Unit 1: Introduction Concepts

Goals and Applications of Networks Networks are designed to facilitate communication and resource sharing among
different devices and users. They support various business operations and services, enabling collaboration and
efficient data exchange. Common applications include internet browsing, email, file sharing, and online meetings.

Network Structure and Architecture

• Client-Server Model: In this model, clients request services and resources from a central server. The server
handles and processes these requests, ensuring efficient resource management and security. This model is
scalable and commonly used in business environments.

• Peer-to-Peer Model: Here, each node (or device) in the network can act as both a client and a server, sharing
resources directly with each other. This model is decentralized, which can enhance redundancy and fault
tolerance but may lack central management.

• Hybrid Network Architecture: Combines elements of both client-server and peer-to-peer models to leverage
the benefits of both systems. It allows for flexible resource management and communication.

OSI Reference Model The OSI model is divided into seven layers, each responsible for specific network functions:

• Physical Layer: Manages the physical connection between devices, including cables, switches, and electrical
signals.

• Data Link Layer: Ensures reliable data transfer across the physical connection by handling error detection and
correction.

• Network Layer: Manages routing and forwarding of data packets across the network, utilizing IP addresses.

• Transport Layer: Ensures reliable end-to-end communication and data integrity through protocols like TCP
and UDP.

• Session Layer: Manages sessions between applications, establishing, maintaining, and terminating
connections.

• Presentation Layer: Translates data between the application layer and the network, handling data
encryption, compression, and translation.

• Application Layer: Provides network services directly to end-users and applications, such as email, file
transfer, and web browsing.

Services

• Email: Allows users to send and receive messages over the network.

• File Transfer: Enables the transfer of files between computers using protocols like FTP.

• Web Browsing: Accesses information on the internet using HTTP/HTTPS.

• Service Models:

o IaaS (Infrastructure as a Service): Provides virtualized computing resources over the internet.

o PaaS (Platform as a Service): Offers hardware and software tools over the internet.

o SaaS (Software as a Service): Delivers software applications over the internet.

Network Topology Design

• Bus Topology: All devices are connected to a single communication line. Simple and cost-effective but can
suffer from collisions and single points of failure.
 • Star Topology: All devices are connected to a central hub. Easy to manage and expand but the hub is a single
point of failure.

• Ring Topology: Devices are connected in a circular fashion. Data travels in one direction, reducing collisions
but a break in the ring can disrupt the entire network.

• Mesh Topology: Each device is interconnected with multiple paths. Provides high redundancy and fault
tolerance but can be complex and expensive.

• Tree Topology: Hierarchical connection of star-configured networks. Combines the benefits of star and bus
topologies, scalable and easy to manage.

Delay Analysis

• Propagation Delay: The time it takes for a signal to travel from the sender to the receiver.

• Transmission Delay: The time it takes to push all the packet’s bits onto the transmission medium.

• Processing Delay: The time routers take to process the packet header.

• Queuing Delay: The time a packet spends waiting in routing queues.

Backbone Design The backbone network connects different parts of a LAN, ensuring efficient data communication.
Design considerations include bandwidth to handle large data volumes, redundancy to prevent data loss, and
scalability to accommodate growth.

Local Access Network Design Designing a LAN involves planning the layout, choosing appropriate cabling and
devices, and ensuring scalability for future growth. Security measures are critical to protect data and prevent
unauthorized access.

Physical Layer Transmission Media

• Twisted Pair Cables: Commonly used in telephone networks and LANs, cost-effective but susceptible to
electromagnetic interference.

• Coaxial Cables: Used for cable television and internet, better shielding from interference.

• Fiber Optics: Uses light to transmit data, offering high speed and long-distance transmission.

• Wireless Transmission: Uses radio waves, providing flexibility and mobility but can be affected by
interference and distance.

Switching Methods

• Circuit Switching: Establishes a dedicated communication path between nodes for the duration of the
session.

• Packet Switching: Data is broken into packets that are transmitted independently and reassembled at the
destination.

• Virtual Circuit Switching: Combines features of circuit and packet switching, establishing a virtual path for
the duration of the session.

ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) ISDN provides digital transmission of voice, video, data, and other
network services over traditional telephone networks. It includes:

• Basic Rate Interface (BRI): Suitable for home and small office use.

• Primary Rate Interface (PRI): Suitable for larger organizations.

Terminal Handling Managing multiple terminals involves ensuring efficient communication and resource allocation. It
includes handling different terminal types and their interaction with mainframes or network servers.
Unit 2: Medium Access Sub Layer and Data Link Layer

Medium Access Sub Layer The medium access sub layer deals with channel allocation methods to share the
communication medium among multiple users.

• FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access): Allocates separate frequency bands to different users.

• TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access): Allocates different time slots to users on the same frequency.

• CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access): Uses unique codes to differentiate between users sharing the same
frequency.

LAN Protocols Protocols that govern LAN communication include:

• Ethernet: The most widely used LAN technology, defined by IEEE 802.3 standards.

• Wi-Fi: Wireless LAN technology, defined by IEEE 802.11 standards.

• Token Ring: LAN protocol where a token circulates around the network, granting permission to transmit.

• Bluetooth: Wireless technology for short-range communication.

Aloha Protocols

• Pure Aloha: Devices transmit whenever they have data, and if a collision occurs, they wait a random time
before retransmitting.

• Slotted Aloha: Improves efficiency by dividing time into slots, reducing collisions.

