M •AT~MATtt~ .£'.

«IM taK
I(\_
$cko( Topic 1: Functions and Graphs
H2MATH
d ep art m nt 2019 /YR 5

CHA PTE Rl
GRA PHS AND TRANSFORMATIONS 1

Syllabus includes
• use of a graphing calculator to graph a given function
ections with the axes, turning
• im~ortant characteristics of graphs such as symmetry, inters
pomts and asymptotes of the following:
x2 y2
-+-=l
a2 b2
x2 y2 y2 x2
= , b2- -a2= l
e - - -b2
a2
ax+b
l · -

y
cx+d
2
ax +bx +c
y=----
dx+ e
etry, and restrictions on the
• determining the equations of asymptotes, axes of symm
possible values of x and/or y
• effect of transformations on the graph of y
= f(x) as represented by
and combinations of these
y=a f(x) , y=f( x)+a , y=f( x+a ) and y=f( ax),
transformations
• simple parametric equations and their graphs

Con tent s
~ I
1 Introduction
1.1 Characteristics of a graph
1.2 Asymptotes
1.2.1 Vertical asymptote
1.2.2 Horizontal asymptote
1.2.3 Oblique asymptote
1.3 Symmetrical properties of Even and Odd Functions

2 Graphs of Standard Functions

2.1 Lines
2.2 Power Functions
2.3 Exponential Functions
2.4 Logarithmic Functions
2.5 Polynomials
2.5.1 Quadratic Functions
2.5.2 Polynomials of degree 3 and above
2.6 Trigonometric Functions

Chapte r I : Graphs and Transformations I

 2-7 Rational Functions
2.7.1 Rectangular Hyperbola
ax2 +bx+ c
2. 7.2 Hyperbolas of the fonn Y = dx + e

3 Sketching Non-standard Graphs using Graphing Calculator

4 Basic Linear Transformations on the graph of Y = f (x)

4.1 Translation
4.2 Reflection
4.3 Scaling
L2>
5 Graphs of Conics
5.1 Parabolas
5.2 Circle
5.3 Ellipse
5.4 Hyperbola

6 Simple Parametric Equations and their Graphs

6.1 Parametric equations
6.2 Graphs of simple parametric equations
6.3 Converting the equations of a curve between parametric and cartesia n forms
6.3.1 Converting a parametric equation to its cartesian form
6.3.2 <;onverting a cartesian equation to its parametric form

7 Self-Read Examples

8 Appendices

2
Chapter l : Graphs and Transfonnations I
 1 INTRODUCTION
I
The graph of a function is a visual re resent . . . .
°_f th e relationship between two variables, I
very often referred to x and yon th C prt . atton
t e a esian coordinate system.

•
f
1.1 Characteristics of a graph

and indicate them on the

Whktenhwe sked~ch la graph, we need to take note of the follow characteristics
s e c accor mg y:
n)
S : ~ta_tionary points _(maximu~, minimu m points, or stationary points of inflexio
I • Axial !ntercepts (1.e. the x-mtercepts and they-intercepts)
A : Asymptotes (horizontal, vertical or oblique asymptotes)

When sketching a graph, the shape and any symmetry must be clearly seen.

X
...---
= -4
-....= 4
vertical asymptotes
X
: y
I
minimum point I
I
I
horizontal asymptote

y-intercept - ~ - - ~ /
: 3 y=l
------- ------- -,----- ---- --------r------------------
---===::.......::::::----i-'----f-- ------j ----::; :,...-,: :::::=- --+ X
0

x-intercepts

1.2 Asymptotes
curve and the
An asymptote of a curve is a straight line such that the distance between the
1

the line but

line approaches zero at the extreme end(s) of a graph, i.e. the curve approaches
$ l 75'.l'RlJjese eyds3 '1 ~ =e,ie

L2.1 Horizontal Asymptote 7 : t<11clr .\u " ~

If x ➔ ±oo, y ➔ a (i.e. a graph tends towards the horizontal line y = a at the extrem
e end(s)
is the graph of
of the graph), then the line y = a is a horizontal asymptote. An example
y = (?_ (See Section 2.3)

