Induction Heating

Nereus Fernandes
 Topics
 Advantages of Induction Heating
 Working Principle of Induction Heating
 Induction Coil Equivalent Circuit
 Inverter Configurations
 Power Control Techniques
 Calculation of Power & Frequency Requirements
 Major Components
 Induction Coils, Flux Concentrators
- Matching Transformers
 High Frequency Cables & Bus Bars, Cooling,
Capacitors, SCR, IGBTs, Controllers
 Applications
 100KW Induction Hardening System
 Automated Hardness Testing
 Introduction
Industrial Induction Heating Systems require
cross-domain expertise in
– Electronics (MCUs, Gate Drvers, Power Switches)
– Electrical (Electromagnetic Field Theory,
Switchgear, Cabling, Magnetics/Transformers)
– Mechanical (Heat Transfer, Mechanics/Motion
Systems)
– Metallurgy (Metal Properties)
and must be studied with a multi-disciplinary
approach for a better understanding in design,
construction and operation.
 Advantages of Induction Heating
 Fast start-up & Quick heating
 Energy Savings – can be turned off often as restarting
is quick
 Efficient as heat is generated inside the workpiece
 Non-contact, heated material not contaminated
 High Production rates
 Ease of automation and control
 Quiet, safe and clean environment
 Low maintenance
 Less scale loss
Working Principle of Induction Heating
 Work-coil acts like primary of transformer and generates alternating magnetic
field
 Workpiece acts like single turn shorted secondary and eddy currents flow in the
workpiece
 Induction heating has two mechanisms of energy dissipation for heating
 Joule heating
 Heat power due to eddy currents induced in conducting material placed
in changing magnetic field
 Ф=μoIcnπ ro2, E = -N(ΔФ/Δt), R= ρl/A, P= E2/R
 Sole mechanism of heat generation in Non-magnetic materials like
aluminium, copper, stainless steels, carbon steel above Curie
temperature
 Primary mechanism in ferro-magnetic materials below Curie
temperature ( eg carbon steels )
 Magnetic hysteresis loss
 Secondary mechanism in ferro-magnetic materials below Curie
temperature ( eg carbon steels )
 Block Diagram of Induction Heating System

Inverter

 Induction Coil design as per the heating requirements of the load

– Depth of Heating => frequency
– Temperature & Duration => Wattage => current, voltage
– Shape => Inductance
 Load Matching

 Capacitor to correct Coil Inductive Reactance and get unity power factor at

resonance frequency
 Matching Transformer for isolation and matching with standard voltage

levels
 Inverter for frequency control – typically square wave voltage, sine wave

current due to load resonance

 Line Rectifier for power / voltage level control. Also incorporating Line Power

Factor Control to ensure near unity Line Power Factor

 Max Impedance at fr Min Impedance at fr

Rp – work coil resistance

Rs – secondary eddy current path resistance
in workpiece reflected to primary
Xlp – work coil reactance
Xls – secondary eddy current path reactance
in workpiece reflected to primary
Xlg – secondary air gap reactance between  Under no-load only power to overcome
coil and workpiece reflected to primary leakage losses is drawn from the supply.
P= I2 x(Rp +Rs)  When a lossy work-piece Rs is inserted in
the work-coil the system is damped and
draws power from the source
Impedance Matching
 Work-piece and Work-coil takes large current while Power Source
(Inverter) typically operates at higher voltage and low current.
Matching is done using
 Step-down Transformer
 Auto-transformer, LCL tank
 Coil inductance is matched by Capacitor at resonant frequency to
give unity power factor and maximum heating power to the workpiece
 Inductor coil 100kW, 40V, 10,000A ,10KHz
 Power Source 100kW, 440V, 350A, 10KHz
 Use isolation transformer 440:40 ie 11:1
 Current drawn from the Power Source = 10000/11 = 909A beyond
capacity of source
 Addition of Capacitor in load circuit to achieve unity power factor
would result in a current requirement of 100KW/440V = 227A
 A huge current flows through the work-coil and capacitor but inverter has to supply only
relatively low current
 Placing the Capacitor nearest to the work-coil reduces the circulating currents in the system

