DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER

INTRODUCTION:
 Only the wave theory of light can account for experimental phenomena like light reflection,
refraction, interference, and diffraction. These occurrences confirm that light is a wave. For
example: Light exhibits interference when it travels through two slits. Only wave theory
provides an explanation for this finding.
 The particle nature of light is the only explanation for experimental phenomena such
as photoelectric effect, and Compton effect. These occurrences confirm that light is a particle.
For example: When a metal surface is exposed to light with a low enough wavelength,
electrons are emitted. The photoelectric effect is a phenomenon that can only be explained
in terms of light's particle nature.
 The dual nature of light refers to this. It is not possible for the wave nature and the particle
nature to exist together.

PHOTON THEORY OF LIGHT:

Einstein’s quantum theory states that light travels in energy bundles, also known as packets or quanta,
with each bundle having the capacity to carry energy and being referred to as a photon.
 Properties of photons:
1. In a vacuum, a photon always moves at c = 299, 792, 458 ms−1 ≈ 3.0 × 108 ms−1. This is
true for whatever frame of reference in which the photon is observed.
2. Each photon has a definite energy and a definite linear momentum.
Energy of photon is given by:

Where c = Speed of light, h = Plank's constant=6.610–34 J-sec,  = Frequency in Hz,

 = Wavelength of light
In electron volt,

Momentum:

3. Rest mass of the photon is zero. But it's effective mass is given as:

4. Photons are electrically neutral and are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
5. When a photon collides with another particle (a photon-electron collision, for
example), the total energy and total momentum are conserved. In a collision, a new
photon could be produced or the original photon could be absorbed. This suggests
that in a collision, photons might not be preserved.
6. A greater number of photons will cross a given area in a given amount of time if the
intensity of light at a certain wavelength is increased but every photon retains the
same amount of energy.
 Energy crossing per unit area normally per second is called intensity or energy flux.

At a distance r from a point source of power P, intensity is given by:

7. Number of photons falling per second (n): If P is the power of radiation and E is the
energy of a photon then,

RADIATION FORCE AND RADIATION PRESSURE:

A surface experiences pressure and force from photons as they fall upon it. Radiation force, also
referred to as pressure, is the force that a surface exposed to radiation experiences. Let's look at a
surface having area A that is exposed to radiation with intensity I, as depicted in figure. The surface is
receiving radiation perpendicularly. Energy that the surface receives in a second, P=IA. It is also the
energy that the surface receives. Photons received by the surface in a second is

Note: If radiation is falling on the surface at certain angle, the power incident on the surface is
P=IAcosθ

1. When radiations are falling normally on a perfectly reflecting surface:

Let 'N' photons are falling in time t,

Momentum before striking the surface, (p1)= Nh/
Momentum after striking the surface, (p2)= Nh/
Change in momentum of photons = p2 – p1 = -2Nh/
Momentum transferred to the surface = p = 2Nh/
Radiation force on the surface,
 Where

Radiation pressure
2. When radiations are falling normally on a perfectly absorbing surface:

Let 'N' photons are falling in time t,

Momentum before striking the surface, (p1)= Nh/
Momentum after striking the surface, (p2)= 0
Change in momentum of photons = p2 – p1 = -Nh/
Momentum transferred to the surface = p = Nh/
Radiation force on the surface,

And

So,

ELECTRON EMISSION:
 Electron emission is the phenomena that occurs when energy is incident onto a metal
surface and causes electrons to emit from it.
  Work Function:
 A minimum amount of energy is needed to remove an electron from the metal's surface.
The work function of the metal is the minimum energy required by an electron.
 The work function, which is typically represented by ϕo, or Wo is dependent upon the
characteristics of the metal and its surface.

Where 0= Threshold frequency and 0= Threshold wavelength

 It is measured in eV. And 1eV = 1.6 x 10-19J is the energy gained by an electron when it is
accelerated by a potential difference of 1 volt.
 The following physical processes can provide the free electrons with the minimal energy
needed for the electron emission from the metal surface:
1. Thermionic emission: The free electrons can be given enough thermal energy to
allow them to escape the metal by heating it appropriately.
2. Field emission: Electrons can be taken out of a metal, much like in a spark plug, by
subjecting it to an extremely high electric field (on the order of 108 V m–1).
3. Photoelectric emission: Electrons are released from a metal surface when it is
illuminated by light with the appropriate frequency, a process known as
photoelectric emission. We refer to these electrons that are produced by photo
(light) as photoelectrons.