Overview of IEEE Standards The IEEE 802 series includes standards for LAN and MAN:

• IEEE 802.3 (Ethernet): Defines wired LAN technologies.

• IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi): Defines wireless LAN technologies.

FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface) FDDI uses fiber optic cables to provide high-speed data transfer, typically in a
dual-ring topology for fault tolerance. It offers data transfer speeds up to 100 Mbps and is used in LANs and MANs.

Data Link Layer The data link layer ensures reliable data transfer across the physical network.

• Elementary Data Link Protocols: Includes Stop-and-Wait, Go-Back-N, and Selective Repeat, handling basic
data transfer tasks.

• Sliding Window Protocols: Allow multiple frames to be in transit at the same time, increasing efficiency.

• Error Handling: Techniques like checksums, cyclic redundancy checks (CRC), and automatic repeat requests
(ARQ) detect and correct errors.

Unit 3: Network Layer and Transport Layer

Point-to-Point Networks Point-to-point networks involve a direct connection between two nodes, facilitating simple
and direct communication. These networks are commonly used in WANs and other straightforward network setups.

Routing Routing involves determining the optimal path for data to travel across a network.

• Routing Algorithms:

o Distance Vector: Calculates the best path based on distance.

o Link State: Uses the state of each link to determine the best path.

• Dynamic Routing: Updates routes in real-time based on current network conditions.

• Static Routing: Uses predefined paths set by network administrators.

Congestion Control Techniques for managing and preventing network congestion include:
 • Congestion Avoidance: Preventing congestion before it happens by managing network resources.

• Congestion Recovery: Resolving congestion once it occurs through various methods like traffic shaping and
priority scheduling.

Internetworking (TCP/IP) The TCP/IP protocol suite is essential for network communication.

• TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Ensures reliable data transmission between hosts.

• IP (Internet Protocol): Handles addressing and routing of packets across the network.

• IP Packets: Contain data and necessary information for routing, including headers and payloads.

• IP Addressing: Includes IPv4 and IPv6, identifying devices on the network.

Transport Layer The transport layer manages end-to-end communication, ensuring data is delivered accurately and in
sequence.

Transport Layer

Transport Layer Design Issues The transport layer is responsible for ensuring reliable data transfer between host
computers. Design issues in the transport layer include:

1. Reliability: Ensuring that data is delivered accurately and in order. This involves error detection and
correction, retransmission of lost packets, and acknowledgment of received packets.

2. Flow Control: Managing the rate of data transmission between sender and receiver to prevent overwhelming
the receiver or network congestion.

3. Multiplexing: Allowing multiple applications to use the network simultaneously. This involves segmenting
data from different applications and keeping track of each segment.

4. Connection Establishment and Termination: Managing the initiation and termination of communication
sessions. This includes the process of establishing a connection (handshake) and gracefully closing it when
data transfer is complete.

5. Segmentation and Reassembly: Breaking down large messages into smaller segments for transmission and
reassembling them at the destination.

Connection Management Connection management in the transport layer involves the following steps:

1. Connection Establishment: The process begins with a handshake protocol (e.g., TCP's three-way handshake)
to establish a connection between the sender and receiver. This ensures both parties are ready to
communicate.

2. Data Transfer: During data transfer, the transport layer handles segmentation, flow control, error detection,
and correction. It ensures data packets are sent, received, acknowledged, and retransmitted if necessary.

3. Connection Termination: Once the data transfer is complete, the connection is gracefully terminated using a
termination protocol. For example, TCP uses a four-step process to close the connection, ensuring that all
remaining data is sent and acknowledged.

Unit 4: Session, Presentation, and Application Layers

Session Layer

Design Issues:

1. Session Establishment: Initiating a session between two applications. This includes authentication, setting
session parameters, and establishing communication rules.

2. Session Maintenance: Managing the session during data transfer. This involves synchronization, handling
interruptions, and recovering from errors.
 3. Session Termination: Gracefully ending the session once communication is complete.

Remote Procedure Call (RPC):

• RPC allows a program to execute a procedure on a remote server as if it were local. It abstracts the details of
network communication, making distributed computing easier. RPC handles message passing, parameter
passing, and response retrieval, enabling seamless remote execution.

Presentation Layer

Design Issues:

1. Data Translation: Converting data from the application format to a network-compatible format. This ensures
different systems can understand each other.

2. Data Encryption: Securing data by converting it into a format that unauthorized users cannot understand.
This protects sensitive information during transmission.

3. Data Compression: Reducing the size of data to save bandwidth and improve transmission speed. This is
crucial for efficient network communication.

Application Layer

File Transfer, Access, and Management:

• File Transfer Protocol (FTP): Enables the transfer of files between a client and server over a network. It
supports file uploading, downloading, and management commands.

• Access and Management: Involves controlling access to files and directories, ensuring proper permissions,
and managing file operations.

Electronic Mail:

• Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP): Used for sending emails from clients to servers and between servers.

• Post Office Protocol (POP3) and Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP): Used for retrieving and
managing emails from a server to a client.

Virtual Terminals:

• Telnet: Provides a command-line interface for remote access to a server. It allows users to execute
commands and manage systems remotely.

• Secure Shell (SSH): A more secure alternative to Telnet, offering encrypted communication for secure remote
access.

Other Applications:

• Includes various network services such as web browsing, database access, and network file systems.

Example Networks:

• Internet: A global network of interconnected devices and systems, providing a wide range of services like
web browsing, email, and file transfer.

• Public Networks: Networks accessible to the general public, including Wi-Fi hotspots, public access
terminals, and community networks.