- reduces transformer VA
 Placing the Capacitor in the Primary of the transformer - reduces capacitance and capacitor

current but increases the transformer VA

 Capacitor are specified in KVAr

KVAr = VI = V2/(XLx1000) = (2xπxFxCxV2)/1000

 Active Transformers

 only active power transferred from primary

 Decrease current through the semiconductors
 Reactive Transformers
 Both Active and reactive power transferred from Primary
 Used for low impedance inductors – capacitance and capacitor
current is reduced
Inverter Design
 To have high and varying current in the work-
coil, an oscillatory circuit ( resonant tank ) is
formed by inductor and capacitor in series or
parallel.
 Inverters used are load-resonant
 Inverters for series tanks are Voltage Fed
Series Resonant Inverters VFSRI
 Inverters for parallel tanks are Current Fed
Parallel Resonant Inverters CFPRI
 Work-piece Power

Zero phase shift between

Inverter output V & I at Angle betn Inverter
resonance so no reactive V&I
power is drawn from the
inverter

Capacitive Side Inductive Side

At Resonance Frequency – Inverter Output Voltage and Current are in phase
Capacitive Switching fsw < fres Leading Current at Inverter Output

Diode hard turn-off results in

large reverse recovery
current that creates voltage
spikes that increase EMI,
losses and destruction of
semiconductors
All authors recommend that
Capacitive switching be
avoided.
However due to transient or
fault conditions the` system
may operate in this region -
work-piece touches the
work-coil shorting a few
windings and thereby
reducing L and increasing
fres.
Solutions : Use fast recovery
diodes

`
Inductive Switching fsw > fres Lagging Current at Inverter Output

Contrary to the previous case

Diode turn-off and Switch
turn-on is soft.
Diode turn-on and Switch turn-
off is hard.

Inductive reactance dominates

Inductive integrating effect on the
Square wave voltage gives
Triangular wave lagging current
Multiple Coils have mutual coupling due to proximity resulting in power re-
circulation between the coils making individual current control difficult.
By Synchronizing currents their values can be controlled accurately
Application : Silicon wafer heating with multiple coils for precise temperature
control
Inverters with 3 element tanks (LCL)
 Drawbacks of Series Tank VFSRI
 Current in the semiconductors same as the load
 Matching transformer needed between inverter and load thereby increasing cost
and decreasing efficiency
 Drawbacks of Series Tank CFPRI
 Current in the semiconductors Q times lower than the load
 But over-voltage protection systems needed – voltage depends on load, due to
the current source
 Advantages of 3 element tank
 Voltage Fed inverters can be used
 Current in the semiconductors is lower than the load by factor Ls/L
 Short Circuit Currents limited by Ls
 Stray Lead inductance becomes part of Ls enables inverters to be located at a
distance from the work-coil
 In case of operation in the Capacitive Current region due to sudden de-tuning (
due to transient / shorted work-coil ) special commutation circuit does not allow
switches to turn-on while current is flowing through their opposite switch's anti-
parallel diode
 Red Trace = Voltage across tank capacitor (Uc)
Green Trace = Current through matching Inductor Ls (itank)

Frp Frs (operating point)

 Two resonant frequencies

 Frp for parallel ckt
 Frs for union with Ls
 Non-Zero Phase shift between
voltage and current at resonance
 Converter provides reactive
power during normal operation,
increased switch current and
commutation losses

Phase w.r.t. Inverter Output Voltage

 Parallel Connection of H-bridge VF LCL Inverter for High Power Applications

 Matching Inductors
 Prevent circulating currents
 Ensure even distribution of load
 Limit current in case of faults
Series Connection of H-bridge VFSRI for High Power Applications
• Direct Digital Step™ control algorithm and a unique configurable
modular approach.
• Configurable and field upgradeable power supplies with output
power from 50kW to 400kW.
• Wide output frequency range – two ranges available from 6kHz to
60kHz and from 40kHz to 200kHz.
• Zero downtime can be achieved if an additional module (N+1) is
installed in the system.
• The latest SiC transistor technology and proprietary digital control
algorithms ensure optimal performance and maximum efficiency
in a wide frequency range.
• Ultra-flexible, wide range of load impedance matching by utilizing
multiple transformer ratios and configurable capacitor banks.
• Configurable to work with a single or multiple, independently
controlled RF outputs from one cabinet.
• Durable and reliable design with built-in tuning, safety, and
diagnostics features.
• Near Unity Input Line Power Factor
Power Control Methods
 Varying the DC link voltage
 Most suitable for square wave inverter
 Varying Duty Ratio ( Deadband ) of devices in the inverter
 Max power at 50% duty ratio
 Heavy commutation losses with high commutating currents due to
hard switching at other duty ratios
 Varying the frequency of the inverter
 De-tuned to operate in the inductive region
 Current lags in phase and diminishes in amplitude
 Lagging power factor ensures that devices turn on with zero
voltage across them and there are no free-wheeling diode
recovery problems
 However de-tuning on the inductive side means operating at
higher frequencies, so need to ensure that switching losses are
within limits
 Increases reactive power drawn from the inverter
 Power Control Methods :
Pulse Density Modulation

