ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY INSTUCTOR: MISS ANA TESSA CATAGUE QUIBETE.

A26

THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

 Shaft with enlarged ends STRUCTURE OF BONE
 Contain mostly compact bone;
 Parts of the skeletal system spongy bone at ends  Long Bone Anatomy
 Bones (skeleton)  All of the bones of the limbs  Diaphysis (Shaft)
 Joints (except wrist, ankle, and  Makes up most of bone’s
 Cartilages kneecap bones) are long length
 Ligaments bones  Composed of compact
 Two subdivisions of the skeleton  Examples: bone
 Axial skeleton  Femur  Periosteum
 Appendicular skeleton  Outside covering of the
diaphysis
FUNCTIONS OF THE BONES  Fibrous connective tissue
membrane
 Perforating (Sharpey’s)
 Support the body fibers secure periosteum
 Protect soft organs to underlying bone
 Skull and vertebrae protect
brain and spinal cord  Humerus
 Rib cage protects thoracic
cavity organs
 Attached skeletal muscles allow
movement
 Store minerals and fats
 Calcium and phosphorus
 Fat in the internal marrow
cavity
 Blood cell formation
(hematopoiesis)  Epiphysis (Ends)
 Composed mostly of
CLASSIFICATION OF BONES  Flat Bones spongy bone enclosed by
 Thin, flattened, and usually thin layer of compact
bone
 The adult skeleton has 206 bones  Articular Cartilage
 Two basic types of osseous (bone)  Covers the external
tissue surface of the epiphyses
 Compact Bone  Made of hyaline
 Dense, smooth, and cartilage
homogeneous  Decreases friction at
 Spongy Bone joint surfaces
 Small needlelike pieces
of bone
 Many open spaces curved
 Two thin layers of compact
bone sandwich a layer of
spongy bone between them
 Examples:
 Most bones of the skull
 Ribs  Epiphyseal Line
 Sternum  Remnant of the
epiphyseal plate
 Short Bones  Seen in adult bones
 Generally cube-shaped  Epiphyseal Plate
 Bones are classified on the basis of  Contain mostly spongy bone
shape into  Flat plate of hyaline
with an outer layer of cartilage seen in young,
 Four Groups compact bone
 Long growing bone
 Sesamoid bones are a type of  Causes lengthwise
 Flat short bone that form within
 Short growth of a long bone
tendons (patella)
 Irregular  Examples:
 Carpals (wrist bones)
 Tarsals (ankle bones)
 Irregular Bones
 Irregular shape
 Do not fit into other bone
classification categories
 Examples:
 Vertebrae  Endosteum
 Hip bones  Lines the inner surface of
 Long Bones the shaft
 Typically longer than they are
wide
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY INSTUCTOR: MISS ANA TESSA CATAGUE QUIBETE. A26

 Made of connective
tissue  Lamellae  Ossification is the process of
 Medullary Cavity  Concentric circles of bone formation
 Cavity inside the shaft lacunae situated around  Occurs on hyaline cartilage
 Contains yellow marrow the central (Haversian) models or fibrous membranes
(mostly fat) in adults canal  Long bone growth involves
 Contains red marrow  Central (Haversian) Canal two major phases
for blood cell formation  Opening in the center of  Two major phases of ossification
in infants until age 6 or an osteon (Haversian in long bones
7 system) 1. Osteoblasts (bone-forming
 Bone Markings  Runs lengthwise through cells) cover hyaline cartilage
 Sites of attachments for bone model with bone matrix
muscles, tendons, and  Carries blood vessels and 2. In a fetus, the enclosed
ligaments nerves cartilage is digested away,
 Passages for nerves and blood  Osteon (Haversian System) opening up a medullary cavity
vessels  A unit of bone
 Categories of bone markings containing central canal
 Projections or processes— and matrix rings
grow out from the bone  Structural and functional
surface unit of compact bone
 Terms often begin with
“T”
 Depressions or
cavities—indentations
 Terms often begin with
“F”