1.2.2 Vertical Asymptote

line x = a is a
If x ➔ a, y ➔ ±oo (i.e. a graph tends towards the vertical line x = a), then the
vertical asymptote. An examp le is the graph of y = In x. (See Section 2.4)

1.2.3 Oblique Asymptote

If x ➔ ±oo , y ➔ ax+ b (i.e. a graph tends towards the diagonal line y =
ax+ b at the
An examp le is
extrem e end(s) of the graph), then the line y = ax+b is an oblique asymptote.
the graph of x - y = 1 (See Section 5.4).
2 2

ly with asymptotes that are

Asympto tes can also be non-linear. However, your syllabus is concerned primari
1

straight lines.

3
Chapter I: Graphs and Transfonnations I
 {
[

. fE d Odd Functions X
1.3 . Symmetrical Properties o ven an
y
If a graph of a function y = f (x) is symmetrical about the y-axis, y=X-

then it is an even function .

i.e. f( - x) ==f (:x) for all its~ values,

•
Exan1ples of even functions: x , x , cos x
2
Pe.£
4
.
1.e,A-J(rx;) = l-t -I) \)
-f-l-1}=l- -x- 1.
~~-\-\)

l'X-\1), :f::
1

L,( - \ ')
-i.
)
-x 0 X
f(x)

X
l
. +t--r)=(=- t(X: t '(x'-tl") T 2

If a graph of a function y = f (x) is symmetrical about the origin, ( ?<-ti)'

i.e. f (- x) =d (x) for all its x values, y y=x3
(I)
then it is an odd function . f(x)

Examples of odd functions: x, x 3 , sin x E~x X

~

~ (,()\'.J\\'-'\ t""'\
Refer to Self-Read Example A. 11
'
1
f(-x)

2 GRAPHS OF STANDARD FUNCTIONS

2.1 Lines
Straight lines of gradient m and y-intercept c can be represented as shown:
y y

X X

m m

m>O m<O

y y

C y =c x =h

X X
0 0 h

m= O m is infinite

• The equation of a straight line can take the forms: y = mx + c, ax + by+ c = 0 or

y- y 1 = m ( x - x1) , where (xi,y1) is a point on the line.
• Two lines with gradient ~ and mi. are:
(i) parallel if ~=mi.
1
(ii) perpendicular if ~"'2 =- 1 or m = - - 1
"½

4
Chapter 1: Graphs and Transfonnations I
ab

aps' 2.2 Power Functions

2.2.1 Graphs of the form y = x" where n e z+

n is a positive even integer n is a ositive odd integer, n -:t= 1

y=x3

.x
0

symmetr y: about the y-axis symmetry: about the origin

stationar y point : min pt at (0, 0) stationary point: stationary point of inflexion
at (0, 0)

4 2
For x < -1 or x > 1 , x > x
For -1 ~ x ~ 1, ·x ~ x
4 2

2.2.2 Graphs of the form y = x-; where n E z+

n IS a ositive even integer n IS a ositive odd integer

y I
y=x3
y I
y=xi = ✓x
I

I
y=xs
y= x4
- - -- - --f-- - - - - -+ X

X
0

Note
symmetry: about the origin
I
The graph of y = xn , where n is a positive
even integer, exists only for x ~ 0 .

5
Chapter I: Graphs and Transfonnations I
r
- - - -
p

2.3 Exponential Functions Y = ax , a > 1

y y=l'
y=e.K
y=r T

X
y=O 0

Horizontal asymptote: ~ ::- o

2.4 Graphs of Logarithmic Functions y = loga x, a > 1

y y= log 2 x
y = Iogex =Inx
y = Iog 3 x

x=O

Vertical Asymptote: 1. =- 0
Note:
Important Constants:
1) ✓2 ~ 1.4142
2) ✓ 3 ~ 1.7321
3) e ~ 2.7183
4) Jr ~ 3.1416

Chapter I : Graphs and Transfonnations I 6

r
2.5 Polynomials 1
A polynomial is of the fonn a + 2
o a1x+a2x + +a xn where
and n is a non-negativ · t Th ··· n , ao,tli ••.an are constants
~=-=-=-=.!..:e~m~eg!:>!ear.
polynomial F 1 1 °
e degree of a p J · J• h
ynomta is t e highest power in the
f · . or examp e, 2 X + 3x - 5 is a polynomial of degree 7 and the maximum number
o rea1 so1utions/roots for 2x1 + 3x - 5 = 0 is 7.