 Adv
 Inverter commutating close to resonance frequency so commutation current and losses
are minimum
 DisAdv
 Power levels not continuous
 Care to be taken to avoid saturation of matching transformer
 Typically used in Induction Cook-tops
 For Induction Cooking upto 2.2KW

T1 conducting
Lr charging

T1 OFF
Lr discharging Cr charging
Parallel Tank Single Ended Quasi Load Resonant Converter

Resonant Reversal -->

Cr discharging Lr reverse charging

Lr discharging through D1

T1 conducting
Lr charging
Losses in Lr contribute to Heating
 Induction Cook-top needs ferromagnetic vessels to concentrate the magnetic field
through the vessel and concentrate the current to the surface ( skin effect ) so the
concentrated current sees a narrower path of higher resistance and produces more
heating
 Cu and Al are have less permeability so they do not concentrate the magnetic field
resulting in larger skin depth and broader current path, also they have better
conductivity so they have less heat losses that are actually needed here.
 By increasing the operating frequency, non ferromagnetic materials like aluminum
and copper can also be used
 For lower losses in the coil and optimum use of Copper – the coil is made of Litz wire
consisting of a bunch of individually enameled insulated stands of less than skin
depth in diameter. Strands are twisted so that they are alternatively on the inside and
outside of the wire
 Calculation of Power Requirements
 Power needed to heat workpiece P1=W*C*ΔT
 W = weight to be heated
 C = specific heat of the material
 ΔT = required temperature rise
 Heat loss due to radiation P2=Aeσ(T24-T14)
 Power loss in Induction Coil P3=I2*Rc
 At high frequency Rc should incorporate Skin Effect
 Total Power required = P1+P2+P3
 Overall Heating Efficiency = P1/(P1+P2+P3)
 Electrical Power in the workpiece

Req calculation in next slide

 Considering the voltage across resistance is the first harmonic
of Utank

 Thus power delivered to the workpiece can be controlled by

controlling the DC link voltage (Ue)
 Overall System Efficiency depends on
 Conversion efficiency of the Power Supply
 Matching of Coil+Load with Power Supply
 Tuning of Heating Coil and Power Factor Correction
Capacitor
 Coupling of Coil and Workpiece
  Effective Depth of current
carrying layers is given by
Reference Depth or Skin
Depth (d) depends on :
 frequency of the
alternating current f
 electrical resistivity ρ
 relative magnetic
permeability of the
workpiece μ

 Induced field strength and current

has reduced to 37% of surface
value
 Power density has reduced to 14%
of surface value
 Effective resistance of superficial
resistor Rs = ρ/d
 For Ferro-magnetic material (eg iron )
 Permeability μ ~ 100 below Curie Temperature
 Permeability μ = 1 above Curie Temperature, so inductance decreases.
 So heating depth d is low below Cuire and high above Curie Temp
 For Ferro-magnetic materials, the Control Circuit needs to sense the operating
temperature and adjust the frequency above the Curie point so that accurate heating
depth is maintained
 Operating frequencies range from utility frequency (50 or
60 Hz) to 400 kHz or higher, usually depending on the
material being melted, the capacity (volume) of the furnace
and the melting speed required
 Smaller the volume of the melts, the higher the frequency
of the furnace used; this is due to the skin depth which is a
measure of the distance an alternating current can
penetrate beneath the surface of a conductor. For the
same conductivity, the higher frequencies have a shallow
skin depth—that is less penetration into the melt.
 Lower frequencies are used for larger volumes and can
also generate stirring or turbulence in the metal.
Power Calculation Graphically
from IH equipment supplier
data-sheets
1. Determine Energy Absorption Rate
(Kwh/kg) for given material and target
temperature

2. Multiply Energy Absorption rate by

desired production rate (kg/hour) to get
Power Requirement (KW)

