calibration
• Standard Calibration: Use a reference block with known defects to calibrate the system for accuracy.
• Frequency Adjustment: Select the correct operating frequency based on material and inspection depth.
4. Probe Positioning and Scanning
• Probe Positioning: Ensure consistent probe alignment and lift-off from the surface.
• Scanning: Move the probe evenly over the test area, maintaining steady speed and consistent coverage.
5. Signal Monitoring and Analysis
 • Signal Monitoring: Observe the output for variations indicating defects.
• Signal Analysis: Analyze the data to identify and assess the size and location of defects.
6. Result Evaluation
• Result Comparison: Compare test results with reference standards or acceptance criteria.
• Re-Scanning: If necessary, re-scan suspicious areas to confirm findings.
7.Reporting and Documentation
• Recording Results: Document findings, including defect size and location.
• Report Generation: Create a detailed report with test conditions, results, and recommendations.
8. Post-Testing Maintenance
• Cleaning and Storing: Clean and store the equipment after testing to maintain its condition and
accuracy for future use.

Eddy Current Sensing Elements

The sensing element of an eddy current sensor is the coil of an oscillating circuit. The coil emits an
electromagnetic field that induces eddy currents in conductive objects, such as metallic objects.Here’s a
breakdown of different types of sensing elements:
Coils as Sensing Elements
Coils are the most common type of sensing element in ECT. When an alternating current (AC) is
passed through the coil, it creates a magnetic field that induces eddy currents in the conductive material. Any
changes in the material’s properties (such as cracks, corrosion, or variations in conductivity) affect the flow of
these eddy currents, which can be detected by the coil.
Types of Coils Used in ECT:
Absolute Coils

• Function: These coils detect the change in impedance as the eddy currents interact with the material.
• Use: Primarily used for measuring material thickness or detecting surface defects.
• Characteristics: They give a direct reading of the overall material response.
 Differential Coils:

• Function: These coils use two adjacent coils to compare signals, making them highly sensitive to small
defects like cracks.
• Use: Ideal for detecting cracks, pits, and other small flaws that might not be detected with absolute coils.
• Characteristics: The dual-coil design minimizes the effects of gradual changes in material properties,
allowing for more accurate detection of localized flaws.
Reflection Coils:

• Function: Separate coils are used to generate and receive signals, allowing for more focused detection.
• Use: Often used in applications where defects are expected at a specific depth.
• Characteristics: Useful for distinguishing between surface and subsurface defects based on signal
reflections.

Types of Probes & Arrangememts in Eddy Current Testing (ECT): (diagram refer PPT)
1. Absolute Probes
Absolute probes are versatile and widely used in ECT. They measure the total eddy current response
directly and are useful for detecting variations in material properties.
• Single Coil Absolute Probe:
o Contains a single coil for both generating and detecting eddy currents.
o Measures changes in impedance caused by material flaws or variations.
o Suitable for detecting surface cracks, corrosion, or changes in conductivity.
o Often used in basic thickness measurements and simple defect detection tasks.
• Double Coil Absolute Probe:
o Features two coils for increased sensitivity.
o Improves detection depth and accuracy compared to single-coil designs.
o Commonly used in applications requiring deeper material penetration or more precise defect
characterization.
2. Differential Probes
Differential probes use two adjacent coils to compare signals between two points on a material. They are
highly sensitive to small, localized flaws.
• Working Principle:
o One coil induces eddy currents, while the second detects changes in the magnetic field caused by
defects.
o If the material is defect-free, both coils generate equal signals. Any imbalance indicates a flaw.
• Applications:
o Ideal for detecting sharp flaws such as cracks, pits, or small inclusions.
o Reduces noise caused by gradual changes in material properties or geometry.
o Often used in inspecting weld seams, thin sheets, and curved surfaces.
3. Reflection Probes
Reflection probes use separate coils for generating and detecting eddy currents, offering better
sensitivity for certain applications.
• Working Principle:
o The transmitter coil generates eddy currents, and the receiver coil detects changes in the current
flow due to defects or material variations.
• Applications:
o Ideal for detecting subsurface defects, particularly in coated or layered materials.
o Useful in applications requiring precise depth analysis, such as aerospace and composite material
inspections.
4. Surface Probes
Surface probes are designed for testing flat or slightly curved surfaces.
• Working Principle:
o The probe's coil induces eddy currents on the material surface, detecting cracks or defects that
disrupt the current flow.
• Applications:
o Commonly used for detecting surface cracks, weld integrity, and surface corrosion.
o Provides efficient coverage for large, flat areas like metal plates or sheets.
5. Bold hole Probes
Borehole probes are specialized for inspecting the internal surfaces of cylindrical cavities like bolt holes
or bores.
• Working Principle:
 o The probe is inserted into the hole, and eddy currents are induced along the internal walls.
Defects disrupt the signal, which is recorded for analysis.
• Applications:
o Widely used in the aerospace industry for bolt hole inspections.
o Suitable for detecting internal cracks, corrosion, or wear in engine components and other
cylindrical parts.
6. Bobbin Probes
Bobbin probes are cylindrical probes that encircle tubes or pipes, primarily for internal inspections.
• Working Principle:
o A coil inside the probe induces eddy currents circumferentially around the tube. Defects like
cracks or thinning cause variations in the response.
• Applications:
o Commonly used for inspecting heat exchanger tubes, boiler tubes, and pipelines.
o Excellent for detecting longitudinal or circumferential defects.
7. Encircling Probes
Encircling probes completely surround the circumference of cylindrical objects like rods or wires for
thorough inspection.
• Working Principle:
o The probe generates eddy currents around the entire surface of the object, enabling uniform
inspection.
• Applications:
o Often used in automated systems for inspecting wires, rods, or tubes during manufacturing.
o Effective for detecting defects over large volumes in high-speed inspections.
8. Sliding Probes
Sliding probes are designed for ease of movement over large surfaces.
• Working Principle:
o The probe slides over the surface, continuously generating and detecting eddy currents.
• Applications:
o Used for rapid inspection of flat or slightly curved surfaces.
o Commonly employed in industries where speed and surface coverage are critical, such as in
shipbuilding or large structure maintenance.
9. Pencil Probes
Pencil probes are small, highly precise probes designed for detailed inspections of localized areas.
 • Working Principle:
o The small coil focuses the eddy currents on a tiny area, allowing for high-resolution detection of
defects.
• Applications:
o Ideal for inspecting hard-to-reach areas, corners, or edges.
o Frequently used in aerospace, automotive, and precision engineering industries.

