The Four-Layer Diode

Transistor latch.
The upper transistor Q1 is a pnp device, and the lower transistor Q2 is an npn device. The
collector of Q1 drives the base of Q2. Similarly, the collector of Q2 drives the base of Q1.

Figure a shows a latch connected to a load resistor with a supply voltage of VCC. Assume
that the latch is open, as shown in Fig. b. Because there is no current through the load
resistor, the voltage across the latch equals the supply voltage Vcc. So, the operating point is
at the lower end of the dc load line (Fig. d ).
The only way to close the latch of Fig. b is by breakover. This means using a large enough
supply voltage VCC to break down the Q1 collector diode. Since the collector current of Q1
increases the base current of Q2, the positive When saturated, both transistors ideally look
like short-circuits, and the latch is closed (Fig. c). feedback will start. This drives both
transistors into saturation
the latch has zero voltage across it when it is closed and the operating point is at the upper
end of the load line (Fig. d ).
Oopening is latch is by reducing the VCC supply to zero. This forces the transistors to
switch from saturation to cutoff. We call this type of opening low-current drop-out because
it depends on reducing the latch current to a value low enough to bring the transistors out of
saturation

The Schockley Diode

Figure a was originally called a Schockley diode after the inventor. Several other names are
also used for this device: four-layer diode, pnpn diode, and silicon unilateral switch (SUS).
The device lets current fl ow in only one direction.
in Fig. b. The left half is a pnp transistor, and the right half is an npn transistor. Therefore,
the four-layer diode is equivalent to the latch of Fig. c.
Figure d shows the schematic symbol of a four-layer diode. The only way to close a four-
layer diode is by breakover. The only way to open it is by low-current drop-out, which means
reducing the current to less than the holding current The holding current is the low value of
current where the transistors switch from saturation to cutoff.
After a four-layer diode breaks over, the voltage across it ideally drops to zero. In reality,
there is some voltage across the latched diode
Breakover Characteristic

The device has two operating regions: cutoff and saturation. The dashed line is the transition
path between cutoff and saturation. It is dashed to indicate that the device switches rapidly
between the off and on states.
When the device is at cutoff, it has zero current. If the voltage across diode tries to exceed
VB, the device breaks over and moves rapidly along the dashed line to the saturation region.
When the diode is in saturation, it is operating on the upper line. As long as the current
through it is greater than the holding current IH, the diode remains latched in the on state. If
the current becomes less than IH, the device switches into cutoff.
The ideal approximation of a four-layer diode is an open switch when cut off and a closed
switch when saturated.

Triggering Latch with trigger input

By adding an input terminal to the base of Q2, as shown in Fig. a, we can create a second
way to close the latch.
When the latch is open, as shown in Fig. b, the operating point is at the lower end of the dc
load line(Fig. d).
To close the latch, we can couple a trigger (sharp pulse) into the base of Q2, as shown in
Fig.a. The trigger momentarily increases the base current of Q2. This starts the positive
feedback, which drives both transistors into saturation. When saturated, both transistors
ideally look like short-circuits, and the latch is closed (Fig. c). Ideally, the latch has zero
voltage across it when it is closed, and the operating point is at the upper end of the load line
(Fig. d )

The Silicon Controlled Rectifier(SCR)

The SCR is the most widely used thyristor. It can switch very large currents on and off and
it is used to control motors, ovens, air conditioners, and induction heaters.

Figure a shows the structure of the SCR. The input is called the gate, the top is the anode,
and the bottom is the cathode. The four doped regions separated into two transistors, as
shown in Fig. b. Therefore, the SCR is equivalent to a latch. Schematic diagrams use the
symbol of Fig. d.
The SCR is far more useful than a four-layer diode because the gate triggering is easier than
breakover triggering
Since the gate of an SCR is connected to the base of an internal transistor, it takes at least 0.7
V to trigger an SCR this voltage as the gate trigger voltage VGT.
the minimum input current needed to turn on the SCR. this current as the gate trigger
current IGT.
Required Input Voltage
SCR has a gate voltage VG. When this voltage is more than VGT, the SCR will turn on and
the output voltage will drop from +VCC to a low value. Sometimes, a gate resistor is used
This resistor limits the gate current to a safe value. The input voltage needed to trigger an
SCR has to be more than:
Vin = VGT + IGTRG
Basic SCR circuit
Resetting the SCR
After the SCR has turned on, it stays on even though you reduce the gate supply Vin to zero.
In this case, the output remains low indefinitely. To reset the SCR, you must reduce the
anode to cathode current to a value less than its holding current IH. This can be done by
reducing VCC to a low value.
The supply voltage for turn-off has to be less than:
VCC = 0.7 V + IHRL
Besides reducing VCC, other methods can be used to reset the SCR. Two common methods
are current interruption and forced commutation.

