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Lecture-4

The document is a lecture on discrete mathematics focusing on basic structures such as sets, functions, sequences, sums, and matrices. It covers definitions, notations, types of sets, set equality, subsets, cardinality, power sets, tuples, and Cartesian products. The lecture also includes examples and graphical representations like Venn diagrams to illustrate the concepts.

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dudepsycho321
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3 views

Lecture-4

The document is a lecture on discrete mathematics focusing on basic structures such as sets, functions, sequences, sums, and matrices. It covers definitions, notations, types of sets, set equality, subsets, cardinality, power sets, tuples, and Cartesian products. The lecture also includes examples and graphical representations like Venn diagrams to illustrate the concepts.

Uploaded by

dudepsycho321
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Discrete Mathematics

Lecture - 4

Syeda Tamanna Alam Monisha


Lecturer, CSE, Leading University
E-mail: [email protected]
Discrete
BASIC STRUCTURES: Mathematics
and Its
SETS, FUNCTIONS, Applications by
Rosen
SEQUENCES, SUMS, 7th Edition
AND MATRICES
2.1 SETS
Set
• Definition: A set is an unordered collection of objects.
S = {x, d, y, t}
• Elements: The objects in the set or the members of the set.
• We write a∈ A to denote that a is an element of the set A.
• The notation a ∉ A denotes that a is not an element of the set A.
• Examples :
• The set V of all vowels in the English alphabet can be written as V = {a, e, i, o, u}.
• The set O of odd positive integers less than 10 can be expressed by O = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}.
Sets You Should Know
• N = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}, the set of natural numbers
• Z = {. . . ,−2,−1, 0, 1, 2, . . .}, the set of integers
• Z+ = {1, 2, 3, . . .}, the set of positive integers
• Q = {p/q | p ∈ Z, q ∈ Z, and q ≠ 0}, the set of rational numbers
• R = the set of real numbers
• R+ = the set of positive real numbers
• C = the set of complex numbers.
Set Notations
• Roster Notation :
N = {0, 1, 2 , 3, 4, 5}

• Set Builder Notation :


N = { x| x ∈ N , x ≤ 5 } = { x| x ∈ Z , 0 ≤ x ≤ 5 }

“x such that x belongs to natural numbers and is less than or


equal to five”

• Interval Notation :
A = { x| 0 ≤ x ≤ 5 } = [ 0 , 5 ]
A = { x| 0 ˂ x ˂ 5 } = ( 0 , 5 )
A = { x| 0 ˂ x ≤ 5 } = ( 0 , 5 ]
Special Sets
• Universal Set :
U is the set containing everything under consideration.
N
2 4
N U
6

• Empty Set :
A set with no elements is called empty set or null set.
Empty set is denoted by ∅ and { }
But not {∅}
Set Equality
• Two sets are equal if and only if they have the same elements.
∀x(x ∈ A ↔ x ∈ B)
• Notation: A = B

• Example:
• A = { 0, 1, 4 , 9} & B = { 4, 1, 0, 9}
A=B

• A = { 0, 1, 4 , 9} & B = { 4, 1, 0, 0, 9, 9, 9, 1}
A=B
Venn Diagrams
• Sets can be represented graphically using Venn diagrams.

• In Venn diagrams the universal set U, which contains all the objects
under consideration, is represented by a rectangle

• Inside this rectangle, circles or other geometrical figures are used to


represent sets.
Venn Diagrams
Subsets
• Definition: The set A is a subset of B if every element of A is also an
element of B.
∀x(x ∈ A → x ∈ B)
• Notation: A ⊆ B
• Given, A = { 1, 4, 3} & B = { 1, 2, 3, 4,5 }

U
2
B 4 1
A⊆B
3
5 A
Subsets
• For every set S,
(i ) ∅ ⊆ S
(ii ) S ⊆ S

• Proper Subsets: If A ⊆ B but A ≠ B, meaning B contains an element


not contained in A, then A is a proper subset of B.
∀x(x ∈ A → x ∈ B) ∧ ∃x(x ∈ B ∧ x ∉ A)

• Notation: A ⊂ B
Cardinality
• If a set is finite then the number of distinct elements of the set is the
cardinality of the set.
• Notation: |S|
• Example: A = {1, 2, 2, 3, 4, 4, 4}
Therefore, |A|= 4
• Because the null set has no elements, it follows that |∅| = 0

• A set is said to be infinite if it is not finite.


- The set of positive integers is infinite.
Power Sets
• The set of all subsets of a set.
• Notation: P(S)

• Example: Given, A = {0, 1, 2} n=3

The power set P(A) is the set of all subsets of {0, 1, 2}


Hence, P(A) = {∅, {0}, {1}, {2}, {0, 1}, {0, 2}, {1, 2}, {0, 1, 2}}
|P(A)| = 8 = 23

• Cardinality of power set of a set with n elements is 2n


Tuples
• The ordered n-tuple (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) is the ordered collection that has
a1 as its first element, a2 as its second element, . . . , and an as its nth
element.

• Notation: (a1 , a2 , . . . , an )

• (5, 2) = (5, 2) but (5, 2) ≠ (2, 5)


Cartesian Products
• Let A and B be sets. The Cartesian product of A and B, denoted by
A × B, is the set of all ordered pairs (a, b), where a ∈ A and b ∈ B.

• Notation: A × B = {(a, b) | a ∈ A ∧ b ∈ B}

• Example: A = {1, 2} and B = {a, b, c}


A × B = {(1, a), (1, b), (1, c), (2, a), (2, b), (2, c)}
and B × A = {(a, 1), (a, 2), (b, 1), (b, 2), (c, 1), (c, 2)}

Therefore, A×B≠B×A
Cartesian Products
• The notation A2 is used to denote A × A, the Cartesian product of the
set A with itself. Similarly, A3 = A × A × A, A4 = A × A × A × A, and so
on.

• Suppose that A = {1, 2}


Therefore,
A2 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2)}
A3 = {(1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 2), (1, 2, 1), (1, 2, 2), (2, 1, 1), (2, 1, 2),
(2, 2, 1), (2, 2, 2)}.

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