 By birth, most cartilage is

converted to bone except for two
regions in a long bone
1. Articular cartilages
 Canaliculi 2. Epiphyseal plates
 Tiny canals  New cartilage is formed
 Radiate from the central canal continuously on external face of
to lacunae these two cartilages
 Form a transport system  Old cartilage is broken down and
connecting all bone cells to a replaced by bony matrix
nutrient supply
 Perforating (Volkmann’s)
 Microscopic anatomy of spongy Canal
bone  Canal perpendicular to the
 Composed of small, central canal
needlelike pieces of bone  Carries blood vessels and
called trabeculae and open nerves
spaces
 Open spaces are filled by
marrow, blood vessels, and
nerves
 Appositional growth
 Bones grow in width
 Osteoblasts in the periosteum
add bone matrix to the
 Bone is relatively lightweight and outside of the diaphysis
resists tension and other forces  Osteoclasts in the endosteum
 Organic parts (collagen fibers) of remove bone from the inner
the bone make bone flexible and surface of the diaphysis
have great tensile strength  Bone growth is controlled by
 Calcium salts deposited in the bone hormones, such as growth
 Microscopic anatomy of compact make bone hard to resist hormone and sex hormones
bone compression  Bones are remodeled throughout
 Osteocytes life in response to two factors
 Mature bone cells BONE FORMATION, GROWTH, AND 1. Calcium ion level in the blood
situated in bone matrix REMODELING determines when bone matrix
 Lacunae is to be broken down or
 Cavities in bone matrix  Bone formation and growth formed
that house osteocytes
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY INSTUCTOR: MISS ANA TESSA CATAGUE QUIBETE. A26

2. Pull of gravity and muscles on

the skeleton determines AXIAL SKELETON  Paranasal sinuses
where bone matrix is to be  Hollow portions of bones
broken down or formed surrounding the nasal cavity
 Calcium ion regulation  Functions of paranasal sinuses
 Parathyroid hormone (PTH)  Lighten the skull
 Released when  Amplify sounds made as
calcium ion levels in we speak
blood are low
 Activates osteoclasts
(bone-destroying cells)
 Osteoclasts break down
bone and release
calcium ions into the SKULL
blood  Two sets of bones form the skull
 Hypercalcemia (high blood 1. Cranium bones enclose the
calcium levels) prompts brain  Hyoid bone
calcium storage to bones by 2. Facial bones  Closely related to mandible
osteoblasts  Hold eyes in anterior and temporal bones
position  The only bone that does not
BONE FRACTURES  Allow facial muscles to articulate with another bone
express feelings  Serves as a movable base for
 Bones are joined by sutures the tongue
 Fracture: break in a bone  Only the mandible is attached by a  Aids in swallowing and speech
 Types of bone fractures freely movable joint
 Closed (Simple) Fracture: is a  8 Cranial Bones Protect The Brain
break that does not penetrate  1 Frontal bone
the skin  2 Occipital bone
 Open (Compound) Fracture:  3 Ethmoid bone
is a broken bone that  4 Sphenoid bone
penetrates through the skin  5, 6 Parietal bones (pair)
 Bone fractures are treated by  7, 8 Temporal bones (pair)
reduction and immobilization  14 Facial Bones VERTEBRAL COLUMN (SPINE)
 Closed reduction: bones are  1, 2 Maxillae (pair)  Vertebral column provides axial
manually coaxed into position  3, 4 Palatine bones (pair) support
by physician’s hands  5, 6 Lacrimal bones (pair)  Extends from skull to the
 Open reduction: bones are  7, 8 Zygomatic bones (pair) pelvis
secured with pins or wires  9, 10 Nasal bones (pair)  26 vertebral bones are separated
during surgery  11 Vomer bone by intervertebral discs
 Healing time is 6–8 weeks  12, 13 Inferior nasal  7 cervical vertebrae are in the
 Repair of bone fractures conchae (pair) neck
involves four major events  14 Mandible  12 thoracic vertebrae are in
 Hematoma (blood-filled the chest region
swelling, or bruise) is formed  5 lumbar vertebrae are
 Fibrocartilage callus forms associated with the lower
 Cartilage matrix, bony back
matrix, collagen fibers  Sacrum (formed by fusion of 5
splint the broken bone vertebrae)
 Bony callus replaces the  Coccyx (formed by fusion of
fibrocartilage callus 3–5 vertebrae)
 Osteoblasts and
osteoclasts migrate in
 Bone remodeling occurs in
response to mechanical
stresses

 Primary curvatures
 Spinal curvatures of the
thoracic and sacral regions
 Present from birth
 Form a C-shaped curvature in
newborns
 Secondary curvatures
 Spinal curvatures of the
cervical and lumbar regions
 Develop after birth
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY INSTUCTOR: MISS ANA TESSA CATAGUE QUIBETE. A26

