UNIT-IV

PART – A

1. Draw the symbolic representation of NPN and PNP Transistors

2. What is the application of Amplifier?

Amplifier is an electronic device which amplifies the signal means it improves strength of weak
signal and this can be controlled by the adjusting the gain of amplifier.
Amplifiers are used in audio, radio and power signal amplification process, in
communication, radio, television, power applications etc.

3. Draw the V-I characteristics of PN-Junction diode.

VI characteristics of P-N junction diodes is a curve between the voltage and current through the
circuit. Voltage is taken along the x-axis while the current is taken along the y-axis. The above
graph is the V-I characteristics curve of the P-N junction diode. With the help of the curve, we can
understand that there are three regions in which the diode works, and they are:
 Zero bias

 Forward bias

 Reverse bias

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4. List the applications of PN-Junction diode

 It can be used as a solar cell.

 It is used as Rectifier circuit.

 It is used as DC power supply.

 It can be used as current etc.

 It can be used as a photodiode.

 When the diode is forward-biased, it can be used in LED lighting applications.

 It is used to create temperature sensors and reference voltages.

5. Draw the symbol of Zener diode

The Zener circuit symbol places two tags at the end of the bar- one in the upward direction and the
other in the lower direction.
Therefore, the circuit symbol of the Zener diode is

6. What is Rectifier?
A rectifier is an electrical device that convert an alternating current (AC) into direct current
(DC) by using one (or) more P-N junction diode.

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7. What do you mean by biasing?
In electronics, “Biasing” usually refers to a fixed DC Voltage (or) current applied to a terminal of
an electronic component such as a diode (or) transistor.
Biasing of Diodes
 Zener diode - Reverse Biasing
 Varactor diode - Reverse Biasing
 Photo diode - Reverse Biasing
 Tunnel diode - Forward Biasing
 Led diode - Forward Biasing

PART – B

1. (a). Explain the working of p-n diode in forward and reverse bias conditions.
 P-n junction diode is a device which is used for rectification.
 We can use it in two forms forward biased and reversed biased.
Forward bias:

 When P type semi conductor is connected to the positive terminal of a battery and N type semi
conductor is connected to negative terminal of a battery is known as the forwar biased
connection.

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 In forward bias diode have very small resistance, so it acts like a short circuit.
 Holes from positive terminal make repulsion to holes in P type semi conductor, similarly
negative terminal repel majority charges of N type semi conductor.Due to this width of
depletion layer reduces. Hence charges can easily jump from one side to another.
 The potential barrier voltage is very small (nearly 0.7 V for silicon and 0.3 V for germanium
junction) hence very few amount of voltage is required for the complete elimination of the
barrier. The complete elimination of the barrier constitutes the low resistance path for the flow
of current. Thus, the current starts flowing through the junction. This current is called forward
current.
Reverse bias:

 When P type semi conductor is connected to the negative terminal of a battery and N type
semi conductor is connected to the positive terminal of a battery is known as reverse bias
condition.
 In reverse bias diode have very high resistance , ao itacts like an opencircuit.

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 Holes from positive terminal make attraction to majority charges that is electrons in N type
semi conductor similarly negative terminal attract majority charges of P type semi conductor
due to this width of depletion layer increases. Hence charges cannot easily jump from one side
to anotherand have more resistance.
 The forward voltage of the silicon diode is 0.7 volts, and the forward voltage of the
germanium is 0.3 volts.

1. (b). List out the applications of Bipolar Junction Transistor

 The bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is used in logic circuits.
 The BJT is used as an oscillator.
 It is used as an amplifier.
 It is used as a multivibrator.
 For wave shaping it is used in clipping circuits.
 Used as a detector or demodulator.
 It is also used as modulator.
 Used in timer and time delay circuits.
 It is used in electronics switch.
 It is used in switching circuits.

2.(a). Explain the Avalanche and Zener Breakdowns.

Avalanche breakdown:
 The avalanche breakdown at " high reverse voltage applied to p-n junction diode.
 Free electrons gains large amount of energy.
 The free electrons high speed with the atoms the more electrons formed.

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 The electrons doped to holes then wide depletion region formed,hence the negative and
positive atoms formed.
 The electric current suddenly increased.
 This leads to an avalanche of free-charge carriers and a high reverse current, which
permanently damages the p-n junction. The voltage at which this occurs is called the avalanche
breakdown voltage.

Zener breakdown:
 The zener breakdown meansheavily doped p-n junction diode.
 This caused narrow depletion region formed.
 This region generates strong " electric field".
 When reverse bias applied to diode close to zener voltage. Then electric field breaks bonding
thats way electric current from one place to another place.

