Chapter-15

NETWORKING CONCEPTS
 
 Introduction:
 A computer network is a interconnection of two or more autonomous computers that are
capable of exchanging information.

 
 Network Goals/Advantages of Networking:
 Resource Sharing:

 The aim is to make all programs, data and peripherals available to anyone on the
network irrespective of the physical location of the resources and the user.

 Reliability:

 A file can have copies on two or three different machines, so if one of them is
unavailable (hardware crash), the other copies could be used.

 For military, banking, air reservation and many other applications it is of great
importance.

 Cost Factor:
 Network versions of application software are available at lower cost compared to
individual licensed copies. Thus saving money.

 Communication Medium.

 Real time communication and documentation between geographically distant people
can speed up cooperation and communication.
 Speed
 Networks provide a very rapid method for sharing and transferring Files.

 Centralized Software Management

 Software can be installed on one computer i.e. Server which eliminates the need to
spend time and energy installing on independent computers.


 
 Need of Networking:
 File sharing provides sharing and grouping of data files over the network.

 Printing sharing of computer resources such as hard disk and printers etc.

 E-mail tools for communication with the e-mail address.

 Remote access able to access data and information around the globe.

 Sharing the database to multiple users at the same time by ensuring the integrity.
 
 Evolution of Networking:
 In 1969 U.S. Department of Defense sponsored a project named ARPANET (Advanced
Research Projects Agency Network).

 The goal of the project was to connect various universities and US Defense.

 In mid 80’s National Science Foundation created a new high capacity network called NSFnet,
which was more powerful than ARPANET.

 In 1990 the Internet came into picture. The packet switching of ARPANET together with
TCP/IP would form the backbone of the present internet.

 
 Internet:
 The internet is worldwide network of computer network evolved from the first network

ARPANET.

 Internet is an interconnection of large and small networks around the globe.

 The common use of internet standards allows users connected to one network to communicate
with users on another network.
 
 Interspace:
 Interspace is a client/server software program that allows multiple users to communicate
online with real-time audio, video and text chat in dynamic 3D environments.

 Interspace provides the most advanced form of communication available on the Internet
today.
 
Elementary Terminology of Networks:
1. Nodes (Workstations):
 The term nodes refer to the computers that are attached to a network and are seeking to
share the resources of the network.

2. Server:
 A Server is also a computer that facilitates the sharing of data, software, and hardware
resources like printers, modems etc on the network.

 Servers can be of two types:
i. Non-dedicated servers ii. Dedicated servers
 
 Non-dedicated Servers:
 On small networks, a workstation that can double up as a server is known as non-
dedicated server since it is not completely dedicated to the cause of serving.
 Such servers can facilitate the resource-sharing among workstations on a proportionately
smaller scale.

 Since one computer works as a workstation as well as server, it is slower and requires more
memory.

 The (small) networks using such a server are known as PEER-TO-PEER networks.

 
 Dedicated Servers:
 On bigger network installations, there is a computer reserved for server's job and its only job
is to help workstations access data, software and hardware resources.

 It does not double-up as a workstation and such a server is known as dedicated server.

 The networks using such a server are known as MASTER-SLAVE networks.

 On a network, there may be several servers that allow workstations to share specific
resources. For example, file server, printer server and modem server.

3. Network Interface Unit (NIU) :

 A Network Interface Unit is an interpreter that helps establish communication between the
server and workstations.

 The NIU is also called Terminal Access Point (TAP).

4. MAC address:
 The MAC address refers to the unique 48 bit physical address assigned by NIC
manufacturer. Eg:- 00:0a:83:b1:c0:8e
5. IP Address :
 It is 32 bit logical address which uniquely identifies a system on the network
Eg:-192.164.0.1

 
OSI Reference Model:
 It is a seven layered abstract reference model used to provide a framework for the development of
protocols for communication between any two networked systems.
 Each layer supports the layer above it and offers services to the layer below it.

 The three lowest layers focus on passing traffic through the network to end system.

 The top four layers come into play in the end system to complete the process.

1. Layer 1 – Physical Layer:

 The physical layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a communication channel.

 It also deals with mechanical, electrical and timing interfaces.

2. Layer 2 - Data Link Layer:
 It is responsible for physical addressing and node to node delivery.
 The main function of the data link layer is to take a raw transmission facility and transform it
into a line that appears free of transmission errors in the network layer.
3. Layer 3 – Network Layer:
 The network layer is concerned with
controlling the operation of the subnet.

 The main function is determining how
packets are routed from source to
destination.
 The main function is host to host delivery
of packets through logical addressing of
networked systems.