3. Divide the Power Requirement from

step 2 by the material specific efficiency
to get the Total Power Requirement (KW)
Frequency Selection Chart for 'Through Heating'
from IH Equipment Manufacturer
Work-piece Heating and Work-coil design
involves
 Solution of Electromagnetic and Heat Transfer problems
 Numerical Computation of the Process
 Methods used :
 Finite Difference Method FDM
 Finite Element Method FEM
 Better flexibility for non-standard work-shapes
 Mutual Impedance Method MIM
 Boundary Element Method BEM
Coupling of Electromagnetic and Thermal Problems
Computer Simulations for heating coil design
Larger the air gap
=> higher the Q
=> more Compensating
Capacitors needed
 Work-coil design
 Power => Current requirements
 Geometry of work-piece
Flux addition Flux
due to same cancellation
direction of due to
current opposite
direction of
current
 The induced eddy currents form a
complete circuit by flowing around
the back of the tube and then along
the open v-shaped edges to the
point where the tube weld ends
 The currents are highly
concentrated at this point resulting
in more heat developed here, this
makes it possible to weld the edges
together without wasting a large
amount of energy elsewhere
 Coil length and distance between
the coil and the weld point should
be equal to the internal diameter of
the coil
 Flexible Work Coil – Induction Bonding

Automobile Bonding – Steel, Aluminium, Composites, Carbon Fibre

Two-turn coil made out of a flexible high temperature hose. The two turn coil is easier to
install and tune compared with single turn coils, and the sensitivity to panel movement
between the two turns has been drastically reduced. This is due to the magnetic field around
the two leads that provides a very similar flux path on both sides of the hem.

The coil is infinitely adjustable. Due to the flexibility of the coil, no part-specific coils are
required, which also reduces the need for spare coils. One size fits all. The coil can easily be
replaced.
 Matching Transformers
Matching Transformers

Despite drawbacks like decrease in

efficiency most modern IH systems use
Matching Transformers

Also provide isolation to the work-piece

besides impedance matching

Typically water cooled transformers are used

– windings are water-cooled copper tubes –
tubes for skin effect

For high frequency operation they typically

use ferrite cores
 Hi-Freq Power Transmission Systems
Inverter to Work-Coil - Conductor design must take into
consideration skin effect at high-frequencies
• Water-Cooled Cables
• Litz Wire
• Pass Throughs
• Laminated Bus Bar

Enamel or Mica Insulation

between the Cu strips

FibreGlass outer
Insulation
 Cooling system
Most failures of Induction Heating Systems are due to faults in the cooling system
• The electrical leakage through water increases as the conductivity of water
increases creating paths to ground in the circuit
• Typically use Non-Conductive De-mineralized (DM) or De-Ionized(DI) or distilled
water. 30% ethylene glycol (uninhibited, nonconductive type) prevents corrosion and
freeze damage
• Note the separate clean water loop and regular water loop
• Temperature control required to avoid condensation
Capacitors in Induction Heating
 A very demanding application for Capacitors
 Capacitors in the tank circuit must carry 100s ~ 1000s of Amperes of
current at 10s~100s Khz with full voltage reversal every cycle
 Operation at high frequencies causes losses due to di-electric heating
and skin effect in conductors
 Typically used polypropylene or mica
 Conduction cooled or water cooled

http://celem.com/
SCR, IGBT, SiC Mosfets - Modules & Stacks
 SCR Controller and Driver
• 3-phase Thyristor Stack Drivers using Pulse Transformers for isolation
• Control by Potentiometer / 0-10V signal / Digital Communication

Libratherm LTC-15-DCR –
Three Phase Thyristor Triggering / SCR Firing Card
suitable for 3 phase DC bridge rectifier (full-wave full control).
Level Shifting - IGBT Driver

https://www.infineon.com/cms/en/
Peak Output Current of 30A
IGBT Voltage 1700V
Switching Freq 60KHz
 A Modern Induction Heating
Machine with Digital Controller

•Automatic calculation of Frequency and

Power based on input work piece
geometry
•Recipe Management for Different Jobs
• Industrial Communications
• Robot Interface
• SCADA Interface
• Interface to Test Equipment for Quality
Checks of Products and Pass/Fail
classification of processed parts
• Data-Logging and Analytics
• Machine Learning, Cloud Interface….
Temperature Measurement
 Thermocouples
 Radiation Detection – Optical / IR Pyrometers, Thermal
Imaging Cameras
 Ultrasonic – velocity of sound depends on material's
elastic modulus and density and these properties depend
on temperature
 Eddy Current detection using a second low power
inspection coil – to sense reflected workpiece resistance at
various depths by varying the inspection coil's excitation
frequency
 Load signature analysis – measuring V, I, phase angle, f of
the main work coil and estimate workpiece resistance and
temperature
Advantages of Non contact Infrared Thermometry
 Speed, lack of interference, upto 3000 deg C
 Radiation maximum moves towards shorter
wavelengths as temperature increases
 Invisible part of the spectrum contains more energy www.raytek.com
than the visible part
Thermal Camera to test Induction Bonding