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 This type of breakdown is temporary and the p-n junction returns to its original state once the
reverse voltage is removed. Zener breakdown occurs in heavily doped p-n junction diodes with
a thin depletion region.

2.(b). Explain the operation of CB configuration of BJT and its input and output
characteristics briefly.
Common Base Configuration

Fig.: Common Base Configuration

 In common base configuration, emitter is the input terminal, collector is the output terminal
and base terminal is connected as a common terminal for both input and output.
 In common base configuration, the base terminal is grounded so the common base
configuration is also known as grounded base configuration.
 Sometimes common base configuration is referred to as common base amplifier, CB amplifier,
or CB configuration.
 The input signal is applied between the emitter and base terminals while the corresponding
output signal is taken across the collector and base terminals.
 The supply voltage between base and emitter is denoted by VBE while the supply voltage
between collector and base is denoted by VCB.
 Current Amplification factor

 Input characteristics

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 Output characteristics

3.(a). Explain the performance of the transistor in three different types of configurations.
 Depending on the input,output and common terminals, a transistor can be connected in three
configurations.
1. Common base (CB) configuration.
2. Common emitter (CE) configuration.
3. Common collector (CC) configuration.

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 Common Base Configuration Common Emitter Configuration Common Collector Configuration

In common base configuration, emitter is the input In common emitter configuration, base is the input In this configuration, the base terminal of
terminal, collector is the output terminal and base terminal, collector is the output terminal and emitter is the transistor serves as the input, the
terminal is connected as a common terminal for both the common terminal for both input and output. emitter terminal is the output and the
input and output. collector terminal is common for both
input and output.
In common base configuration, the base terminal is In common emitter configuration, the emitter terminal In common collector configuration, the
grounded so the common base configuration is also is grounded so the common emitter configuration is collector terminal is grounded so the
known as grounded base configuration. also known as grounded emitter configuration. common collector configuration is also
known as grounded collector
configuration.
Sometimes common base configuration is referred to Sometimes common emitter configuration is also Sometimes common collector
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as common base amplifier, CB amplifier, or CB referred to as CE configuration, common emitter configuration is also referred to as emitter
configuration. amplifier, or CE amplifier. follower, voltage follower, common
collector amplifier, CC amplifier, or CC
configuration.
The input signal is applied between the emitter and The input signal is applied between the base and The input supply voltage between base and
base terminals while the corresponding output signal emitter terminals while the output signal is taken collector is denoted by VBC while the
is taken across the collector and base terminals. between the collector and emitter terminals. output voltage between emitter and
collector is denoted by VEC.
The supply voltage between base and emitter is The supply voltage between base and emitter is The input supply voltage between base and
denoted by VBE while the supply voltage between denoted by VBE while the supply voltage between collector is denoted by VBC while the
collector and base is denoted by VCB. collector and emitter is denoted by VCE. output voltage between emitter and
collector is denoted by VEC.
Current Amplification factor Current Amplification factor Current Amplification factor

Applications Applications Applications

For high frequency applications Audio signal amplications. Impedance matching circuit
Phase shift between Input and Output Phase shift between Input and Output Phase shift between Input and Output

00(or)3600 1800 00(or)3600

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Input characteristics Input characteristics Input characteristics

Output characteristics Output characteristics Output characteristics

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 3.(b). What is Doping? Describe P-and N-type semiconductors?
 The process by which an impurity is added to a semi-conductor is known as “Doping”.
 The amount and type of impurity which is to be added to a material has to be closely
controlled during the preparation of extrinsic semi-conductor.
 Depending upon the type of impurity added the extrinsic semi-conductor may be classified as
N type semi-conductor and P type semi-conductor.
N type semi-conductor:
 Pentavalent impurity is added in a pure silicon or germanium to form N type semi-conductor.
 Electrons are majority charge carriers and holes are minority charge carriers.
 The majority of charge carriers move from low potential to high potential.
 The impurity is called donor impurity.
 Doping agent: Arsenic antimony etc.
 It has donor energy levels that are very close to the conduction band.
P -type semi-conductor:
 An trivalent impurity is added to pure silicon or germanium to form p-type semi-conductor.
 Holes are majority charge carriers and electrons are minority charge carriers.
 The majority of charge carriers move from high potential to low potential.
 The impurity is called “acceptor impurity”.
 Doping agents: Gallium, Indium etc.
 It has acceptor energy levels that are very close to the valence band.