4. Layer 4 – Transport Layer:
 The basic function of the transport layer is
process to process delivery of data.
 It is responsible for segmentation and reassembly of
data received from session layer and ensures all the data
arrive correctly at the other end.
5. Layer 5 – Session Layer:
 The session layer allows users on different machines to establish sessions between them.

 It includes dialog control, token management and synchronization.

6. Layer 6 – Presentation Layer:
 The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information transmitted.
 Responsible for presenting the data in proper format.
 It includes encryption, data compression, content translation

7. Layer 7 – Application Layer:
 Provides the user a network interface for the applications.
 The application layer contains a variety of protocols that are commonly needed by the user.

 For example HTTP which is the bases for the World Wide Web to access web pages.
 
TCP/IP Model:
 The TCP/IP model uses four layers to perform the functions of the seven-layer OSI model.

1. Layer 1 – Network Access Layer:
 The lowest layer of the TCP/IP protocol hierarchy.

 It defines how to use the network to transmit an IP data.

 It encompasses the functions of physical and data link layer of OSI reference model.

2. Layer 2 – Internet Layer:
 Provides services that equivalent to OSI network layer.

 The protocol at this layer is to manage the connections across network as information is passed
from source to destination.
  The internet Protocol (IP) is the primary
protocol at this layer.

3. Layer 3 – Transport Layer:
 It is designed to allow peer entities on the
source and destination hosts to carry on a
conversation.

 Two end-to-end transport protocols have
defined here are TCP and UDP.

4. Layer 4 – Application Layer:
 It includes the OSI session, presentation
and application layers.

 An application is any process that occurs
above the transport layer.

 This includes all of the processes that involve user interaction.

 The application determines the presentation of the data and controls the session.

 
Network Protocol:
 A protocol is a set of rules and procedures that determine how a computer system receives and
transmits data on a network.
 
 TCP/IP Protocol:

Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol.
o


o It is the basic protocol of the Internet.
o TCP/IP is a two-layer program, the higher layer Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) manages

the assembling of a message or file into smaller packets that are transmitted over the internet.
o The lower layer Internet Protocol (IP) handles the address part of each packet so that it gets to

the right destination.
 
 HTTP Protocol:

 o Hypertext Transfer Protocol.

 o It provides a standard for web browsers and servers to communicate.

 o The HTTP is an application layer network protocol built on top of TCP.

o HTTP clients (web browsers) and servers communicate via HTTP request and response messages.
 
 FTP Protocol:

 o File Transfer Protocol.
o It is a standard Internet Protocol for transmitting files between computers on the internet.

 o FTP is an application protocol that uses the Internet’s TCP/IP protocols.
o It is also commonly used to download programs and other files to your computer from other

servers.
 
 SMTP Protocol:

 o Simple Mail Transfer Protocol.

 o It is a application protocol used in sending and receiving e-mail.
o It is limited in its ability to queue messages at the receiving end; it is usually used with one of two

other protocols such as POP3 or IMAP.
 
 SLIP:

 o Serial Line Internet Protocol was the first protocol for relaying the IP packets over dial-up lines.

 o It defines an encapsulation mechanism.
o There is no support for dynamic address assignment, link testing or multiplexing different protocols

over a single link.
 
 PPP:
o Point to Point Protocol is the standard for transmission of IP packets over serial lines.

 o The PPP is currently the best solution for dial-up internet connections.
o PPP is a layered protocol, starting with a link control protocol (LCP) for link establishment,
configuration and testing.
 o Once LCP is initialized, one of the NCP(Network control protocol) is used for data transmission

o PPP supports both synchronized and unsynchronized lines.
 
 Types of network
 A computer network means a group of networked components, i.e., computers are linked by means
of a communication system.

There are three types of network.
o Local Area Network (LAN)
o Wide Area Network (WAN)

o Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
 
 Local Area Network:
 Privately owned small networks that are confined to a localized area (e.g., an office, a building or a
factory) are known as Local Area Networks (LANs).

 The key purpose of a LAN is to serve its users in resource sharing.
 The hardware as well as software resources are shared through LANs.

 LAN users can share data, information, programs, printers, hard disk, modems, etc.

 It is fast with speed from 10 MBPS to 10 GBPS.

 LAN Configuration consists of:

o A File Server: Stores all of the software that controls the network, as well as the software that
can be shared by the computers attached to the network.

o A Workstation: Computers connected to the file server. These are less powerful than the file
server.

o Cables: Used to connect the network interface cards on each computer.

 
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
 Metropolitan Area Network is the networks spread over a city.

 MAN typically covers an area of between 5 and 50 KM.

 The purpose of a MAN is also the sharing of hardware and software resources among its users.

 For example, cable TV networks that are spread over a city can be termed as metropolitan area
networks.
 
 Wide Area Network (WAN)
 The networks spreads across countries are known as WANs.