DIFFERENT EXPERIMENTS:
1. Hertz Experiment:

Heinrich Hertz (1857–1894) made the discovery of photoelectric emission in 1887 while doing
research with electromagnetic waves. Hertz noticed that when the emitter plate was exposed to
ultraviolet light from an arc lamp, high voltage sparks across the detector loop were amplified in
his experimental study on the creation of electromagnetic waves using a spark discharge. These
sparks confirmed that the energy travelled from the circuit to the detector which led to the theory
of electron emission.
2. Hallwachs’ and Lenard’s observations:
 Lenard (1862–1947) noted that current flows through a circuit when ultraviolet radiations are
allowed to strike the emitter plate of a glass tube that has been evacuated and contains two
electrodes (metal plates). As soon as the ultraviolet radiations were stopped, the current flow
also stopped. These observations show that electrons are released from the emitter plate C when
UV radiation strikes it and are drawn to the positive collecting plate A by the electric field. The
current flows as a result of the electrons passing through the evacuated glass tube. Consequently,
current flows via the external circuit when light strikes the emitter's surface.

When an electroscope's negatively charged zinc plate was exposed to UV light in 1888, Hallwachs
noticed that the plate lost its charge. Furthermore, when exposed to ultraviolet light, the
uncharged zinc plate acquired a positive charge. The application of UV light was discovered to
significantly enhance the positive charge on a positively charged zinc plate. Based on these
findings, he deduced that UV light caused negatively charged particles to be emitted from the
zinc plate.

PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT:
 On a metal surface, electrons are emitted when light with a small enough wavelength strikes
the metal. The photoelectric effect is the name given to this occurrence. Photoelectrons are
the electrons that are released from the metal and the current so produced is called
photoelectric current.
 The photoelectric effect is based on the principle of conservation of energy.
 The photoelectric effect was first observed by Heinrich Hertz and it was investigated in detail
by Whilelm Hallwachs and Philipp Lenard.
 Threshold frequency(𝝂0):
 Threshold frequency is the minimum frequency of incoming radiation needed to expel an
electron from a metal surface.
 It depends on the nature of the plate.
 If incident frequency <o ⇒ No photoelectric emission
 For electron emission:
E ≥ ϕo
⇒ hν ≥ ϕo
ϕo
⇒ν≥
h
ϕo
⇒ νmin = = νo
h
 Threshold wavelength(0):
 Threshold wavelength is the maximum wavelength of incident radiation needed to
eject electrons off a metallic surface.
 If incident wavelength >0  No photoelectron emission
 For electron emission:
E ≥ ϕo
⇒ hν ≥ ϕo
hc
⇒ ≥ ϕo
λ
 hc
⇒λ≤
ϕo
hc
⇒ λmax = = λo
ϕo

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT:

 A thin photosensitive plate C and another metal plate A are placed inside an evacuated
glass/quartz tube as part of the setup used for the experimental study of the photoelectric
effect. A sufficiently short wavelength monochromatic light from source S enters the window
W and falls on the photosensitive plate C (emitter). The glass tube has a transparent quartz
window sealed to it, allowing UV light to enter and irradiate the photosensitive plate C.
 The electric field produced by the battery causes the plate C to emit electrons, which plate A
(the collector) then collects. The variable potential difference between plates C and A is
maintained by the battery. With a commutator, the polarity of the plates C and A can be
reversed. As a result, the plate A can be kept in relation to emitter C at a chosen positive or
negative potential.
 In the circuit, electric current flows as a result of electron emissions. A micro ammeter (µA)
measures the photocurrent that results from the emitter and collector plates, while a
voltmeter (V) measures the potential difference between them.
 The potential of collector plate A in relation to emitter plate C can be varied to change the
photoelectric current. It is possible to alter the potential difference V between the emitter C
and the collector A in addition to the intensity and frequency of the incident light.

OBSERVATIONS OF PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT:

1. Effect of intensity of light on photocurrent: A graph between intensity of light and photoelectric
current is found to be a straight line as shown in figure. Photoelectric current or number of
photoelectrons emitted per second is directly proportional to the intensity of incident radiation.
In this experiment the frequency and retarding potential are kept constant.