4.(a). For the CE transistor configuration, draw the circuit and explain the input and
output characteristics.
Common Emitter Configuration

Fig. : Common Emitter Configuration

 In common emitter configuration, base is the input terminal, collector is the output terminal
and emitter is the common terminal for both input and output.
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 In common emitter configuration, the emitter terminal is grounded so the common emitter
configuration is also known as grounded emitter configuration.
 Sometimes common emitter configuration is also referred to as CE configuration, common
emitter amplifier, or CE amplifier.
 The input signal is applied between the base and emitter terminals while the output signal is
taken between the collector and emitter terminals.
 Input characteristics

 Current Amplification factor

 Output characteristics

4(b). Explain the operation of Public Address system along with Diagram
 A Public Address System (PA system) is a collection of equipment designed to enhance sound
for a large or dispersed audience.
 It often consists of microphones, amplifiers, loudspeakers, and other related equipment.
 Public areas with PA systems include stadiums, airports, train stations, shopping malls,
schools, and offices.

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Microphone: The microphone is an input device that converts sound waves to electrical signals.
It records the voice or other audio sources and transmits the electrical signals to the mixer.
Mixer: The mixer integrates audio signals from microphones, instruments, and other sources. It
lets you to change the volume, equalization, and mixing of several audio sources before sending
the combined signal to the amplifier.
Voltage Amplifier: After the mixer combines the audio signal, the voltage amplifier raises the
voltage level of the signal. The weak electrical signals are amplified in this stage so they can be
processed further.
Processing Circuit: A variety of parts, including equalizers, compressors, limiters, and effects
processors, may be a part of the processing circuit. Depending on the needs, these parts modify
the audio signal to improve its quality, change its tone, or add special effects.
Driver Amplifier: The processed audio signal is received by the driver amplifier, which then
amplifies it even more. It gets ready the signal so that enough power can be applied to the
loudspeakers.
Power Amplifier: The audio signal must be amplified by the power amplifier to a sufficient level
for the loudspeakers to be powered. It increases the signal strength to a point where it can generate
sound at the targeted loudness.
Loudspeaker: The output device that transforms the electrical signal into sound waves once it has
been amplified is the loudspeaker. When an electrical signal is received, a diaphragm vibrates,
producing audible sound waves that travel through the atmosphere and are perceived by the
audience.
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5(a). Draw the block diagram of DC power supply and explain its operation.
 A power supply is an electric device that supplies electric power to an electric load.
 A regulated power supply is an embedded circuit.
 It converts unregulated AC (Alternating Current) to a constant DC (Direct Current).

 The load may be connected across the voltage regulator.

Transformer:

 Transformer is a static device which transfers the electrical power from one circuit to another
circuit with derived change in voltage and without change in frequency
1. Step-up transformer
2. Step-down transformer
 A Step down transformer is used to step-down the voltage from i/p AC to the required
voltage of the electronic device .
 The input of transformer is 230V of AC mains. the output of transformer is provided to the
rectifier circuit.

Rectifier:

Rectifier is a type of circuit which is used to convert AC into DC.

Rectifiers are three types

1. Half-wave rectifier

2. Full-wave rectifier

3. Bridge rectifier

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 Commonly the bridge rectifier is used to regulted power supply.
 The full wave bridge rectifier consist of 4 diodes.
 Its function is to convert AC mains voltage into rectified DC voltage .
 The rectified DC output from the rectifier is given as the input to the filter circuit .
Filter Circuit:

 Most of the electronic circuits requires a DC voltage i.e. constant similar to the voltage from
the power source.
 But the rectifiers cannot provide ripple free DC voltage .they provide pulsating DC .
 The circuit used for filtering out AC variations from the rectified voltage is called Filter
Circuit .
 The filter ciruit is used to convert the high rippled DC output of the full wave rectifier to the
ripple free DC content.
 A filter is used to make the wave form ripple free i.e. used for smoothing out the AC variation
from the rectified voltage.
 The output of the filter is provided to the voltage regulator.


5(b). Explain the evolution of electronics Vacuum tubes to nano electronics

1. Vacuum Tubes (Early 20th Century):
 Invention of the vacuum tube by Lee De Forest in 1907.
 Used in early computers and radios, enabling electronic signal amplification.
2. Transistors (1947):
 Invention of the transistor at Bell Labs by John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William
Shockley.
 Replaced vacuum tubes, leading to smaller, more reliable, and energy-efficient devices.
3. Integrated Circuits (1958):
 Invention of the first integrated circuit (IC) by Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments and
independently by Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor.
 Enabled the miniaturization of electronic components and the birth of the microchip.
4. Microprocessors (Early 1970s):
 Development of the microprocessor, such as the Intel 4004 in 1971.
 Led to the birth of the personal computer and digital revolution.
5. Moore's Law (1965):
 Gordon Moore's observation that the number of transistors on a microchip doubles
approximately every two years.
 Continual miniaturization and exponential increase in computing power.
6. Semiconductor Manufacturing Advances (Ongoing):

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 Refinement of semiconductor manufacturing techniques, enabling smaller and more powerful
chips.
 Impact on smartphones, computers, and various electronic devices.
7. Nanoelectronics (Late 20th Century - Ongoing):
 Development of nanoscale electronic components and materials.
 Enables advancements in quantum computing, nanotechnology, and high-performance
electronics.
6(a). Compare and tabulate the different parameters in half and full wave rectifiers.
Half wave rectifier:
 The half wave rectifier is a type of rectifier which converts half of the AC input
signal(positive half cycle) into pulsating DC output signal and the remaining half cycle
signal(negative half cycle)is blocked (or) lost.
 In half wave rectifier circuit, we use only a single diode.