 A wide Area Network (WAN) is a group of computers that are separated by large distances and tied
together.

 The largest WAN in existence is the internet.

 It can even be a group of LAN that are spread across several locations and connected and together
to look like one big LAN.

 The WANs link computers to facilitate fast and efficient exchange of information at lesser costs
and higher speeds.
 
Difference between LAN and WAN
Sl No LAN WAN
1 Local Area Network Wide Area Network
2 Diameter of not more than a few kilometre Span entire country
3 A total data rate of at least several mbps Data rate is less compared to LAN
4 Complete ownership by a single organization Owned by multiple organization
5 Very low error rates Comparatively high error rates.

 
Network Topologies
 Network Topology refers to the arrangement of computers and other devices in a network.

 Need for Topologies are: Cost, Flexibility, and Reliability.

 Network topologies can be classified as follows:

1. Bus Topology
2. Star Topology
3. Ring Topology
4. Mesh Topology
5. Tree Topology
 
Linear or bus Topology:
 A linear bus topology consists of a main trunk of cable with a terminator at each end.

 All nodes (file server, workstations, and peripherals) are connected to the linear cable.

 In the bus network topology, every workstation is
connected to a main cable called the bus.

 The main bus has a terminator at either ends
which absorbs the signal, removing it from the bus.

 Advantages of a Linear Bus Topology
o Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a
linear bus.

o Requires less cable length than a star
topology.

 Disadvantages of a Linear Bus Topology

o Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.
o Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.

o Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.
o The nodes must be intelligent so that they can agree on whose turn to
use the network.
 
Star Topology
 In this type of topology, all the computers are connected to a single
hub or a switch through a cable. 
 This hub is the central node and all others nodes are connected to the
central node.
 It is the most commonly used topology in the current networks

 Advantages of a Star Topology 
o Easy to install, wire and adding new system to the network

o No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing devices.
o Easy to detect faults.
 Disadvantages of a Star Topology

o Requires more cable length than a linear topology.
o If the hub, switch, or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.
o More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the hubs.
 
Ring topology
 In a ring topology, all computers are connected via cable that loops in a ring or circle.

 A ring topology is a circle that has no start and no end.

 Each node connected to two neighboring computers.

 Data accepted from one node transmitted to another.
 
 Data travels in one direction, from the node to node
around the ring.

 Signal amplified at each node before being passed.

 Advantages of Ring Topology
o Short cable length is needed than star topology

o No wiring closet space required
o Suitable for optical fibers.

o Each client has equal access to resources.

 Disadvantages

o Single node failure causes network failure
o Difficult to diagnose faults

o Network reconfiguration is difficult
 
Tree Topology:
 A tree topology combines characteristics of linear bus and star
topologies.

 It consists of groups of star-configured workstations connected to
a linear bus backbone cable.

 The central computers of the star networks are connected to a
main bus. Thus, a tree network is a bus network of star networks.

 Best suited for applications having hierarchical flow of data and
control.

 Advantages of a Tree Topology

o Point-to-Point wiring for individual segments.
o It eliminates network congestion.
o Faulty nodes can be easily isolated from the rest of the network.
o Supported by several hardware and software vendors.
o Network can be easily extended.
 Disadvantages of a Tree Topology

o Use large cable length.
o If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
o More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.
o Requires large amount of hardware components hence expensive

 
Mesh Topology:
 In this topology each node is connected to two or more than two nodes.
 It is an extension of point-to-point network where there is a direct link
between each node. Also called fully connected network.

 Traffic is carried only between two devices or nodes to which it is connected. 
 It provides an alternate route in case the host is down or too busy.

 This topology is robust, provides security and privacy.

 Overall cost of this network is too high.


 Advantages of a Mesh Topology

o It It’s the most efficient and reliable network.
o It provides extensive backup and rerouting hence suitable for long distance networking.
o It is ideal for distributed Networks.
o Commonly used in large internetworking environments where stars, rings and buses attached.

 Disadvantages of a Mesh Topology

o It Overall cost of this network is too high.(Addition cabling for multiple pathways)
o It is hard to administer and manage
 
Data Communication Terminologies:
 Data channel: The pathway in which information / data carried from one end to another in the network
.
 Baud & bits per second (bps): It’s the rate at which the information is transferred in the
communication channel.

 Bandwidth: It is amount of information transmitted or received per unit time. It is measured in
Kbps/Mbps unit. 
OR
 The difference between the highest and lowest frequencies of a band that can be passed by a
transmission medium without distortion. 
 
 Transmission Medium:
 The first layer of computer networks is dedicated to the transmission media.

 Due to variety of transmission media and network writing methods, selecting the most appropriate
media can be challenging.