2. Effect of potential on photoelectric current:

 A is kept positive with respect to C when light with a fixed frequency (ふ) and intensity (I)
is incident on photo emissive plate C. When the positive potential of A is gradually increased, it is
discovered that the photocurrent grows initially before reaching a maximum value known as the
saturation current. Now that plate A is connected to a negative potential with respect to C, the
current steadily drops and eventually reaches zero at a specific negative potential.

Saturation current: The maximum amount of photoelectric current occurs when all of the photo
electrons released by the cathode reach the anode. This is referred to as the saturation current
running through the circuit at that moment.
Stopping potential: Stopping potential is the minimum magnitude of the anode's negative
potential with respect to the cathode for which the current is zero. Another name for this is cutoff
voltage. For a given frequency of the incident radiation, the stopping potential is independent of
its intensity I.

When the stopping potential is high enough to repel even the most energetic photoelectrons,
with the greatest kinetic energy (Kmax), photoelectric current is zero. So,

3. Effect of frequency of incident radiation on stopping potential:

When incident light frequency increases but intensity stays constant, stopping potential increases
as well, but photoelectric current stays unchanged.

Note: There is no time lag between the incidence of radiations and emission of electrons. It is a
spontaneous process. The emission starts in a time of the order of 10– 9 s or less.
4. It is discovered that the graphs relating the maximum kinetic energy of electrons emitted from
various metals and the frequency of light utilized are straight lines with the same slope.
 The graph shows that:
a. For a given photosensitive material, the stopping potential V0 varies linearly with the
frequency of incident radiation.
b. A minimum cut-off frequency, 𝜈0, exists for which the stopping potential is equal to
zero.

FAILURE OF WAVE THEORY OF LIGHT:

 Wave theory states that energy is dispersed continuously across a surface upon the incidence
of light. Therefore, it must take some time for the electron to gather enough energy to release
itself. However, there is no time lag in the experiment.
 More energetic electrons ought to be released as intensity rises. Therefore, the stopping
potential ought to depend on the intensity. However, it is not observed.
 Wave theory states that electron emission is conceivable at every frequency if the intensity is
high enough. It implies that a threshold frequency shouldn't exist.

EINSTEIN’S PHOTOELECTRIC EQUATION:

An electron absorbs a quantum of radiation energy (h𝜈) in the photoelectric effect. The most loosely
bound electron will emerge with the maximum kinetic energy if this absorbed energy exceeds
the minimum energy (work function ϕ0 of the metal), whereas more tightly bound electrons will
emerge with kinetic energies less than the maximum value.

Above equation explains all the observations on photoelectric effect.

 Kmax is independent of intensity of radiation but depends linearly on .
 Photoelectric emission is possible only if h > 0 because Kmax must be non-negative.

0 is threshold frequency. No photoelectric emission is possible below 0, even if the incident
radiation of high intensity and long duration falls on the surface
 Moreover, the number of energy quanta per unit area per unit time determines the radiation
intensity. Greater intensity corresponds to greater numbers of energy quanta per unit area
per unit time, more electrons absorbing the energy quanta, and consequently, more electrons
leaving the metal (for > 0). This explains why photoelectric current is proportional to
intensity for  >0.
WAVE NATURE OF MATTER:

as:

where m is the mass of the particle and v is its speed.

 For particle having kinetic energy E:

 For charged particle accelerated from rest by potential V:

Note: Why do Macroscopic objects in our daily life do not show wave-like character?
Answer: From de Broglie relation

It is obvious that  is smaller for a heavier particle or more energetic particle.