2.5.1 Quadratic Functions y == ax 2 +bx+ c == p{'x-=--h)2 ~ k ' " t,"-\« ~

2
Y == a..Y +bx+ c , a > o
- y=ax2 +bx+c, a < O
y
y Max pt~h, k)

X
0 I
X
Min:pt (h, k) Line of symmetry ---- -------3>:
I

x=h
(concave upwards) (concave downwards)

Example 1
Sketch each of the following curves and identify the axial intercepts, stationary points and
line of symmetry in each case.
(a) y=x2 -2x-3
(b) y=7x-3x2-12

(Solution]
(a) By Factorisation
y = x2-2x-3 = (x-3)(x+ I) Factorise quadratic whenever possible.
Whenx=O, y= - 3 Finding y-intercept
When y = 0, x = 3 or - I Finding x-intercept

Detennining the x-coordinate of the

At minimum point:
turning point by using the midpoint of
3
x = + (- l) =1 and y = I - 2 - 3 = -4 the x ..iutercepts is only applicable to
2 quadratic equations due to its
Line of symmetry: x = I symmetric properties.

7
Chapter l : Graphs and Transformations I
 y y=il -2.x-3
T
CA ,·W\GH<l'tt. QJortJIY!,.+u ,1 AtCtW fht&c<t./ ''
~ (1,0)

(b) By Completing the Square

2
)l = 7 X - 3x -12

t.. 2
={yx +7x-12 (Note:a<O)
Quadratic graph concave downwards,
i.e. tAlli'<. poim-,
rt)V ~ - ~-x:~+~-,2 . D LO
When x = O: y = -12 WWJ\ 'j co ' "~ ~l ~o'ir .
t -- ::.b'-4-AC.. ~~
~ ~ _ 4-(_- ~)(_-( l) (\ ,_ -:)_JI
I •
Du'cKlff'\lr\~...

= -ve..
'Pull out' the coefficient of x?-.

Simplify the constants.

Maximum point occurs when

(x- ;J =0

Line of symmetry: paH ~ ~ t y fl-·

Graph need not be drawn to scale but

y=-3x2 +7x-12 students should present symmetric
l properties of graph.

Chapter I: Graphs and Transfonnations I 8

 ,- -, ,- - ' ~ "'- Y"'/1\.' (,,I.I.

e~ "f ~"~ I ~I\VtO<A ...- ever-. ol~(.u

. ~~~e ~ l>~.-l t,.r\d et1d_ 1~ +h~ .tt:1~ .e.. ctr..-ec.t,~t'\

2.5.2 Pol~omials of degree 2 and above

The graphs m the tabl~ below are examples of polynomials up to degree 4. We can relate the
shape of the polynomial and the possible number of intersections with the x-axis.

Type & Shape Number of intersection s with the x-axis

None Once Twice 3 times 4times

a>Ov vi Mx
f\to JJX 2
Not
applicable
Not
applicable
y =(x-1) +2 y =(x-1)2 y =(x-l)(x+l)
Quadratic:
2
y =ax +bx+c
~
I~
~~a :;t:Q)

(\J1 - ~ e.~~t" ~rt,( .