 The factors to be considered are:
o Transmission rate, Distance, cost, easy of installation and resistance to environmental
condition.
 There are two type of transmission media:
a. Guided b. Unguided
 Guided media are:
o Twisted Pair: Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
Shielded Twisted pair (STP)
o Co-axial cable: Thinnet, Thicknet
o Optical Fiber cable
 Unguided media are:

o Radio wave Transmission
o Microwave Transmission
 o Satellite Communication
o Infrared
o Laser
 
 Twisted Pair Cable
 One of the oldest and still most common transmission media is twisted pair.

 A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires twisted together in helical form.

 Twisting is done because two parallel wires constitute a fine antenna.

 The most common application of the twisted pair is the telephone system (RJ-11).

 Advantages of Twisted Pair

o Twisted pair can run several kilometers without amplification, but for longer distance the
signal becomes too week and repeaters are needed.

o Due to low cost, twisted pairs are widely used.

o Twisted pairs are used in LAN (RJ-45)
 
 Types of Twisted Pair Cable:

 There are two types of twisted pair cables available. These are:

1. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable:

 UTP is the copper media inherited from telephone, which is being used for increasingly higher data
rates.

 A UPT cable contains 2 to 4200 twisted pair.

 UTP is flexible, low cost media; it can be sued for voice or data communication.

 It is available in the following five categories:

1. CAT1: Voice-Grade communications only; No data transmission
2. CAT2: Data-grade transmission up to 4 Mbps
3. CAT3: Data-Grade transmission up to 10 Mbps
4. CAT4: Data-grade transmission up to 16 Mbps
5. CAT5: Data-grade transmission up to 1000 Mbps
 The UTP cables can have a maximum segment length of 100 meters.

2. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable:

 This type of cables comes with shielding of individual pairs of wires,
which further protects it from external interference. 

 Like UTP, can have a maximum segment length of 100 meters.

 The advantage of STP over UTP is that it offers greater protection from
interference and crosstalk due to shielding.

 But it is definitely heavier and costlier than UTP and requires proper grounding at both ends.


Advantages of twisted pair Disadvantages of twisted pair
 Easy to install Data transmission rate are very low
It is incapable to carry a signal over
 Flexible long
 It is very inexpensive distance without the use of repeaters
Low bandwidth
 
Coaxial Cable

 This type of cable consists of a solid wire core surrounded by one or more foil or wire shields, each
separated by some kind of plastic insulator.
 The inner core carries the signal, and the shield provides the ground.
 The coaxial cable has high electrical properties and is suitable for high
speed communication.
 While it is less popular than twisted pair, it is widely used for television
signals.
 
 Types of Coaxial Cables:
 The two most commonly used types of coaxial cables are Thicknet and
Thinnet.

1. Thicknet: This form of coaxial cable is thicker than Thinnet. The Thicknet coaxial cable
segments (while joining nodes of a network) can be up to 500 meters long.
2. Thinnet: This form of coaxial cable is thinner and it can have maximum segment length of 185
meters i.e. using these cables, nodes having maximum distance of 185 meters can be joined.

Advantages Disadvantages
 Data transmission rate is better compared  Difficult to install, manage and reconfigure
to Twisted pair
 Used for broadband connection.  Expensive than twisted pair
 Higher bandwidth up to 400 Mbps

 
Optical Fibers
 Optical Fibers consist of thin strands of glass or glass like material which are so constructed that
they carry light from a source at one end of the fiber to a detector at the other end. 

 The light sources used are either light emitting diodes (LEDs) or LASER Diodes (LDs).

 It transmits light rather than electronic signals eliminating the problem of electrical interference.

 OFC has ability to transmit signals over much longer distances than coaxial
cable and twisted pair.

 The bandwidth of the medium is potentially very high.
  For LEDs, this range is between 20-150 Mbps and higher rates are possible using LDs.

 It also capacity to carry information at vastly greater speed.
Advantages Disadvantages
Transmit data over long distance with high
security. Difficult to repair.
Expensive as compared to other guided
Provide better noise immunity. media
Bandwidth is up to 100 Gbps
Difficult to install
Data transmission is high.

 
Comparison table of Guided Transmission media:
Cable Parameter Twisted Pair Cable Co-axial Cable Optical Fibre Cable
Data Transfer Rate 10 Mbps – 10 Gbps 100 Mbps More than 100 Gbps
Data Transfer Range 100 Meters 185 Mts – 500 Mts Large distance
Interference More Less than T.P Nil
Cost of cable Less cost More than T.P Very expensive


Unguided transmission media (Wireless)

 Unguided transmission media:- Extends beyond the limiting confines of cabling.

 Excellent communication alternative for WANS.

 It provides larger bandwidth as well as wide area capabilities.

 
Radio Wave
 The transmission making use of radio frequencies is termed as radio-wave transmission.