• Induction is the main method for curing adhesives and sealants for car components such as doors, hoods,
fenders, rearview mirrors and magnets. Induction also cures the adhesives in composite- to-metal and carbon
fiber-to-carbon fiber joints.
• To bond plastic and metal the adhesive needs to be within a temperature range of 150 to 180 degrees Celsius.
• The heat of the metallic surface allows the structural adhesive to reach the temperature of pre-polymerization, by
going through a viscous to a solid state, bonding with the metal layer in the process.
• The time it takes to complete this process differs depending on the type of adhesive used and on the amount of
bonded joints required. Usually, it takes approximately 40 to 45 seconds, from start to finish.
• If for some reason the temperature at one or more adhesion points is not within the temperature range at which
the adhesive functions properly, either too high or too low, this leads to weakness in the resulting component.
• FLIR A615 thermal imaging camera detects temperature differences as small as 0.05 degrees Celsius and
produces thermal images at a resolution of 640 × 480 pixels. If the induction heating process fails to reach the
right temperature an alarm is generated and the workpiece is rejected.
https://www.flir.in/discover/instruments/process-quality/flir-thermal-imaging-cameras-help-to-ensure-consistent-quality-
of-fiat-cars/
 Induction Shrink Fit
• Time Controlled Heating Profile – 120min,
6s steps
• Automatic Demagnetization – DeMag
cycle to prevent accumulation of metallic
debris on the bearing

Single System upto 20kVA

Multi-core for large jobs

 Automatic Demagnetization after Induction Heating

Demagnetization is done by
gradually decaying the alternating
magnetic field to a lowest possible
amplitude.

This can also be achieved with a coil

generating a constant alternating
magnetic field and by moving the job
away at a slow and constant rate
Shrink-Fit of Stator Housing
Disassembly
Induction Shrink Fit / Disassembly
Induction Straightening of Construction Beams and Ship Decks
Induction Brazing
 Induction Brazing – Carbide Tips
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v= 2
8Y0DDs_vSR8
www.brazesolutions.com

4
 Induction Brazing of HVAC Copper Pipes

Robotic Induction Brazing of Refrigerator Copper Pipes with Auto Alloy Wire Feed
 Induction Annealing of Brass Small Caliber Cartridge Case

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ira3dmlclQ4
Induction Heating Coil

Line Direction
Small Arms Systems

Radyne Induction Power Supplies can be

configured to allow one machine to complete
both hardening and tempering processes in one
load/unload cycle. Systems can be adapted to
achieve quality braze joints in pistol slides or
sights.
Applications include:
Barrel Heat Treating
Barrel Bluing
Firing Mechanism Heat Treating
Pistol Slide Brazing
Sight Brazing
 Susceptor Heating
• Induction to heat a susceptor - primary material which is a
metal or a conductive material, which then heats a secondary
material by conduction or radiation.
• Applications – when the secondary material to be heated is
non-conducting. Crucible melting of non-conductive materials
like glass, heating fluids in a pipe, plastic sealing,
thermoplastic composite manufacture, cap sealing, etc.

1950ºF in 1 minute
In Argon atmosphere
 Induction Heating of Fluids & Gases
Pipe carrying the fluids is heated by Induction and this heat is transferred to the internal fluids
https://www.inductionheater4fluids.com/
 Medical Application – Susceptor Heating
Small stainless steel parts, silver braze alloy, no flux.
1300°F (704°C), 165 kHz, 3 kW, 0.5uF workhead, 4-Turn
Helical Coil, Graphite Susceptor, 50s Heating Cycle.

Nylon LDPE. 400°F (204°C), 325 kHz, 3 kW, 0.66uF

workhead, 2-Turn Plate Concentrator Coil, Water-cooled
brass mandrel die, 3s Heating Cycle with Temperature
Control.