,u-.,d_ ' "
~ppo1it<- ;02·
I.X
-ajzx~
b{f~ ~

Cubic
\6 Not
. appli~a~le
~

--
y =x2 (x-l)- 4
~N,VI to r l
4~ ~ (')( - \
y =x2 (x-2) y=x( x+2)( x-2)
Not
applicable

y = ax 3 +bx 2
+cx +d )o;/ ';/
, ~ 7!~

(a -:t:= 0) ·-· y =x

w >O
tJ,(\/j w ll
~ x -1 1
\ I.
* -r X
1 X
y=(x+1)2{x-1}2 (\
- 1\ O v 2· x

Quartic
4
~ x
y = ax +bx3
+cx2 +dx +e
y =x4+21
-.1-2x+2
y =(x-1}4

y=x3 (x+ 2)
2
y=(x+l) x(x-2) y=(x+l)x(x-l}(x-2}

(a :;t: 0)

x -- ir&.rce.pt ~ €JIU'\ ~~ ~w.h ?C-tt'>:r

Note: Some useful factorizatio n formulae etk;( ~ Ml t#\VIA ,t>-P't/11.
a 3 +b 3 =(a+b)(a 2 - ab+li) 0} . -{-~~ : . {f-""b) ( ()_2·- Q_k, -r l,. i\
3
3
a -b = (a-b)(a 2 + ab+ b2 ) -.: (0\- b) ~1~C\6tb>i..J

9
Chapter J : Graphs and Transfonnations I
I - ' I

vi
_, J -t~~ tN..- <A~ff . ----
Example 2 I 1 ,

Sketch the graph of y = (x + 2)g}x - 1), showing t of any axial intercepts.

[Solution]
\ 4

J
Coefficient of
\
Repeated root at x = 0

Points are in coordinates form as

instructed by question

2.6 Trigonometric Functions

The graphs of trigonometric functions are periodic in nature. The graphs of the three basic
trigonometric functions can be found below.
y
.......... .................................. ..1.................. y =sinx

-1
y

··-·-·-···-··-······-··-····•··- - - ·J .\. .? = COS X ··································

-2n

Chapter I : Graphs and Transfonnations I 10

- Key Trigonom etric Values

X 0 -1C6 1C
-
4 -1C3 1C
-2
✓2
sinx 0 -21 Jj
1
2 2
cosx 1
Jj ✓2 1
2
-2 -2 0

tanx
Jj
0 -3 1 Jj undefined

2. 7 Rational Functions

A rational function f is a ratio of two uolynomials:

lP (x) .
f ( x ) = Q(x), where P and Qare polynomials.

Note: For f (x) to be defined, Q(x) * 0.

ax+b li~eo....-
2.7.1 Rectangular hyperbola y = - - - - -
a:+ d \ ,i,,.!t>.r

A rectangular hyperbola is a hyperbola with asymptotes that are perpendicular to each other.

The most basic rectangular hyperbola is y =..!_ as shown below.

X
y
1
y=-
cc~ x

Note:
1) As x ➔ ±oo , y ➔ O . Thus y = 0 is the horizontal asymptote.
2) y = _!_ is undefined when x = 0 . However, as x ➔ O, y ➔ ±oo . Thus x = 0 is the vertical
X

asymptote. ~"" .

II
Chapter l : Graphs and Transformations l
Example3
?> c,,~ 2x + 3
Sketch the rectangular hyperbola with equation y = x+ 2 •
Note:
1) We will not be able to deduce the equations of the asymptotes immediate ly as the
00
expression is an improper ratio1talfu1tctio11. (As x ➔ +oo, y - > • Inconclusive!)
00

2) A rational function is pl'oper if the degree of the numerator is less than degree of
denominator, and improper otherwise. ~•
. h ti . Remainder,, . 1 d' ..
3) We mus t c11ange the equation to t e orm " Quotient + - - - - usmg ong 1v1s1on or
x+2
equivalent methods.