 Any radio setup has two parts:
a. The transmitter b. The receiver

The transmitter takes some sort of message, encodes it onto a sine wave and transmits it with radio
wave.
 The receiver receives the radio wave and decodes the message from the sine wave it receives.
 Both the transmitter and receiver use antennas to radiate and capture the radio signals.
Advantages Disadvantages
 Provide mobility  It is an insecure communication.
 Inexpensive.  Susceptible to weather effects like rains,
 It proves cheaper than digging trenches for thunder storms etc
laying cables.
 Free from land acquisition rights.
 
 Microwave:
 Microwave transmission is line of sight transmission.

 The transmit station must be in visible contact with
the receive station.

 This sets a limit on the distance between stations
depending on the local geography.

 Microwave operates at high operating frequencies of 3 to 10 GHz.

 This allows carrying large quantities of data due to their large bandwidth.


Advantages Disadvantages
 Maintenance easy than cables. Repeaters are required for long distance
 Suitable when cable cannot be used. communication.
 Free from land acquisition rights. Less Bandwidth available.
 Low cost land purchase ( Tower occupies  Reflected from flat surfaces like water and metals
small area)
 Carry high quantities of information due to
their high operating frequencies


 
Satellite communication:
 A satellite consists of transponders (unit that receive on one frequency
and retransmit on another) that are set in geostationary orbits directly
over the equator.

 Satellite communication is special case of microwave relay system.
 These geostationary orbits are 22000- 36000 km from the earth’s surface. 
 he uplink is the transmitter of the data to the satellite and downlink the
receiver of data.
 Uplinks and downlinks are also called Earth stations because they are located on the Earth.

Advantages Disadvantages
 The area coverage through satellite  Very expensive
transmission is large.  Installation is complex.
 No line of sight restrictions.  Signals sent to the stations can be tampered
 Earth station which receives the signals by external interference.
can be fixed position or relatively mobile.

Apart from microwaves, radio waves and satellites, two other unguided media are also very popular.
These are infrared and laser waves.
 
Infrared:
 This type of transmission uses infrared light to send data.

 You can see the use of this type of transmission in everyday life - TV remotes, automotive garage
doors, wireless speakers etc., all make use of infrared as transmission media.

 The infrared light transmits data through the air and can propagate throughout a room (bouncing off
surfaces), but will not penetrate walls.

 The infrared transmission has become common in PDAs (Personal digital assistants) e.g., hand held
devices like palm pilots etc.

 The infrared transmission is considered to be a secure one.
 
Laser:
 The laser transmission requires direct line-of-sight.

 It is unidirectional like microwave, but has much higher speed than microwaves.

 The laser transmission consists of a laser transmitter and a photo-sensitive receiver at each end.

 The laser transmission is point-to-point transmission, typically between buildings.

 Disadvantage: It can be adversely affected by the weather.
 
Switching techniques:
 Switching techniques are used for transmitting data across networks.

 There are three types of switching:
o Circuit Switching
o Message Switching
o Packet Switching
 
 Circuit Switching:
 In this technique, first the complete physical connection between two computers is established and
then data are transmitted from the source computer to the destination computer.

 That is, when a computer places a telephone call, the switching equipment within the telephone
system seeks out a physical copper path all the way from sender telephone to the receiver's
telephone.

 The important property of this switching technique is to setup an end-to-end path connection
between computers before any data can be sent.
 
 Message Switching:
 In this technique, the source computer sends data or the message to the switching office first, which
stores the data in its buffer.

 It then looks for a free link to another switching office and then sends the data to this office.

 This process is continued until the data are delivered to the destination computers.

  It is also known as store and forward. i.e., store first in switching office, forward later, one jump at
a time.
 
 Packet Switching:
 Packet switching can be seen as an option that tries to combine the advantages of circuit and
message switching and to minimize the disadvantage of both.

 In Packet switching, a message is broken into smaller parts called packets.

 A fixed size of packet is specified and transmitted across the network.
 
 Communication Modes:
 The way in which data is transmitted from one place to another is called data transmission mode.

 It is also called the data communication mode.

 It is indicates the direction of flow of information.

 Sometimes, data transmission modes are also called directional modes.

 Different types of data transmission modes are as follows:

1. Simplex mode
2. Half-duplex mode
3. Full-duplex mode
 
 Simplex Mode
 In simplex mode, data can flow in only one direction.

 In this mode, a sender can only send data and cannot receive it.
 Similarly, a receiver can only receive data but cannot send it.

 Data sent from computer to printer is an example of simplex mode.

 In simplex mode, it is not possible to confirm successful transmission of data nor can ask the sender
to re transmit information

 This mode is not widely used.