By either opening the series switch, as shown in Fig. a, or closing the parallel switch in Fig.
b, the anode-to-cathode current will drop down below its holding current value and the SCR
will switch to its off state.
Another method used to reset the SCR is forced commutation, as shown in Fig. c. When the
switch is depressed, a negative VAK voltage is momentarily applied. This reduces the forward
anode-to-cathode current below IH and turns off the SCR.
SCR Phase Control
RC Circuit Controls Phase Angle
or RC Firing Circuit

Figure a shows ac line voltage being applied

to an SCR circuit that controls the current
through a heavy load. In this circuit, variable
resistor R1 and capacitor C shift the phase
angle of the gate signal. When R1 is zero, the
gate voltage is in
phase with the line voltage, and the SCR acts
like a half-wave rectifier.
R2 limits the gate current to a safe level.
When R1 increases, however, the ac gate
voltage lags the line voltage by an angle
between 0° and 90°, as shown in Figs. b and
c.
Before the trigger point shown in Fig. c, the SCR is off and the load current is zero. At the
trigger point, the capacitor voltage is large enough to trigger the SCR. When this happens,
almost all of the line voltage appears across the load and the load current becomes high.
Ideally, the SCR remains latched until the line voltage reverses polarity. This is shown in
Figs.c and d.
The angle at which the SCR fires is called the firing angle, shown as θfire in Fig.a. The angle
between the start and end of conduction is called the conduction angle, shown as
θconduction. The RC phase controller of Fig. a can change the firing angle between 0° and
90°, which means that the conduction angle changes from 180° to 90°.
The shaded portions of Fig. b show when the SCR is conducting. Because R1 is variable, the
phase angle of the gate voltage can be changed. This allows us to control the shaded portions
of the line voltage.
Another way is we can control the average current through the load. This is useful for
changing the speed of a motor, the brightness of a lamp, or the temperature of an induction
furnace.
The conduction angle is found by subtracting the fi ring angle from 180°.
Bidirectional Thyristors
the four-layer diode and the SCR, are unidirectional because current can fl ow in only one
direction. The diac and triac are bidirectional thyristors. These devices can conduct in either
direction. The diac is sometimes called a silicon bidirectional switch (SBS).

Diac

The diac can latch current in either direction. The equivalent circuit of a diac is two four-
layer diodes in parallel, as shown in Fig. a, ideally the same as the latches in Fig. b. The diac
is nonconducting until the voltage across it exceeds the breakover voltage in either direction.
For instance, if v has the polarity indicated in Fig.a, the left diode conducts when v exceeds
the breakover voltage. In this case, the left latch closes, as shown in Fig. c.
When v has the opposite polarity, the right latch closes. Figure d shows the schematic symbol
for a diac.

Triac
The triac acts like two SCRs in reverse parallel (Fig. a), equivalent to the two latches of
Fig.b. Because of this, the triac can control current in both directions.
If v has the polarity shown in Fig. a, a positive trigger will close the left latch.
When v has opposite polarity, a negative trigger will close the right latch.
Figure c is the schematic symbol for a triac.
Triac phase control.

Figure a shows an RC circuit that varies

the phase angle of the gate voltage to a
triac. The circuit can control the current
through a heavy load.
Figures b and c show the line voltage
and lagging gate voltage.
When the capacitor voltage is large
enough to supply the trigger current, the
triac conducts.
Once on, the triac continues to conduct
until the line voltage returns to zero.
Figures d and e show the respective
voltages across the triac and the load.

IGBTs
Power MOSFETs and BJTs can both be used in high-power switching applications. The
MOSFET has the advantage of greater switching speed, and the BJT has lower conduction
losses. By combining the low conduction loss of a BJT with the switching speed of a power
MOSFET, we can begin to approach an ideal switch.
This hybrid device exists and is called an insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT).
Basic Construction Of IGBTs

Figure shows the basic structure of an n-channel IGBT. Its structure resembles an n-channel
power MOSFET constructed on a p-type substrate. As shown, it has gate, emitter, and
collector leads.
Two versions of this device are referred to as punch-through (PT) and nonpunch-through
(NPT) IGBTs. Figure shows the structure of a PT IGBT. The PT IGBT has an n+ buffer
layer between its p+ and n- regions, and the NPT device has no n+ buffer layer.
NPT versions have higher conduction VCE(on) values than PT versions and a positive
temperature coefficient
PT versions, with the extra n+ layer, have the advantage of higher switching speeds. They
also have a negative temperature coefficient.

Figures a and b show two common schematic symbols for an n-channel IGBT.
Fig. 13-31c shows a simplified equivalent circuit for this device.
the IGBT is essentially a power MOSFET on the input side and a BJT on the output side.
The input control is a voltage between the gate and emitter leads. the gate drive circuits for
an IGBT must be able to quickly charge up and discharge the IGBT’s input capacitance for
fast switching speeds. The output is a current between the collector and emitter leads.
Because the output of the IGBT relies on BJT construction, this results in a slower device
turn-off speed than a power FET.
The IGBT is a normally off high-input impedance device. When the input voltage VGE is
large enough, collector current will begin to flow. This minimum voltage value is the gate
threshold voltage VGE(th).