[Solution)

Method 1 : Splitting the numerator

_ 2x+3 _ 2(x+2)-1 2('%+2) 1 1

y- - - - - =---''---- - - - = 2 - - -
x +2 x+2 x+2 x+2 x+2

Method 2 : Long division

2x+3 1 2
y =--=2--- 2---
x+2) 2x+3
x+2 x+2 ,v ; ll)ot (J(f c\eV'~;"'pt\-o r-.
-(2x+4) \j
vertical asymptote : ~ 'f_::. ,1. Vertical Asymptote:
-1
1
- - is undefined at x = -2
horizontal asymptote : ~ ::. ). x+2
'XL ,l. t -~-~
x ➔ (-2r, y=2--1
- ➔ -tool ltfi~~
.- .
Whenx=O, y=i
2.
7_
As
x+2
,, ..f.
l ~ As x ➔ (-2r, y= z __l_ ➔ -oo ~~
Wheny=O, rx=--
2
x+2 . 'W )
Horizontal Asymptote:
1
As x ➔ ±ex:> , - - ➔ O
- -:._:-=-c=..
- - - - - -i .!~-=--~ - -=- - - ~ = 2. x+2
1
⇒ y=2--- ➔ 2-0 = 2
- - - - - --f,-- +----- ------:.,.1-, x+2
I }
'

I
d. "1.,
I'(•
I' .
Note:
1) Vertical asy:tnQtote can be-found by solving i.e. x + 2 = 0 ⇒ x = -2.
. . coef of x in numerator
2) Honzontal asymptote can be found by y = "Quotient" = -coef -of ----
-x-in-denominat or ·

12
Chapter I : Graphs and Transformations I
 ax+b
y- - - )
~ cx+d
r
y y

a
y=- a
c OR y= -
------- - _____ , ___ _____ ___ c __ _
-------- ---- -,--- ------ --- ---

X X
0 0
d
X= - - d
C x=--
c

Vertical asymptote d
cx+d =O ⇒ x=-­
c
Horizontal asymptote : a
y=-
c

Example 4 -~ ~
Sketch the graph ~~
- 5 ,-;;tating the equations of any asymptotes and the coordinates of
2x-4-- - y ~ 1.. VJ..11/0:'- c, l
any intersections w1 e axes.

[Solution]
5 5
y= O+--
2x - 4 2x-4
vertical asymptote : ~ - ).. ?< ;;- L-
C horizontal asymptote : ft O ~ ~ 0

y-intercept ~ ( 0, - !)
y

0
- - - - - + - - - - - ' - - -- - - - X
y =O
5
4

x =2
Refer to Self-Read Example 8.

13
Chapter I: Graphs and Transfonnations I
 · ax2 + bx + c QJo,J
2.7.2 Hyperbolas of the form Y = dx + e ,,•Vc.W-r

'k
ax2 +bx+ c .
The hyperbola of the fonn y = - - - - will have obl'1que an d ve rt·1ca1asymp t otes.
dx + e lo!Vj o(M.hlor'
Tei deduce the asymptotes, we must first convert the equation to the form Y f px + ~
using long division. /
These graphs will take ONE of the following two forms, which can be easily deduced by
checking the axial intercepts.

2
ax +bx+c
y
dx+e

y
:v,
I
I
I
I
I
I I
,
,'
I
I
,
y y = px+,q

,,
,,
, ,,
I

,,
I
I I
I
I I
I I I I

;/y=px+ q
,, OR I ,'

,,..
I I

, I
I I ,' I
I I I
I

X
X

e
x=-- e
d X=--
d

Vertical asymptote e
dx+e=O ⇒ x=--
d
Oblique asymptote y = px + q
At X ->; :t ro , ~ -)> ~ px -t-t

rtir ~ ,,.rx-\:1, -t*-" y--

As. "t(" ..:::., -t d? ----- > ctxt e., 7 O

Chapter I: Graphs and Transformations I 14

 r Examp les

, The curve Chas equation y

2x -7x-4 Obtain the equations of the asymptotes of Cand
- ---.
2

x-3
draw a sketch of C.
(
[Solution]
1\
2
2x -7x-4 , 7 d' . . ) It is crucial to check the
y =- - - - = \2x - 1- -
x-3
-",(by long
x-3
1v1s1on
accuracy of the long division!
l.-- "\ . )

Vertical asymptote : X: :S
Oblique asymptote : ~ ::. "1.--x - \ ~. / I 2~ 2- ~ x----Lf :{) ➔
7
±co, - - ➔ 0
As x
x-3
7
Whenx = 0, y =4 ⇒ y=2x-1--- ➔ 2x-1
3 x-3
(i.e. y approaches the line
y =2x -1 as x ➔ ±co)

Y y=2x- l 2X -'o/ - 4<r

,,,,·
., ., ., jJ-x ?-~ -x -'{'
., ., ., - C2 x'l_/Jlt ) --
_· _x _
.,
., ., --- --x-4 -
., ., .,
., ., - [- X 4,t31
I _,

_,
_,
•· ,'
.,,,,,
I
I
- '\
' ,' I

I
I .
I
x=3

Refer to Self-Re ad Exampl e C.