 
 Half-Duplex Mode
 In half-duplex mode, data can flow in both directions but only in one direction at a time.

 In this mode, data is sent and received alternatively.

 The Internet browsing is an example of half duplex mode.

 The user sends a request to a Web server for a web page.

 It means that information flows from user's computer to the web server.

 Web server receives the request and sends data of the requested page.

 The data flow the Web server to the user's computer.

  At a time a user can a request or receive the data of web page.
 Also Walkie- Talkie one more example.



 
 Full-Duplex Mode
 In full duplex-mode, data can flow in both directions at the same time.

 It is the fastest directional mode of data communication.

 The telephone communication system is an example of full-duplex communication mode.

 Two persons can talk at the same time.





 
Network Devices:
 
Modem:
 Modem means Modulation/ Demodulation.

 A modem is a computer peripheral that allows you to connect and communicate with other computers
via telephone lines.

 Modulation: A modem changes the digital data from your computer into analog data, a format that can
be carried by telephone lines.

 Demodulation: The modem receiving the call then changes the analog signal back into digital data that
the computer can process.

 The modem modulates the signal at the sending end and demodulates at
the receiving end.

 Modems are of two types:
o Internal modems: The modems that are fixed
within the computer
o External modems: The modems that are connected
externally to a computer as other peripherals are
connected.
 
Ethernet Card:
 The computer that are part of Ethernet, have to install our
special card called Ethernet card.

 It is LAN architecture developed by Xerox Corp association with
DEC and Intel.

 It makes use of Bus or Star topology and has data transfer rates of
10Mbps.

 An Ethernet card contains connections for either coaxial or twisted pair cables (or both).

 If it is designed for coaxial cable, the connection will be BNC.

 If it is designed for twisted pair, it will have a RJ-45 connection.
 Recently all computers contain pre installed Ethernet Card.


 
Hub:
 A hub is a hardware device used to connect several computers together.
 It includes a series of ports , that each accepts a Network Cable.
 A hub can support up to 8, 12 or 24 RJ -45 ports
 The data received over 1 port from a workstation is forwarded to all remaining ports.

Types of hubs
Active hubs:
 It electrically amplifies the signal as it moves from one connected device to another.
Passive hubs:
 It allows the signal to pass from one computer to another without any change.

 
Switch:

 The switch is like Hub but built in with advanced features.
 It is a device that is used to segment the network into different sub networks called Subnets or LAN
segments.
 It forwards the data only to the port on which the destination system is connected.
 It looks at the address of the device to determine the correct port.

 
Repeater:
 A network device that electrically amplifies the signals it receives and rebroadcast it (since the network
signal loses its strength as it passes along the cable).
 It is used in long network lines, which exceed the maximum rated distance for a single run.
Two types of repeater
a)Amplifier b) Signal repeater
 Amplifier: - It amplifies the entire incoming signal over the network.
 Signal Repeater: - It just receives the signals and just retransmits it as if it starts from the source
station.
 
Bridge:
 A Bridge is a network device that establishes an intelligent connection between two local networks
with the same standard but with different type of cables.
 It functions by blocking or forwarding the data based on the destination address written into data
frame.
 If the destination address is on the other network than from which it is received :- It is forwarded
 And if it not for the other side then the data is blocked from passing.
Advantages
 Prevents unnecessary traffic from crossing on to other networks hence reduces network traffic.
 It isolates the busy network from not so busy network

 
Router:
 A network device that is used to literally route data around the network.
 By examining the data as it receives, the router determines the destination address by using virtual
routing table.
 It selects the best path for the data transmission by using software configured network address (IP).

 
Gateway:
 The term gateway is applied to a device, system or software application which has internetwork
capability of joining dissimilar network.

 It is node on network that provides entry to another network.

 It performs data translation and protocol conversions which is suitable to other network.

 Gateway can be implemented on software, hardware or a combination of both.

 Gateway is that only the data format is translated, not the data itself.










 
Wireless and Mobile Computing:
 Wireless refers to the method of transferring information between a computing device and a data source
(database) without a physical connection.
 
Wireless communication:
 Wireless communication is simply data communication without the use of landlines.

 This may involve cellular telephone, two way radio, fixed wireless, LASER or satellite communication.

 Mobile computing means that the computing device is not continuously connected to the base or central
network.

 Mobile devices include PDAs, Laptop computers and smart phones.
 
GSM:
 GSM is short for Global System for Mobile communications, which is one of the leading digital
cellular systems.

 The GSM standard for digital cell phones was established in Europe in the mid 1908s.

 The GSM uses SIM Cards, which store all connection data and identification number to access
particular service provider

 GSM uses narrowband TDMA, which allows eight simultaneous calls on the same radio frequency.