 For example, if the positive half cycle is allowed then the negative half cycle is blocked.
 Similarly, if the negative half cycle is allowed then the positive half cycle is blocked.
 However, a half wave rectifier will not allow both positive and negative half cycle at the same
time.
 Therefore, the half cycle (either positive (or) negative) of the input signal is wasted.
 The half wave rectifier is the simplest form of the rectifier. We use only a single diode to
construct the half wave rectifier.

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 The half wave rectifier is made of an AC source, transformer (step down), diode, and rectifier
(load).
 The diode is placed between the transformer and resistor.
 Applications: Low-power applications, such as battery chargers and LED drivers
Full wave Rectifier:
 The full wave rectifier is a type of rectifier which converts the full AC input signal(positive
half cycle and negative half cycle)to pulsating DC output signal.
 The efficiency of full wave rectifier is high as compared to the half wave rectifier.

 A full wave rectifier is a type of rectifier which both half cycles of AC signal into pulsating
DC signal.
 The full wave rectifier converts both positive and negative half cycles of the input AC signal
into output pulsating DC signal.
 Applications: High-power applications, such as power supplies and motor controllers

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6(b). Discuss the working principal of Zener voltage regulator

 A Voltage regulator is a combination of elements designed to ensure that the output voltage
of a supply remains constant.
 The process of keeping constant voltage across load regardless of variation of input voltage
(or) load current is called “Regulation”.
 Zener diode is a specially designed diode which has ability to maintain constant voltage
across load.
 Therefore Zener diode can be used to provide constant voltage across the load.
Need for Regulation
To protect the load, Zener diode is connected in parallel to the load RL in reverse fashion.

Consider Zener operated in breakdown region.

Case (i):

Case (ii):

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 As Input voltageVi increases, source current(Is) increases, Zener current Iz increases.
As Input voltageVi decreases, source current(Is) decreases, Zener current Iz decreases.

Case (ii):

As load resistance RL increases, load current (IL) decreases, Zener current Iz increases.
As load resistance RL decreases, load current (IL) increases, Zener current Iz decreases.

7(a). Write short notes on Zener voltage regulator?

 A Voltage regulator is a combination of elements designed to ensure that the output voltage
of a supply remains constant.
 The process of keeping constant voltage across load regardless of variation of input voltage
(or) load current is called “Regulation”.
 Zener diode is a specially designed diode which has ability to maintain constant voltage
across load.
 Therefore Zener diode can be used to provide constant voltage across the load.
Need for Regulation
To protect the load, Zener diode is connected in parallel to the load RL in reverse fashion.

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Consider Zener operated in breakdown region.

Case (i):

Case (ii):

As Input voltageVi increases, source current(Is) increases, Zener current Iz increases.

As Input voltageVi decreases, source current(Is) decreases, Zener current Iz decreases.

Case (ii):

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 As load resistance RL increases, load current (IL) decreases, Zener current Iz increases.
As load resistance RL decreases, load current (IL) increases, Zener current Iz decreases.

(b). Explain the operation of Full Wave bridge rectifier with capacitor filter with necessary
diagrams.
 The main function of full wave rectifier is to convert an AC into DC. As the name implies,
this rectifier rectifies both the half cycles of the i/p AC signal, but the DC signal acquired at
the o/p still have some waves.
 To decrease these waves at the o/p this filter is used.
 In the full wave rectifier circuit using a capacitor filter, the capacitor C is located across the
RL load resistor.
 The working of this rectifier is almost the same as a half wave rectifier.
 The only dissimilarity is half wave rectifier has just one-half cycles (positive or negative)
whereas in full wave rectifier has two cycles (positive and negative).

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 Once the i/p AC voltage is applied throughout the positive half cycle, then the D1 diode gets
forward biased and permits flow of current while the D2 diode gets reverse biased & blocks
the flow of current.

 Throughout the above half cycle, the current in the D1 diode gets the filter and energizes the
capacitor.
 But, the capacitor charging will occur just when the voltage which is applied is superior to the
capacitor voltage.
 Firstly, the capacitor will not charge, as no voltage will stay among the capacitor plates.
 So when the voltage is switched on, then the capacitor will get charged immediately.

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