15
Chapter I: Graphs and Transfonnations I
 3 SKETCHING NON-STANDARD GRAPHS USING GC

Example 6
3x -6
Consider the curve y =- - -~ 'X · . £...
. f{ X~JV .
(i) State the equatiollSof the asymptotes.
(ii) Sketch the curve with the aid of a graphing calculator.
(iii) Using the GC, find the coordinates of all turning points on the curve.

[Solution)

(i) vertical asymptote: 'Xi =- -b Note that 3x - 6 is a proper

x(x+ 6)
horizontal asymptote : ~ :. o rational function. Thus
3x-6 3x-6
y ---=0+---
x(x+6) x(x+6)
(ii) When y = 0, 3x - 6 = 0 ⇒ x = 2

Note:
(iii) min point: (-2, 1.5) Stationary points can be
max point: found easily with the GC.
Also deduce the shape of
the graph with the help of
y GC.

(6.00, 0.167)
(-2, 1.5)

x=-6

Note:
Sometimes we need to zoom in on a region of a graph to observe more accurately the shape
of the graph in that region.

Refer to Self-Read Example D & E.

Chapter I : Graphs and Transformations I 16

 ,
4
BASIC LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS ON THE GRAPH OF y = f (x)
Fora> 0,

[ Translation ]

Transformed How y = f(x) was Graphical effect on Effect on

eauation transformed y = f(x) x or y values
y=f(x)+a Translate ~ units in the
or Yf~-t th
I I
(positive direction. (x,y) ➔ (x,y+ a)
C\
( Y ~ =f(x) ,__ ------'
I I
~t~~rlt1.-h'"" 1 ·\vii vi el tvf ci1( f1
1
y =f(x)-a Translated a units in the
y f~l?!~g~g_~ith (x,y) ➔ (x,y-a)
G;'i r(x)

y =BJ
·~ ·
I
I
'---------·
X f~P!~~~~ -~ith
I

: x-ll
---------'
I
- I
I

I
I
I
= negative y-direction. ,
~fc1~f1t1·H~~ ..-
hi

-~
A
-ve
11t1 11f •
~,--of h•eU rD vt

a units in the
itiv @ direction. (x,y) ➔ (x+ a,y)

X ~~P!~~~~-~ith Translated a units in the

y=0 I
I
I negative x-direction. (x,y) ➔ (x-a,y)
I x -tlA :
I
---------·

y
y
y=f(x)+a a units a units
a units
_,,~/ y = f(x) ~--- ,x__
y=f(x)
y=f(x+a)
_/
y=f(x-a)
a units - x :....____:__.....:......._ _+ - - - - - - - . . x
;-,,1rr ---+---+----~ 0
\JW y=f(x)-a

17
Chapter I: Graphs and Transformations I
 l

Example7
Sketch the graph of y = ex + 2 .

[Solution]
Let y =ex= f(x), then y =ex+ 2 = f(x) + 2. Translate the graph of Y = ex by
2 units in the positive y-direction.

Y y=ex +2
rq)ltlJl j witl,\
- ~ ~2 Y.
-\ t6\V1{\o+ed loj 1
CU\ 1-\-( ;v- po<,-..1!IA{
_______ .J:'.::.?__ j -cl 11rc.+1't,vi.

-------+------+x =----+--~ X
0 y=O

Example8
Sketch the graph of y = In (x + 2).