Teflon. 600-700°F (315.6-371°C), 376 kHz, 3 kW, 0.66uF

workhead, 2-Turn Plate Coil, Water-cooled steel mandrel
die, 2.7s Heating Cycle with Temperature Control.
 Heating Nano Particles for Cancer Treatment
Iron oxide NPs with nanocrystalline magnetite
(Fe3O4) cores have great potential for use in
oncological medicine due to their biocompatibility,
biodegradability, facile synthesis, and ease with
which they may be tuned and functionalized for
specific applications. Additionally, spherical
magnetite NPs with diameters less than
approximately 20 nm will exhibit
superparamagnetic behavior, a property that is
exploited to enhance contrast in magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI).
Typically, SuperParamagnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticle (SPION)
conjugates are comprised of a magnetite core providing inherent
contrast for MRI and a biocompatible coating that provides ample
functional groups for conjugation of additional tumor targeting and
therapeutic moieties.
Induced magnetic hyperthermia
The innate magnetic properties of SPIONs (SuperParamagnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticle) may
be harnessed to induce localized hyperthermia by applying an external magnetic field making
SPIONs therapeutic without the addition of functional moieties. Sustained temperatures above
42°C alters many of the structural and functional proteins within cells causing necrosis.
Applying an external magnetic field operating at a specific frequency and power based on the
SPION formulation causes the magnetic NPs to heat by hysteresis loss, Néel relaxation, and
induced eddy currents
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4981486/ https://www.material.nagoya-u.ac.jp/ItoLab/research-e.html
 Functional magnetic nanoparticles
Magnetite (Fe3O4) is a chemically stable black iron oxide. Functional magnetic nanoparticles are
created by modifying magnetite with a diameter of 10 nm (1 / 100 millionth of a meter) with
various biomaterials. https://www.material.nagoya-u.ac.jp/ItoLab/research-e.html
Magnetic nanoparticles can perform
as an energy transfer mediator and
as a mechanical force vector.
Other clinical applications are -
thermally activated drug release,
remote activation of cell functions,
nano-warming of cryopreserved/
banked cells, tissues, and organs.
Tissue repair, regeneration, scaffolds
https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fbioe.2
022.937803/full
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34578651/

Induction heating can be used in the

synthesis of nano-composites
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-
34387-2
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11051-
016-3426-x
https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.cgd.2c00694
 Induction– Staking
The insert is preheated to the correct temperature
with induction coil positioned over the hole and then
pressed into the hole in the plastic part.
A narrow zone of plastic then melts and flows into
the knurls of the insert. The plastic re-solidifies,
resulting in a complete assembly that often has
much better mechanical properties than inserts
implanted with other techniques.

Insert material is typically Brass or Steel -

dependent on the specific application requirements

Brass is a softer material and will anneal at

temperatures as low as 450°F (232°C).
Steel starts to anneal at 1200°F (650°C). Glass-
filled plastics require inserts to be heated to 700°F
(371°C)
For correct installation, the brass inserts must be
heated and inserted quickly to prevent thread
annealing.
Brass has lower electrical resistivity than steel and,
therefore, requires more power to heat with
induction.
https://www.industrialheating.com/articles/91655-heat-staking-metal-inserts-
by-induction
Induction Sealing
Paint Coat Removal from metals
Pre-heating for Anti-Corrosive Coating
Offshore/Pipelines
 Welding Carbon Fiber Reinforced Thermoplastic
(CFRT) components
https://fluxtrol.com/characterization-of-carbon-fiber-reinforced-thermoplastics-for-induction-processing
Fluxtrol Man is Smart!

• The reinforcement fibers must be

conductive (i.e. carbon fiber) to directly
heat the composite.
• In case the reinforcement fibers are not
conductive (e.g. fiber glass), a
susceptor can be placed at the weld
interface,
• CFRT has relatively high resistivity
(compared to metal), which leads to Coil

generally less of skin effect and a

Coil
higher reference depth. This means a
higher frequency may be desired when
compared to metal for the same
geometry.
• CFRT can have a high degree of
anisotropy- material properties are
dependent on:
o Tow size
o Weave type
o Lay-up schedule
o Resin material
• Electrical resistivity can be over 1000x
greater perpendicular to the laminates
vs in-plane with laminate.
• Woven structures are more favorable
properties for induction (generally lower
resistivity and more isotropic).
 Core-less Induction Melting

https://www.ispatguru.com/steelmaking-by-induction-furnace/
Induction Melting Furnace –
Major Components & Losses
 Induction Melting Furnace
-Electromagnetic Stirring (EMS) Action

The eddy currents induced in the furnace charge and the magnetic induction creates electromagnetic
forces. These forces basically run in a radial direction to the furnace axis and press the melt inward
away from the furnace wall. Gravity works against these forces and hence a dome (meniscus) is
formed on the bath surface. Additionally a bath flow is created in the form of two eddy toroids with
opposite direction of the turns. This is attributable to the fact that the radial pressure reaches as
maximum around halfway up the coil due to the leakage of the field at the coil end. The inductive bath
agitation firstly leads to a good homogenization of the molten metal with respect to the temperature
and chemical composition. It also stirs the charge materials and creates optimum heat transfer
conditions for melting of the charge materials.
AL - Electromagnetic Stirrers (EMS)
 EAF - EMS