 Form an S-shaped curvature

in adults THORACIC CAGE  Head articulates with the
 Bony thorax, or thoracic cage, glenoid cavity of the
protects organs of the thoracic scapula
cavity  Distal end articulation
 Consists of three parts  Trochlea and capitulum
1. Sternum articulate with the bones
2. Ribs of the forearm
 True ribs (pairs 1–7)
 Parts of a typical vertebra  False ribs (pairs 8–12)
 Body (centrum)  Floating ribs (pairs
 Vertebral arch 11–12)
 Pedicle 3. Thoracic vertebrae
 Lamina
 Vertebral foramen
 Transverse processes
 Spinous process
 Superior and inferior articular
processes
 The forearm has two bones
1. Ulna: medial bone in
anatomical position
 Proximal end articulation
 Coronoid process
and olecranon
articulate with the
humerus
2. Radius: lateral bone in
anatomical position
 Proximal end articulation
 Head articulates
with the capitulum
of the humerus
APPENDICULAR SKELETON

 Composed of 126 bones

 Limbs (appendages)
 Pectoral girdle
 Pelvic girdle

BONES OF THE SHOULDER GIRDLE

 Also called pectoral girdle
 Composed of two bones that  Hand
attach the upper limb to the axial  Carpals: wrist bones
skeletal  8 bones arranged in two
1. Clavicle rows of 4 bones in each
2. Scapula hand
 Light, poorly reinforced girdle  Metacarpals: palm bones
 Allows the upper limb a  5 per hand
exceptional flexibility  Phalanges: fingers and thumb
 14 phalanges in each
hand
 In each finger, there are
3 bones
 In the thumb, there are
only 2 bones

BONES OF THE PELVIC GIRDLE

BONES OF THE UPPER LIMBS
 Humerus  Formed by two coxal (ossa coxae)
 Forms the arm bones
 Single bone  Composed of three pairs of fused
 Proximal end articulation bones
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY INSTUCTOR: MISS ANA TESSA CATAGUE QUIBETE. A26

1. Ilium
2. Ischium  The lower leg has two bones  Allow for mobility
3. Pubis 1. Tibia—shinbone; larger and  Two ways joints are classified
 Pelvic girdle = two coxal bones, medially oriented  Functionally
sacrum  Proximal end articulation  Structurally
 Pelvis = two coxal bones, sacrum,  Medial and lateral  Functional joint classifications
coccyx condyles articulate  Synarthroses
 The total weight of the upper body with the femur to  Immovable joints
rests on the pelvis form the knee joint  Amphiarthroses
 Pelvis protects several organs  Distal end articulation  Slightly movable joints
 Reproductive organs  Medial malleolus  Diarthroses
 Urinary bladder forms the inner  Freely movable joints
 Part of the large intestine part of the ankle  Structural joint classifications
2. Fibula—thin and sticklike;  Fibrous joints
lateral to the tibia  Generally immovable
 Has no role in forming  Cartilaginous joints
the knee joint  Immovable or slightly
 Distal end articulation movable
 Lateral malleolus  Synovial joints
forms the outer  Freely movable
part of the ankle  Fibrous joints
 Bones are united by fibrous
tissue
 Types
 Sutures
 Immobile
 Syndesmoses
 The female’s pelvis  Allow more
 Inlet is larger and movement than
more circular sutures but still
 Shallower, on the whole, and immobile
the bones are lighter and  Foot  Found on the distal
thinner  Tarsals: 7 bones ends of tibia and
 Ilia flare more laterally  Two largest tarsals are fibula
 Sacrum is shorter and the:  Gomphoses
less curved 1. Calcaneus (heel  Immobile
 Ischial spines are shorter and bone)  Found where the
farther apart; thus, the outlet 2. Talus teeth meet the
is larger  Metatarsals: 5 bones form facial bones
 Pubic arch is more rounded the sole of the foot
because the angle of the  Phalanges: 14 bones form the
pubic arch is greater toes

 Cartilaginous Joints
 Arches of the feet  Bones are connected by
 Bones of the foot are fibrocartilage
BONES OF THE LOWER LIMBS arranged to form three strong  Types
arches  Synchrondrosis
 Femur—thigh bone  Two longitudinal  Immobile
 The heaviest, strongest bone  One transverse  Found in epiphyseal
in the body plates of growing
 Proximal end articulation long bones
 Head articulates with the  Symphysis
acetabulum of the coxal  Slightly movable
(hip) bone  Found in the pubic
 Distal end articulation symphysis,
 Lateral and medial intervertebral joints
condyles articulate with
the tibia in the lower leg JOINTS
 Joints are articulations
 Occur where two or more
bones meet
 Functions of joints
 Hold bones together securely
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY INSTUCTOR: MISS ANA TESSA CATAGUE QUIBETE. A26