 TDMA is short for Time Division Multiple Access, a technology for delivering digital wireless service
using time-division multiplexing (TDM).
 Operates on 900MHz – 1800Mhz bands

 
TDMA:

 Time Division Multiple Access. 

 TDMA works by dividing a radio frequency into time slots and then allocating slots to, multiple calls. 
 In this way, a single frequency can support multiple, simultaneous data channels.
 
SIM card:
 The SIM - Subscriber Identity Module - is a chip card; the size of a first class postage stamp.

 A SIM is a computer chip that gives a cellular device its unique phone number.

 It has memory (16 to 64 KB), processor and the ability to interact with the user.
 They store all connection data and identification number to access particular service provider.

 
CDMA:
 CDMA is short for Code-Division Multiple Access, a digital cellular technology that uses spread-
spectrum techniques.
 It CDMA is a form of spread spectrum, which simply means that
 Every call data is encoded with a unique key(spread code) then calls are all transmitted all at once.
 At receiving end the call data are decoded using their corresponding unique spread codes.
 It transmits over the entire frequency range hence more bandwidth is available.
 Range 800Mhz – 1.9Ghz


 
WLL(Wireless Local loop)
 It connects subscribers to the public telephone network using radio signals as a substitute for copper for
all or part of the connection between the subscriber and the switch.
 It replaces the copper loop with radio frequency loop, maintaining the existing services of a basic
telephone system.
 It is meant to serve subscribers at homes or offices.
 In WLL services, a local area is served which is within the line of sight of intended customers
 Each Customer should be equipped with low power mini station
 This system includes cordless access systems, proprietary fixed radio access, and fixed cellular systems.


 
GPRS
 GPRS stands for General Packet Radio Service.
 A new service for GSM that greatly improves and simplifies wireless access to packet data networks.
 It applies a packet radio principle to transfer user data packets in an efficient way.
 With the service you can access the internet, send emails and large data, download games and watch
movies
 Offers a more user-friendly billing than that offered by circuit switched services.
 User will be billed only based on the transmitted data volume and not call duration.
















 
EDGE
 Enhanced Data rates for Global Evolution (EDGE) are a radio based high-speed mobile data standard.
 The new EDGE air interface has been developed specifically to meet the bandwidth needs of 3G.

 EDGE is considered an intermediate step in the evolution of 3G WCDMA.

 It allows data transmission speeds of 384 Kbps.

 EDGE was formerly called GSM384.This means a maximum bit rate of 48 kbps per time slot.


 
Applications in Networking:
 
 SMS:
 Short Message Service (SMS) is the transmission of short text messages to and from a mobile
phone, fax machine and/or IP address.

 Messages must be no longer than some fixed number of alpha-numeric characters and contain no
images or graphics.
 
 E-mail:
 Electronic mail (e-mail) is sending and receiving message by computer.

 Advantages:
o Low cost: Electronic mail is an extremely cost-effective way to move information around,
especially when it must be moved quickly.
o Speed: Electronic mail can be delivered almost as fast as the wire can carry it.
 
 Voice Mail:
 The voice-mail refers to e-mail systems that support audio.

 Users can leave spoken messages for one another and listen to the messages by executing the
appropriate command in the e-mail system.
 
 Chat:
 Chatting is like a text-phone.
 n telephonic conversations, you say something, people hear it and respond, and you hear their
responses on the spot and can reply instantly.
 
 Video Conferencing:
 A two-way videophone conversation among multiple participations is called Video Conferencing.
 Evolution of wireless Networks




 
 
 Wi-fi:
 Wi-Fi is short for Wireless Fidelity, which lets you connect to the internet without a direct line from
your PC to the ISP.

 For Wi-Fi to work, you need:
o A broadband internet connection.
o A wireless router, which relays your internet connection from the “wall” to the PC.
o A laptop or desktop with a wireless internet card or external wireless adapter.

 
 Wi-Fi Hotspots:
 A hotspot is a venue that offers Wi-Fi access.

 The public can use a laptop, Wi-Fi phone or other suitable portable devices to access the internet
through a Wi-Fi hotspot.

  Hotspots are public locations with free or fee-based wireless internet access.
 
 WiMax:
 WiMax is wireless digital communication system.

 WiMax can provide Broadband Wireless Access (BWA) up to 30 miles for fixed stations and 3-10
miles for mobile stations.

  WiMax requires a tower called WiMax Base Station, similar to cell phone tower, which is
connected to the internet using a standard wired high-speed connection.
 Traditional ISP bandwidth is divided to customers via wire.
 In Wimax:- Microwave link is used to establish a connection to end user using (wimax subscribers
unit)
 
 VIRUS:
 VIRUS – “Vital Information Resource Under Siege”.

 A computer virus is a malicious computer program that can replicate itself and spread from one
computer to another.