In Electric Arc Furnace (EAF), EMS stabilized the arcs and enhanced the heat and mass
transfer. This results in a faster scrap melting rate, lowering of the slag superheat during arcing,
a more homogenous melt bath, a higher decarburization rate and a higher free opening
frequency of the eccentric bottom tapping (EBT). EMS has also reduced the tapping
temperature and tapping oxygen in the steel, which brings a higher scrap yield and saves
ferroalloy consumption in the downstream ladle furnace operation. The lower energy
consumption, short tap-to-tap time and consistent furnace operation greatly increase the
productivity and operation safety.
 Vacuum Induction Melting
Silicon Refining
Silicon produced in submerged arc furnaces from primary raw
materials (MG-Si) has up to 99% purity. It needs to be refined
to meet the solar grade silicon (SoG-Si) requirements of
99.9999% (6 N) purity.
(4) Graphite susceptor lining carries the current and heats the
metal before the molten silicon becomes conductive.
(5) Vacuum cap creates controlled environment for gas
purging to remove boron and phosphorous from molten
silicon.

Super Alloys for Industrial and Aerospace Turbines

In the triple melt process VIM is used to produce the alloy chemistry and micro-cleanliness,
ESR is used to produce a low sulfur consolidated electrode, and VAR is used to produce the
desired solidification structure.
 Production of Super Alloy Powder
Schematic illustration of the Vacuum Induction melting
combined with inert Gas Atomization (VIGA) system.
1: High-frequency induction furnace (in an inert atmosphere)
2: stopper
3: alumina melting crucible
4: molten alloy (Ni-Co based superalloy)
5: molten metal nozzle
6: high-pressure gas atomization nozzle (confined type)
7: Ar gas jet
8: atomization chamber
9: cylinder for supplying high-pressure Ar gas
10: Ar gas pressure control valve
11: manufactured powder

Machine learning-driven optimization in powder manufacturing of Ni-Co

based superalloy. Materials & Design.
198. 109290. 10.1016/j.matdes.2020.109290
 Levitation Melting
In Levitation Melting, the
induction coil suspends
and melts the material
with electromagnetic
force enough to counter
gravity

Process:
•The 2g aluminum sample was placed into a test tube (alternatively tube with vacuum suction/inert
gas cushion could also be used for initial positioning of the sample)
•Power was turned on, and current was run through the levitation coil ( typically 100KHz-500KHz)
•The sample was loaded by passing the test tube through the coil and allowing the aluminum to
float out by levitation.
•With time, the levitated aluminum melted and stabilized.
•The power was turned off, and the sample dropped into the waiting mould/receptacle.

Results / Benefits:
•Precise, non-contact containment of the metal sample
•Heating without a crucible ensures that the sample maintains its purity
•Easy sample removal: when the levitation melting process is finished, the sample can be removed
by turning off the power supply and allowing it to exit from the bottom of the coil.
•This application is leveraged in the jewelry, dental, electronics, aerospace and research
industries for a contaminant-free environment.
https://www.mtixtl.com/CompactVacuumableLevitationMeltingSystem-EQ-SPG-6VMS.aspx
https://www.ambrell.com/induction-heating-applications/levitation-melting
https://ultraflexpower.com/induction-heating-applications/other-induction-applications/levitation-melting-of-2g-of-aluminum-with-induction/
Additive Machining – 3-D Printing
https://3dprint.com/294752/plasmics-does-a-kickstarter-for-induction-nozzles-d/

https://hackaday.com/2023/03/29/robot-3d-prints-giant-metal-parts-with-induction-heat/