 Synovial Joints
 Articulating bones are
separated by a joint
cavity  Growth of cranium after birth is
 Synovial fluid is found in the related to brain growth
joint cavity  Increase in size of the facial
 Four distinguishing features of skeleton follows tooth
synovial joints development and
1. Articular cartilage enlargement of the
2. Articular capsule respiratory passageways
3. Joint cavity  Size of cranium in relationship to
4. Reinforcing ligaments body
 2 years old—skull is
three-fourths the size of adult
skull
 8 or 9 years old—skull is near
adult in size and proportion
 Between ages 6 and 11, the
face grows out from the skull
 Skeletal changes
 At birth, the head and trunk
are proportionately much
longer than the lower limbs
 During puberty:
 Female pelvis broadens
 Entire male skeleton
becomes more robust
 By the end of adolescence:
 Epiphyseal plates become
DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF THE fully ossified
SKELETON
 Synovial joints (continued)
 Bursae—flattened fibrous  Birth to adulthood
sacs  First “long bones” of a fetus
 Lined with synovial are hyaline cartilage
membranes  Earliest “flat bones” of the
 Filled with synovial fluid fetal skull are fibrous
 Not actually part of the membranes
joint  As fetus grows, all bone
 Tendon sheath models are converted to bone
 Elongated bursa that
wraps around a tendon
 Types of synovial joints based on
shape  Older adults
 Plane joint  Osteoporosis
 Hinge joint  Bone-thinning disease
 Pivot joint afflicting:
 Condylar joint  Fetal skull  50 percent of
 Saddle joint  Fontanels are fibrous women over age 65
 Ball-and-socket joint membranes connecting the  20 percent of
cranial bones men over age 70
 Known as “soft spots”  Disease makes bones
 Allow skull compression fragile, and bones can
during birth easily fracture
 Allow the brain to grow  Vertebral collapse
during later pregnancy results in kyphosis (also
and infancy known as “dowager’s
 Usually ossify by 2 years hump”)
of age  Estrogen aids in health
and normal density of a
female skeleton
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY INSTUCTOR: MISS ANA TESSA CATAGUE QUIBETE. A26

IMAGES

FLAT BONES
CONSIST OF A LAYER
OF SPONGY BONE
SANDWICHED
BETWEEN TWO THIN
LAYERS OF
COMPACT BONE

CLASSIFICATION OF
BONES ON THE BASIS
OF SHAPE.
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY INSTUCTOR: MISS ANA TESSA CATAGUE QUIBETE. A26

THE STRUCTURE OF
A LONG BONE
(HUMERUS OF ARM)

BONE MARKINGS
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY INSTUCTOR: MISS ANA TESSA CATAGUE QUIBETE. A26

MICROSCOPIC
STRUCTURE OF BONE

STAGES OF
LONG-BONE
FORMATION IN AN
EMBRYO, FETUS, AND
YOUNG CHILD

GROWTH AND
REMODELING OF
LONG BONES
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY INSTUCTOR: MISS ANA TESSA CATAGUE QUIBETE. A26

7 STAGES IN THE
HEALING OF A BONE
FRACTURE

COMMON TYPES OF
FRACTURES

THE HUMAN
SKELETON

HUMAN SKULL,
LATERAL VIEW
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY INSTUCTOR: MISS ANA TESSA CATAGUE QUIBETE. A26

HUMAN SKULL,
SUPERIOR VIEW (TOP
OF CRANIUM
REMOVED)

HUMAN SKULL,
INFERIOR VIEW
(MANDIBLE
REMOVED)

HUMAN SKULL,
ANTERIOR AND
POSTERIOR VIEWS

PARANASAL SINUSES
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY INSTUCTOR: MISS ANA TESSA CATAGUE QUIBETE. A26

ANATOMICAL
LOCATION AND
STRUCTURE OF THE
HYOID BONE

THE VERTEBRAL
COLUMN

THE C-SHAPED SPINE

TYPICAL OF A
NEWBORN

A TYPICAL
VERTEBRA,
SUPERIOR VIEW
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY INSTUCTOR: MISS ANA TESSA CATAGUE QUIBETE. A26

REGIONAL
CHARACTERISTICS
OF VERTEBRAE

SACRUM AND
COCCYX, POSTERIOR
VIEW

THE BONY THORAX

(THORACIC CAGE)
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY INSTUCTOR: MISS ANA TESSA CATAGUE QUIBETE. A26

BONES OF THE
SHOULDER GIRDLE

BONES OF THE RIGHT

ARM AND FOREARM
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY INSTUCTOR: MISS ANA TESSA CATAGUE QUIBETE. A26

BONES OF THE RIGHT

HAND, ANTERIOR
VIEW

THE BONY PELVIS

BONES OF THE RIGHT

THIGH AND LEG
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY INSTUCTOR: MISS ANA TESSA CATAGUE QUIBETE. A26

BONES OF THE RIGHT

FOOT, SUPERIOR
VIEW

ARCHES OF THE
FOOT

TYPES OF JOINTS
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY INSTUCTOR: MISS ANA TESSA CATAGUE QUIBETE. A26

TYPES OF JOINTS

GENERAL
STRUCTURE OF A
SYNOVIAL JOINT

TYPES OF SYNOVIAL
JOINTS
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY INSTUCTOR: MISS ANA TESSA CATAGUE QUIBETE. A26