For example, let us consider a base-ball of 150 g traveling with a speed of 35.0 ms–1

This wavelength is too small to measure. Hence macroscopic objects, do not show wave-like character.
But Wave character of sub-atomic particles is significant and measurable. They are as follows:

Electron

Proton

Deutron

Alpha-particle

Neutron
 Gas molecules

Achiever I:
1. The momentum of the photon of wavelength 5000 Å will be:
(1) 1.3 × 10–27 kg-m/s
(2) 1.3 × 10–28 kg-m/s
(3) 4 × 1029 kg-m/s
(4) 4 × 10–18 kg-m/s

2. A metal surface of work function 1.07 eV is irradiated with light of wavelength 332 nm. The
retarding potential required to stop the escape of photo electron is:
(1) 4.81 eV
(2) 3.74 eV
(3) 2.66 eV
(4) 1.07 eV

3. The maximum wavelength of radiation that can produce photoelectric effect in a certain
metal is 200 nm. The maximum kinetic energy acquired by electron due to radiation of
wavelength 100 nm will be:
(1) 12.4 eV
(2) 6.2 eV
(3) 100 eV
(4) 200 eV

4. In an experiment on photoelectric effect the frequency  of the incident light is plotted against
the stopping potential V0. The work function of the photoelectric surface is given by (e is
electronic charge):

(1) OB × e in eV
(2) OB in volt
(3) OA in eV
(4) The slope of the line AB

5. A point source of light is used in an experiment on photoelectric effect. Which of the following
curves best represents the variation of photocurrent (i) with distance (d) of the source from
emitter?
 (1) A
(2) B
(3) C
(4) D

6. The de Broglie wavelength of a neutron at 27°C is . What will be its wavelength at 927°C?
(1) /2
(2) /3
(3) /4
(4) /9

7. Find the ratio of de Broglie wavelength of molecules of hydrogen and helium which are at
temperatures 27°C and 127°C respectively.
5
(1) √3
𝟖
(2) √𝟑
3
(3) √
5
3
(4) √8

8. If an electron and a photon propagate in the form of waves having the same wavelength, it
implies that they have the same
(1) Energy
(2) Momentum
(3) Velocity
(4) Angular momentum

9. The momentum of a photon having energy equal to the rest energy of an electron is:
(1) Zero
(2) 2.73 × 10–22 kg m s–1
(3) 1.99 × 10–24 kg m s–1
(4) Infinite

10. A particle having zero rest mass and non-zero energy and momentum must travel with a speed
(1) Equal to c, the speed of light in vacuum
(2) Tending to infinity
(3) Greater than c
(4) Less than c

Achiever II:
1. The work function of metal is 1 eV. Light of wavelength 3000 Å is incident on this metal
surface. The maximum velocity of emitted photoelectron will be:
(1) 10 m s–1
(2) 1×103 m s–1
(3) 1×104 m s–1
(4) 1×106 m s–1
2. Light of two different frequencies whose photons have energies 1eV and 2.5 eV respectively,
successively illuminates a metal of work function 0.5 eV. The ratio of maximum kinetic energy
of emitted electron will be:
(1) 1 : 5
(2) 1 : 4
(3) 1 : 2
(4) 1 : 1

3. Which of the following figure represents the variation of particle momentum and the
associated de Broglie wavelength?

a.

b.

c.

d. (Correct answer)

4. What will be the ratio of de Broglie wavelengths of proton and particle of same energy?
(1) 2 : 1
(2) 1 : 2
(3) 4 : 1
(4) 1 : 4
5. The potential energy of a particle of mass m is given by:

1 & 2 are the de-Broglie wavelengths of the particle, when 0 ≤x ≤1 & x >1 respectively. If the
total energy of the particle is 2E0, the ratio 1/2 will be:
(1) 2
(2) 1
(3) √𝟐
(4) 1/√2

6. If alpha, beta & gamma rays carry same momentum, which has the longest wavelength?
(1) Alpha rays
(2) Beta rays
(3) Gamma rays
(4) All have same wavelength

7. Quantum nature of light is explained by

(1) Maxwell electromagnetic theory
(2) de-Broglie theory
(3) Huygen’s wave theory
(4) Photoelectric effect

8. The time taken by a photoelectron to come out after the photon strikes a photosensitive
surface is (approximately):
(1) 10–16 s
(2) 10–10 s
(3) 10–2 s
(4) 10–4 s

9. Choose the correct statement for the given i (photoelectric current) and V (accelerating
potential difference) graph, where 1 and 2 are wavelengths of incident light:

(1) 1 > 2
(2) 1 < 2
(3) 1 = 2
(4) 1 = 22

10. An electron is accelerated from rest by a potential difference 100 V. de-Broglie wavelength of
the electron will be
(1) 12.27 Å
(2) 122.7 Å
(3) 1.227 Å
(4) 0.286 Å