IGBT Advantages

1.IGBTs have a much higher collector-emitter breakdown voltage as compared to the VDSS
maximum value of MOSFETs
2.This is important in applications using higher-voltage inductive loads, such as inductive
heating (IH)
applications.
3.As compared to BJTs, IGBTs have a much higher input impedance and have much simpler
gate drive requirements

Other Thyristors

Photo-SCR

Figure a shows a photo-SCR, also known as a light-activated SCR.

The arrows represent incoming light that passes through a window and hits the depletion
layers. When the light is strong enough, valence electrons are dislodged from their orbits and
become free electrons. The fl ow of free electrons starts the positive feedback, and the photo-
SCR closes.
After a light trigger has closed the photo-SCR, it remains closed, even though the light
disappears. For maximum sensitivity to light, the gate is left open, as shown in Fig. 13-34a.
To get an adjustable trip point, we can include the trigger adjust shown in Fig. b.
The resistance between the gate and ground diverts some of the light-produced electrons and
reduces the sensitivity of the circuit to the incoming light.
Gate-Controlled Switch

As mentioned earlier, low-current drop-out is the normal way to open an SCR.

But the gate-controlled switch is designed for easy opening with a reverse biased trigger.
A gate-controlled switch is closed by a positive trigger and opened by a negative trigger.
Figure shows a gate-controlled circuit. Each positive trigger closes the gate-controlled switch,
and each negative trigger opens it. Because of this, we get the square-wave output shown.
The gate-controlled switch has been used in counters, digital circuits, and other applications
in which a negative trigger is available

Silicon Controlled Switch

Figure a shows the doped regions of a silicon controlled switch. Now an external lead is
connected to each doped region. Visualize the device separated into two halves (Fig. b).
Therefore, it’s equivalent to a latch with access to both bases (Fig. c).

A forward-bias trigger on either base will close the silicon controlled switch. Likewise, a
reverse-bias trigger on either base will open the device.
Figure d shows the schematic symbol for a silicon controlled switch. The lower gate is called
the cathode gate, and the upper gate is the anode gate. The silicon controlled switch is a low-
power device compared to the SCR. It handles currents in milliamperes rather than amperes.
Unijunction Transistor(UJT)
The unijunction transistor (UJT) has two doped regions, as shown in Fig. a.

When the input voltage is zero, the device is nonconducting. When we increase the input
voltage above the standoff voltage the resistance. between the p region and the lower n region
becomes very small, as shown in Fig. b. Figure c is the schematic symbol for a UJT.
UJT is an n-type silicon bar in which p-type emitter is embedded. It has three terminals
base1, base2 and emitter ‘E’. Between B1 and B2 UJT behaves like ordinary resistor and the
internal resistances are given as RB1and RB2 with emitter open RBB RB1 RB2 . Usually the
p-region is heavily doped and n-region is lightly doped.
UJT relaxation oscillator

The UJT can be used to form a pulse-generating circuit called a UJT relaxation oscillator,
as shown in Fig. . In this circuit, the capacitor charges toward VBB. When the capacitor
voltage reaches a value equal to the standoff voltage, the UJT turns on. The internal lower
base (lower n region) resistance quickly drops in value allowing the capacitor to discharge.
The capacitor discharge continues until low-current drop-out occurs. When this happens, the
UJT turns off and the capacitor begins to once again charge toward VBB.
The charging RC time constant is normally significantly larger than the discharge time
constant.
The sharp pulse waveform developed across the external resistor at B1 can be used as a
trigger source for controlling the conduction angle of SCR and triac circuits. The waveform
developed across the capacitor can be used in applications where a sawtooth generator is
needed.

Programmable Unijunction Transistor (PUT)

The programmable unijunction transistor (PUT) is a four-layer pnpn device, which is
used to produce trigger pulses and waveforms similar to UJT circuits. The schematic symbol
is shown in Fig. a.
Its basic construction, shown in Fig. b, is very different from a UJT, more closely resembling
an SCR. The gate lead is connected to the n layer next to the anode. This pn junction is used
to control the on and off states of the device.
The cathode terminal is connected to a voltage point lower than the gate, typically at a ground
point. When the anode voltage becomes approximately 0.7 V higher than the gate voltage, the
PUT turns on. The device will remain in the on state until its anode current falls below the
rated holding current, normally given as its valley current IV. When this happens, the device
returns to its off state.
The PUT is considered to be programmable because the gate voltage can be determined by an
external voltage divider.
The external resistors R2 and R3 establish the gate voltage VG. By changing these resistor
values, the voltage on the gate can be modified or “programmed,” thus changing the required
anode voltage for firing. When the capacitor charges up through R1, it must reach a voltage
value approximately 0.7 V higher than VG. At that point, the PUT turns ON and the capacitor
discharges.