TYPES OF SYNOVIAL
JOINTS

OSSIFICATION
CENTERS IN THE
SKELETON OF A
12-WEEK-OLD FETUS
ARE INDICATED BY
THE DARKER AREAS

THE FETAL SKULL

DIFFERENCES IN THE
GROWTH RATES FOR SOME
PARTS OF THE BODY
COMPARED TO OTHERS
DETERMINE BODY
PROPORTIONS
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY INSTUCTOR: MISS ANA TESSA CATAGUE QUIBETE. A26

OSTEOPOROSIS

VERTEBRAL
COLLAPSE DUE TO
OSTEOPOROSIS
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY INSTUCTOR: MISS ANA TESSA CATAGUE QUIBETE. A26

THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

MUSCLE FUNCTIONS
 Muscles are responsible for all
types of body movement
 Whereas all muscle types produce
 Three basic muscle types are found
movement, skeletal muscle has
in the body
three other important roles:
1. Skeletal muscle
 Maintain posture and body
2. Cardiac muscle
position
3. Smooth muscle
 Stabilize joints
MUSCLE TYPES  Generate heat
 The epimysium of skeletal muscle
blends into a connective tissue MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF SKELETAL
attachment MUSCLE
 Skeletal and smooth muscle cells
are elongated (muscle cell =  Tendons: cordlike structures
muscle fiber)  Mostly collagen fibers
 Contraction and shortening of  Often cross a joint  Sarcolemma: specialized plasma
muscles are due to the because of their membrane
movement of microfilaments toughness and small  Myofibrils: long organelles inside
 All muscles share some size muscle cell
terminology  Aponeuroses: sheetlike  Light (I) bands and dark (A)
 Prefixes myo- and mys- refer structures bands give the muscle its
to “muscle”  Attach muscles indirectly striated (banded) appearance
 Prefix sarco- refers to “flesh” to bones, cartilages, or
connective tissue
coverings

 Smooth Muscle
 No striations
 Involuntary—no conscious
control
 Found mainly in the walls of
hollow visceral organs (such  Banding pattern of myofibrils
as stomach, urinary bladder,  I band = light band
respiratory passages)  Contains only thin
 Spindle-shaped fibers that are filaments
uninucleate  Z disc is a midline
 Contractions are slow and interruption
sustained  A band = dark band
 Contains the entire
length of the thick
filaments
 H zone is a lighter central
area
 M line is in center of H
zone
 Skeletal Muscle
 Most skeletal muscle
fibers are attached by
tendons to bones
 Cardiac Muscle
 Skeletal muscle cells are large,
 Striations
cigar-shaped, and
 Involuntary
multinucleate
 Found only in the walls of the  Sarcomere: contractile unit of a
 Also known as striated muscle
heart muscle fiber
because of its obvious stripes
 Uninucleate  Structural and functional unit
 Also known as voluntary
 Branching cells joined by gap of skeletal muscle
muscle because it is the only
junctions called intercalated  Organization of the sarcomere
muscle tissue subject to
discs  Myofilaments produce
conscious control
 Contracts at a steady rate set banding (striped) pattern
 Skeletal muscle cells are
by pacemaker  Thick filaments = myosin
surrounded and bundled by
filaments
connective tissue
 Thin filaments = actin
 Endomysium: encloses a
filaments
single muscle fiber
 Thick filaments = myosin filaments
 Perimysium: wraps around
 Composed of the protein
a fascicle (bundle) of muscle
myosin
fibers
 Contain ATPase enzymes to
 Epimysium: covers the entire
split ATP to release energy for
skeletal muscle
muscle contractions
 Fascia: on the outside of
 Possess projections known as
the epimysium
myosin heads
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY INSTUCTOR: MISS ANA TESSA CATAGUE QUIBETE. A26