 Depend on the nature of a virus, it may cause damage of your hard disk contents, and/or interfere
normal operation of your computer.


Characteristics

of a computer virus: 
 It is able to replicate.

 Reduced memory or disk space.

 Modification of data.

 Files overwritten or damaged.

 Hard drive erased.

 
 Types of Virus:
 File Infectors:
o Infect executable files or attach themselves to a program file and create duplicate files.
 Boot sector Virus:

o Install themselves on the beginning tracks of the hard drive or the Master Boot record.
o It can change the pointer to an active boot sector
 Macro Virus:

o Infect data file like spread sheets or databases of several software packages.
 Network Virus:

o It uses protocols or commands of computer network or E-mail to spread them on the
network.
 Trojan Horse:

o A Trojan Horses is code hidden in a program such as a game as spreadsheet that looks safe
to run but has hidden side effects.
 Worm:

o A worm is a program designed to replicate.
o Usually invisible to the user
o Can be noticed when their uncontrolled replication consumes system resources thus
slowing other tasks.
 
 How Computer Viruses Spread?
 It moves from computer to computer by attaching themselves to files or boot records of disks.

 A virus travel from file to another on the same computer if the infected file executed, from
computer memory to a file on the disk, on a disk that is carried from one computer to another.
 
 Damage:
 Can destroy file allocation table (FAT)

 Can create bad sectors on the disk

 Can decrease the space on the hard disks by duplicating file.

 Can format specific tracks on the disk.

 Can destroy specific executable files

 Can cause the system to hang.
 
 Virus Protection:
The following guidelines to lead virus free computing life.
o Never use a CD without scanning it for viruses.
o Always scan files downloaded from the internet.
o Never boot your PC from floppy.
o Write protect your disks and make regular backup..
o Use licensed software.
o Password protects your PC.
o Install and use antivirus software.
o Keep antivirus software up to date.
 Some of the antivirus are: Kaspersky, Quick Heal, K7, Norton 360, AVG, Avasta, McAFee.
 
Network Security:
 Network security consists of the provisions and policies adopted by a network administer to prevent
and monitor unauthorized access, misuse, modification of a computer network and network accessible
resources.

 The problem encountered under network security are:

1. Physical Security holes: When individuals gain unauthorized physical access to a computer and
tamper with files.
2. Software Security holes: When badly written programs or privileged software are compromised
into doing things that they shouldn’t be doing.
3. Inconsistent usage holes: When a system administrator assembles a combination of hardware and
software such that the system is seriously flawed from a security point of view.
 
 Protection Methods:
1. Authorization - Authorization is performed by asking the user a legal login ID. If the user is able
to provide a legal login ID, He/she is considered an authorized user.
2. Authentication - Authentication also termed as password protection as the authorized user is asked
to provide a valid password and if he/she is able to do this, he/she considered to be an authentic
user.
3. Encryption Smart cards– conversion of the form of data from one form to another form. An
encrypted smart card is a hand held smart card that can generate a token that a computer system can
recognize. Every time a new and different token is generated, which even though cracked or
hacked, cannot be used later.
4. Biometric System – It involves unique aspect of a person's body such as Finger-prints, retinal
patterns etc to establish his/her Identity.
5. Firewall - A system designed to prevent unauthorized access to or from a private network is
called firewall. It can be implemented in both hardware and software or combination or both. It
Used to prevent Unauthorized users from accessing private networks connected to internet
especially intranets
There are several types of firewall techniques-
 Packet filter – Looks at each packet entering or leaving the network and accepts or rejects it based
on user defined rules.

 Application gateway – Applies security mechanism to specific application like FTP and Telnet
servers. This is very effective but can impose performance degradation.

 Circuit level gateway - Applies security mechanism when a connection is established.
Once connection is made packets can flow between the hosts without further checking.
 Proxy Server – It intercepts all messages entering and leaving the network. It effectively hides the
true network addresses.
 Intrusion Detection:- Senses the intruders trying to access the system. And Denies the access to
such unauthorized persons.


Cookies:
 Cookies are messages that a web server transmits to a web browser so that the web server can
keep track of the user’s activity on a specific web site. 
 Cookies have few parameters name, value, expiration date.
 
 Hackers and crackers :
 Hackers are more interested in gaining knowledge about computer systems and possibly using
this knowledge for playful pranks.

 Crackers are the malicious programmers who break into secure systems.

 
 
 Cyber Law:
 It is a generic term, which refers to all the legal and regulatory aspects of internet and the World
Wide Web.
 
 India’s IT Act:
 In India the cyber laws are contained in the IT Act 2000. 
 Aims to provide legal infrastructure for e-commerce in India by governing transactions through
internet and other electronic medium.