Instrumentation:
1. Signal Generator
• Produces an alternating current (AC) of a specific frequency.
• This current is sent to the excitation coil to create a varying magnetic field.
• The frequency determines the penetration depth of the eddy currents.
2. Excitation Coil
• Generates the magnetic field needed to induce eddy currents in the test material.
• Typically made of copper wire wound into a specific shape (e.g., flat, encircling, or probe coils).
• The coil configuration depends on the application and type of material being tested.
3. Detection Coil (or Sensor Coil)
• Senses changes in the eddy current flow caused by variations in the test material, such as defects or
thickness changes.
• Can be integrated into the same coil as the excitation coil (absolute probe) or separated (differential or
reflection methods).
4. Bridge Circuit/Impedance Measurement
• Measures changes in coil impedance (resistance and inductance) due to eddy current interactions.
• Variations in impedance reflect the presence of material flaws, property differences, or thickness
variations.
5. Signal Processor and Display Unit
• The raw signal detected by the sensing coil is processed to extract meaningful information (e.g.,
amplitude, phase, and frequency).
• Displays the results as waveforms, impedance planes, or numerical data on a monitor or graph.
• Helps operators interpret results quickly and accurately.
6. Calibration and Reference Standards
• Calibration blocks with known defects or material properties are used to ensure accurate and repeatable
results.
 • These are essential for setting baseline readings and fine-tuning the equipment.
7. Software and Data Storage
• Advanced ECT systems include software for signal analysis, defect evaluation, and automated reporting.
• Data can be stored for future comparison or detailed analysis.
8. Probes and Accessories
• Various probe designs are available for specific applications (e.g., surface probes, encircling coils, or
internal probes).
• Accessories like extension cables and fixtures improve the ease and flexibility of testing.
9. Power Supply
• Provides the required energy to the system components, ensuring stable and reliable operation.

Factors Affecting Eddy Current

1. Conductivity: Materials with high conductivity, like copper and aluminum, generate strong eddy
currents, making it easier to detect flaws during testing.
2. Permeability: Magnetic materials, like iron, allow stronger magnetic fields to form, increasing the eddy
current strength and improving flaw detection.
3. Resistivity: Materials with high resistivity oppose current flow, creating weaker eddy currents, which
can make flaw detection harder.
4. Inductance: The coil’s ability to produce a magnetic field affects how well subsurface flaws are
detected, with higher inductance helping deeper inspections.
5. Inductive Reactance: The opposition to alternating current affects eddy current strength and the depth
of penetration during testing.
6. Impedance: The combination of resistance and reactance in the coil changes when flaws are present,
helping detect and characterize defects.

Terminology in Electricity and Eddy Current Testing

1. Electricity: The flow of electric charge through a conductor, typically caused by the movement of
electrons, powering various systems and devices.
2. Conductivity: A material's ability to allow electric current to pass through it. High conductivity
materials, like copper, are excellent conductors.
3. Resistivity: The property of a material that opposes the flow of electric current. Materials with high
resistivity, like rubber, are good insulators.
4. Amps (Amperes): The unit of electric current, measuring the amount of electric charge flowing per
second in a circuit.
5. Volts: The unit of electric potential difference, measuring the force that drives electric current through a
conductor.
6. Ohm's Law: A fundamental law stating that the current (I) in a circuit is directly proportional to the
voltage (V) and inversely proportional to the resistance (R): I=VRI = \frac{V}{R}I=RV.
7. Current Density: The amount of electric current flowing per unit area of a conductor, indicating how
concentrated the current is.
8. Electromotive Force (EMF): The energy provided by a power source, like a battery, to move charges
through a circuit, measured in volts.
9. Electrical Impedance: The total opposition to the flow of alternating current in a circuit, combining
resistance and reactance, and measured in ohms.