 Myosin heads are known as

cross bridges when they link  Neuromuscular junction 2. Sodium-potassium pump
thick and thin filaments  Association site of axon moves sodium and potassium
during contraction terminal of the motor neuron ions back to their original
and sarcolemma of a muscle positions
 Thin filaments = actin filaments  Neurotransmitter
 Composed of the contractile  Chemical released by nerve
protein actin upon arrival of nerve
 Actin is anchored to the Z disc impulse in the axon terminal
 At rest, within the A band there is a  Acetylcholine (ACh) is the
zone that lacks actin filaments neurotransmitter that
called the H zone stimulates skeletal muscle
 During contraction, H zones  Synaptic cleft
disappear as actin and myosin  Gap between nerve and
filaments overlap muscle filled with interstitial
fluid
 Although very close, the nerve
and muscle do not make
contact
 When a nerve impulse reaches the
axon terminal of the motor neuron,
1. Step 1: Calcium channels
 Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) open, and calcium ions enter
 Specialized smooth the axon terminal
endoplasmic reticulum 2. Step 2: Calcium ion entry
 Surrounds the myofibril causes some synaptic vesicles
 Stores and releases calcium to release acetylcholine (ACh)
3. Step 3: ACh diffuses across
STIMULATION AND CONTRACTION OF the synaptic cleft and MECHANISM OF MUSCLE
SINGLE SKELETAL MUSCLE CELLS attaches to receptors on the CONTRACTION: THE SLIDING FILAMENT
sarcolemma of the muscle cell THEORY
 Special functional properties of 4. Step 4: If enough ACh is
skeletal muscles released, the sarcolemma  What causes filaments to slide?
 Irritability (also called becomes temporarily more  Calcium ions (Ca2+) bind
responsiveness): ability to permeable to sodium ions regulatory proteins on thin
receive and respond to a (Na+) filaments and expose
stimulus  Potassium ions (K+) myosin-binding sites, allowing
 Contractility: ability to diffuse out of the cell the myosin heads on the thick
forcibly shorten when an  More sodium ions enter filaments to attach
adequate stimulus is received than potassium ions  Each cross bridge pivots,
 Extensibility: ability of muscle leave causing the thin filaments to
cells to be stretched  Establishes an imbalance slide toward the center of the
 Elasticity: ability to recoil and in which interior has sarcomere
resume resting length after more positive ions  Contraction occurs, and the
stretching (depolarization), thereby cell shortens
opening more Na+  During a contraction, a cross
THE NERVE STIMULUS AND ACTION channels bridge attaches and detaches
POTENTIAL 5. Step 5: Depolarization several times
opens more sodium channels  ATP provides the energy for
 Skeletal muscles must be that allow sodium ions to the sliding process, which
stimulated by a motor neuron enter the cell continues as long as calcium
(nerve cell) to contract  An action potential is ions are present
 Motor unit—one motor neuron created
and all the skeletal muscle cells  Once begun, the action
stimulated by that neuron potential is unstoppable
 Conducts the electrical
impulse from one end of
the cell to the other
6. Step 6: Acetylcholinesterase
(AChE) breaks down
acetylcholine into acetic acid
and choline
 AChE ends muscle
contraction
 A single nerve
impulse produces
only one contraction
 Cell returns to its resting state
when:
1. Potassium ions (K+) diffuse
out of the cell
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY INSTUCTOR: MISS ANA TESSA CATAGUE QUIBETE. A26

 Fused (complete) tetanus is

achieved when the muscle is  Aerobic respiration
stimulated so rapidly that no  Supplies ATP at rest and
evidence of relaxation is seen during light/moderate
 Contractions are smooth and exercise
CONTRACTION OF A SKELETAL MUSCLE sustained  A series of metabolic
AS A WHOLE pathways, called oxidative
phosphorylation, use oxygen
 Graded responses and occur in the mitochondria
 Muscle fiber contraction is  Glucose is broken down to
“all-or-none,” meaning it will carbon dioxide and water,
contract to its fullest when releasing energy (about 32
stimulated adequately ATP)
 Within a whole skeletal  Muscle response to stronger  This is a slower reaction that
muscle, not all fibers may be stimuli requires continuous delivery
stimulated during the same  Muscle force depends upon of oxygen and nutrients
interval the number of fibers
 Different combinations of stimulated
muscle fiber contractions  Contraction of more fibers
may give differing responses results in greater muscle
 Graded responses—different tension
degrees of skeletal muscle  When all motor units are
shortening active and stimulated, the
 Graded responses can be muscle contraction is as
produced in two ways strong as it can get
 By changing the frequency of
muscle stimulation PROVIDING ENERGY FOR MUSCLE
 By changing the number of CONTRACTION
muscle cells being stimulated
at one time  ATP  Anaerobic glycolysis and lactic acid
 Muscle response to  Only energy source that can formation
increasingly rapid stimulation be used to directly power  Reaction that breaks down
 Muscle Twitch muscle contraction glucose without oxygen
 Single, brief, jerky  Stored in muscle fibers in  Glucose is broken down to
contraction small amounts that are pyruvic acid to produce about
 Not a normal quickly used up 2 ATP
muscle function  After this initial time, other  Pyruvic acid is converted to
pathways must be utilized to lactic acid, which causes
produce ATP muscle soreness
 Three pathways to regenerate ATP  This reaction is not as efficient,
1. Direct phosphorylation of ADP but it is fast
by creatine phosphate  Huge amounts of glucose are
2. Aerobic pathway needed
3. Anaerobic glycolysis and lactic
 In most types of muscle acid formation
activity, nerve impulses are  Direct phosphorylation of ADP by
delivered at a rapid rate creatine phosphate (CP)—fastest
 As a result, contractions are  Muscle cells store CP, a
“summed” (added) high-energy molecule
together, and one  After ATP is depleted, ADP
contraction is immediately remains
followed by another  CP transfers a phosphate
group to ADP to regenerate
ATP
 CP supplies are exhausted in
less than 15 seconds
 1 ATP is produced per CP
molecule MUSCLE FATIGUE AND OXYGEN DEFICIT