Induction Nozzles
for plastics, resins,
metals..
 Strengthen Metal Prints with
Induction Heating
By passing the nickel super-alloy
printed parts from heating coil to water
bath, it is possible to maintain a
thermal gradient in the part resulting in
the melting of the fine grains and
recrystallization as long columnar
grains in the direction of stress.
Dominic D.R. Peachey, Christopher P. Carter, Andres
Garcia-Jimenez, Anugrahaprada Mukundan, Donovan N.
Leonard, Marie-Agathe Charpagne, Zachary C. Cordero,
Directional recrystallization of an additively manufactured
Ni-base superalloy,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2022.103198
 Induction Hardening
• After Induction heating to above the austenizing
temperature of steel, Quench - usually water-based
with an addition such as a polymer - is directed at the
part or it is submerged. This transforms the crystalline
structure of steel to hard martensite
• A popular, modern type of induction hardening
equipment is called a scanner. The part is held
between centers, rotated, and passed through a
progressive coil which provides both heat and quench.
The quench is directed below the coil, so any given
area of the part is rapidly cooled immediately following
heating. Power level, dwell time, scan (feed) rate and
other process variables are precisely controlled by a
computer
• Induction hardening is faster, more controllable and
repeatable as compared top other alternatives –
making it suitable for automated production lines
 Time-temperature transformation (TTT) diagram for steel. The red curves represent
different cooling rates (velocity) when cooled from the upper critical (A3) temperature. V1
produces martensite. V2 has pearlite mixed with martensite, V3 produces bainite, along
with pearlite and martensite.
 Induction Case-Hardening
• Selective induction case-hardening can
enhance performance of parts by providing
hybrid mechanical properties, hardness where
needed on wear surfaces and ductility in the
core to provide impact resistance ( Hardening the
entire job - to the core, will make it brittle and
susceptible to breaking on subject to twisting forces.
With case-hardening the soft core ensures that the job
stays flexible to handle twisting forces. The hard case
protects the job surface from wear )
• Applications : Fasteners, Gears, Axles, Shafts..
 Scan Type Induction Hardening

Heat
Quench
Una bellissima macchina per tempra a induzione con un robusto robot
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JwFS8nclSBA

. https://www.termomacchine.com/
 Our very own simple 100KW Induction Hardening Machine
The cooling water - flexible PVC – pipes, running along with the power cables is not a good
design. Cooling circuit should be routed separately, preferably via Heat-sinks protruding out
of the electrical chambers/panels

Incomming
Controls & Converter Inverter
Interlocks Ac to Dc Dc to Ac

Matching Red-Hot
Transformer
& Work Coil

Capacitor Bank
Dc & Ac

White Hot!
https://www.tinycad.net/
https://www.tinycad.net/
For operation at near Unity –
Input Line Power Factor -
modern designs typically use
Diode Bridge Rectifiers with
PFC control choppers
or PWM Rectifiers https://www.tinycad.net/
 Oscillator used to control the Frequency
of the Inverter
Output Frequency of Induction System was generated by IC 3525 and
controlled by Potentiometer across CN3

To IGBT Driver
Of T1, B2
To IGBT Driver
Of T2, B1

This is a very simple control. PWM generation features of Modern MCU/DSP can be
used for digital control of – frequency, pulse width, dead-band

https://www.kicad.org/
 Testing of Hardness
• Destructive Testing
– Surface : Impact, Scratch – microscope inspection of the
size/depth of surface deformation
– Body : Cross-sectional cut – microscope inspection of the
metal grain
• Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)
– Eddy Current
– Ultrasound
– Barkhausen noise techniques
– Incremental Permeability
– Harmonic Analysis of the Tangential Magnetic Field Strength
Destructive Hardness Testing
(NDT) Eddy Current Testing
Preventive Multi-Frequency Test
https://www.arnold-horsch.de/
Each alloy, material condition and
structure have an individual magnetic
fingerprint
Ultrasonic Case Depth Mesaurement
 3MA
• 3MA (Micromagnetic Multiparameter
Microstructure and Stress Analysis) represents a
modern measurement technique for
characterizing boundary surface layers non-
destructively.
• 3MA combines the four micromagnetic
measurement procedures :
– Barkhausen Noise
– Incremental Permeability
– Harmonic Analysis of the Tangential Magnetic
Field Strength
– Multi-Frequency Eddy Current Analysis
• Pre-requisite : ferromagnetic material &
calibration using multiple readings on known
good samples
 References
1. Doctoral Thesis : Induction heating converter’s design, control and modeling applied to continuous wire heating -
Guillermo Mart´ın Segura, Barcelona, June 2012
2. http://www.richieburnett.co.uk/indheat.html
3. Handbook of Induction Heating - Valery Rudnev, Don Loveless, Raymond Cook
4. Elements of Induction Heating Design, Control and Applications - S. Zinn, S. L. Semiatin
5. Induction Heating Coil and System Design - P. G. Simpson
6. Induction Heating System Topology Review - AN9012 Fairchild Semiconductor
7. A Fundamental Overview of Heating by Induction - Nathan Rhoades, April 22, 2006
8. https://www.ambrell.com/
9. https://www.enrx.com/
10. http://www.efd-induction.com/
11. https://www.radyne.com/
12. https://www.industrialheating.com/
13. https://thermalprocessing.com/

This presentation is a compilation of the work from the above references and many more.
References are also mentioned next to the text/graphics in the presentation
Only the 100KW Induction Hardening Machine Circuit Diagrams represents my own work
Thank You