 When stimulations become  If muscle activity is strenuous and

more frequent, muscle prolonged, muscle fatigue occurs
contractions get stronger and  Suspected factors that contribute
smoother to muscle fatigue include:
 The muscle now exhibits  Ion imbalances (Ca2+, K+)
unfused (incomplete) tetanus  Oxygen deficit and lactic acid
accumulation
 Decrease in energy (ATP)
supply
 After exercise, the oxygen deficit is
repaid by rapid, deep breathing
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY INSTUCTOR: MISS ANA TESSA CATAGUE QUIBETE. A26

TYPES OF MUSCLE CONTRACTIONS

TYPES OF BODY MOVEMENTS  Example: moving the atlas
 Isotonic Contractions around the dens of axis (i.e.,
 Myofilaments are able to slide shaking your head “no”)
past each other during
contractions  Muscles are attached to no fewer
 The muscle shortens, and than two points
movement occurs 1. Origin: attachment to an
 Example: bending the immovable or less movable
knee; lifting weights, bone
smiling 2. Insertion: attachment to a
 Isometric Contractions movable bone
 Muscle filaments are trying to  When the muscle contracts, the
slide, but the muscle is pitted insertion moves toward the origin
against an immovable object  Body movement occurs when
 Tension increases, but muscles contract across joints  Abduction
muscles do not  Movement of a limb away
shorten from the midline
 Example: pushing your palms  Adduction
together in front of you  Opposite of abduction
 Movement of a limb toward
MUSCLE TONE the midline

 Muscle Tone
 State of continuous partial
contractions
 Result of different motor units
being stimulated in a  Flexion
systematic way  Decreases the angle of the
 Muscle remains firm, healthy, joint
and constantly ready for  Brings two bones closer
action together
 Typical of bending hinge joints
EFFECT OF EXERCISE ON MUSCLES (e.g., knee and elbow) or
ball-and-socket joints (e.g.,  Circumduction
 Exercise increases muscle the hip)  Combination of flexion,
size, strength, and endurance  Extension extension, abduction, and
 Aerobic (endurance) exercise  Opposite of flexion adduction
(biking, jogging) results in  Increases angle between  Common in ball-and-socket
stronger, more flexible two bones joints
muscles with greater  Typical of straightening the  Proximal end of bone is
resistance to fatigue elbow or knee stationary, and distal end
 Makes body metabolism  Extension beyond 180º is moves in a circle
more efficient hyperextension
 Improves digestion, SPECIAL MOVEMENTS
coordination
 Resistance (isometric)  Dorsiflexion
exercise (weight lifting)  Lifting the foot so that the
increases muscle size and superior surface approaches
strength the shin (toward the dorsum)
 Individual muscle fibers  Plantar flexion
enlarge  Pointing the toes away from
the head

MUSCULAR SYSTEM ( PART  Inversion

 Turning sole of foot medially
2)  Eversion
 Turning sole of foot laterally
 Rotation
 Movement of a bone around
its longitudinal axis
 Common in ball-and-socket
joints
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY INSTUCTOR: MISS ANA TESSA CATAGUE QUIBETE. A26

 Supination
 Forearm rotates laterally so NAMING SKELETAL MUSCLES
palm faces anteriorly
 Radius and ulna are parallel  Muscles are named on the basis of
 Pronation several criteria
 Forearm rotates medially  By direction of muscle fibers
so palm faces posteriorly  Example: rectus
 Radius and ulna cross (straight)
each other like an X  By relative size of the muscle
 Example: maximus
(largest)
 By location of the muscle
 Example: temporalis
(temporal bone)
 By number of origins
 Example: triceps (three
heads)
 By location of the muscle’s
 Opposition origin and insertion
 Moving the thumb to touch  Example: sterno (on the
the tips of other fingers on sternum)
the same hand  By shape of the muscle
 Example: deltoid
(triangular)
 By action of the muscle
 Example: flexor and
extensor (flexes or
extends a bone)

INTERACTIONS OF SKELETAL MUSCLES

IN THE BODY

 Muscles can only pull as they

contract—not push
 In general, groups of muscles that
produce opposite actions lie on
opposite sides of a joint
 Prime mover: muscle with the
major responsibility for a
certain movement
 Antagonist: muscle that
opposes or reverses a prime
mover
 Synergist: muscle that aids a
prime mover in a movement or
reduces undesirable movements
 Fixator: specialized synergists that
hold a bone still or stabilize the
origin of a prime mover.
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY INSTUCTOR: MISS ANA TESSA CATAGUE QUIBETE. A26

 Increasing muscular control

reflects the maturation of the
nervous system
 Muscle control is achieved in a
superior/inferior and
proximal/distal direction
 As we age, muscle mass decreases,
and muscles become more sinewy
 Exercise helps retain muscle mass
and strength.

DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF THE

MUSCULAR SYSTEM

 Increasing muscular control

reflects the maturation of the
nervous system
 Muscle control is achieved in a
superior/inferior and
proximal/distal direction
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY INSTUCTOR: MISS ANA TESSA CATAGUE QUIBETE. A26

IMAGES

COMPARISON OF
SKELETAL, CARDIAC,
AND SMOOTH
MUSCLES

CONNECTIVE TISSUE
WRAPPINGS OF
SKELETAL MUSCLE

ARRANGEMENT OF
SMOOTH AND
CARDIAC MUSCLE
CELLS
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY INSTUCTOR: MISS ANA TESSA CATAGUE QUIBETE. A26

ANATOMY OF A
SKELETAL MUSCLE
FIBER (CELL)

MOTOR UNITS

EVENTS AT THE
NEUROMUSCULAR
JUNCTION
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY INSTUCTOR: MISS ANA TESSA CATAGUE QUIBETE. A26

COMPARING THE
ACTION
POTENTIAL TO A
FLAME
CONSUMING A DRY
TWIG

DIAGRAMMATIC
VIEWS OF A
SARCOMERE

SCHEMATIC
REPRESENTATION OF
CONTRACTION
MECHANISM: THE
SLIDING FILAMENT
THEORY
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY INSTUCTOR: MISS ANA TESSA CATAGUE QUIBETE. A26

A WHOLE MUSCLE’S
RESPONSE TO
DIFFERENT
STIMULATION RATES

METHODS OF
REGENERATING ATP
DURING MUSCLE
ACTIVITY

THE EFFECTS OF
AEROBIC TRAINING
VERSUS STRENGTH
TRAINING

THE FIVE GOLDEN

RULES OF SKELETAL
MUSCLE ACTIVITY

MUSCLE
ATTACHMENTS
(ORIGIN AND
INSERTION)
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY INSTUCTOR: MISS ANA TESSA CATAGUE QUIBETE. A26

BODY MOVEMENTS

MUSCLE ACTION
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY INSTUCTOR: MISS ANA TESSA CATAGUE QUIBETE. A26

RELATIONSHIP OF
FASCICLE
ARRANGEMENT TO
MUSCLE STRUCTURE

SUPERFICIAL
ANTERIOR MUSCLES
OF THE BODY

SUPERFICIAL
MUSCLES OF THE
HEAD AND NECK

MUSCLES OF THE
ANTERIOR TRUNK,
SHOULDER, AND ARM
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY INSTUCTOR: MISS ANA TESSA CATAGUE QUIBETE. A26

PELVIC, HIP, AND

THIGH MUSCLES OF
THE RIGHT SIDE OF
THE BODY

SUPERFICIAL
POSTERIOR MUSCLES
OF THE BODY

MUSCLES OF THE
POSTERIOR NECK,
TRUNK, AND ARM
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY INSTUCTOR: MISS ANA TESSA CATAGUE QUIBETE. A26

THE FLESHY
DELTOID MUSCLE
IS A FAVORED SITE
FOR
ADMINISTERING
INTRAMUSCULAR
INJECTIONS

PELVIC, HIP, AND

THIGH MUSCLES
OF THE RIGHT SIDE
OF THE BODY

SUPERFICIAL
MUSCLES OF THE
RIGHT LEG

MAJOR
SUPERFICIAL
MUSCLES OF THE
ANTERIOR AND
POSTERIOR
SURFACE OF THE
BODY