[Solution]
Let y=lnx=f(x), then y=ln(x+2)=f(x +2). Translate the graph of y=f(x) by
2 units in the negative x-direction.

y
y=ln(x+2)
'f y
l{~\ a_U- (/\)lit) y=lnx
,x-{- ::2

_..,___+---;-----~X
+rnl'\('lo...trcl \;;,vj
J U\f\-'-V 1\/\ \l\ etf7'~~w.
r -cllvr c,li'oll'
x=-2 x=O

Chapter I : Graphs and Transfonnations I 18

 f Reflection ]

Fora> 0,
oc
• Transfo rmed
cQuation
How y = f(x) was
transformed
Graphical effect on
y = f(x)
Effect on
x or v values
y=-f( x) ,-I - - - I~

u or y replaced with:I -I.\ :I Reflected in the x-axis (x,y) ➔ (x,-y)

l ---- -•
-y = f( x)
.-
- -- ~
Reflected in the y-axis (x, y) ➔ (-x, y)
y =f(-x) x replaced wit~ - 'X :
I_____ ,I

y y = f(x) y
_ , / / , / y = f(x)

__ ,, - y = f(-x)
--------:-+-------~ X
0

y =-f(x)

Examp le 9
Sketch the graph of Y = e-x ·

[Solutio n)
Let y =ex =f(x) , then y=e- x =f(-x) .
Reflect the graph of y = ex in
the y-axis.
y= e -x y
X
y =e

X y= O
0 y =O

19
Chapter I: Graphs and Transformations I
 ( Scaling ] II

Fora> 0,

How y = f(x) was Graphical effect on Effect on

Transformed
equation transformed y = f(x) x or v values
y = af(x) .--- -,
I ):'.\ I
Scaled by a factor of a (x,y) ➔ (x,ay)
or y replaced with:I 0:, : I
parallel to the y-axis
I I
y = ttx) I I

a " - - - - j

.----,
y =f(~) xrep Iaced wit
. h • ()... •I
I I
' 5-
I
1

I
I
... _ --- '
I

I
I
Scaled by a factor of a
parallel to the x-axis
(x,y) ➔ (ax,y)
I
y = a f(x), a> 1
L

Example 10 1 ff:..,~\(JJJ-~ J ?(' N~ ·?..-xJ •

Sketch the graph of y = sin 2x for O ~ x ~ n.

y Scale the graph of y = sin x by a

factor of ½parallel to the x-axis.
1 y
y = sin x

\.
i
2
-1 · ..............................
___ I
................................. ..
-1

Chapter I: Graphs and Transfonnations I 20

 5
GRAPHS OF BASIC CONICS
r
A conic is a curve that b ti . . . . . . .
surface with a lane can . e onn~d by mtersectmg (or "sltcmg") a nght cucular comcal
hyperbol
char t _a..
wt · We _will examine four types of conics: parabola, circle, ellipse and
el~ s~etclung graphs of conics, it is important to identify, their unique
ac ensttcs w uch mcludes line of symmetry, vertices etc.

Parabola Circle Elllpat Hyperbola

5.1 Parabolas y = ax 2 or x = ay 2
Quadratic curves are parabolas which belong to the conics family. The most basic form of a
quadratic curve is y = ax2 • If we interchange x and y in this equation, we
obtainx = ay2 ⇒ y 2 =x which is also a paraboYa~eVi1'<ll/\ · ':)~?C
a

2 2
y=ax,a>O y=ax, a<O
y

'\.\I~

Line of symmetry: x = 0 Line of symmetry: x = 0

Vertex: Origin Vertex: Origin
Shape: concave u wards Shape: concave downwards
2 2
x=ay, a >0 x=ay , a< O
y y

- - + - - - -- ----..X
0

Line of symmetry: y =0 Line of symmetry: y = 0

Vertex: Origin Vertex: Origin

21
Chapter 1: Graphs and Transfonnations I
 Example 11 ~ d 1· of
Sketch the graph o~ + x = Oand identify the axial intercepts, vertex an me
symmetry. ~ ,. - ~l -'.l.~

[Solution]
y2 +2y+x=O 1- - -- - --- - ---------- I
Use!_ ~ f-J)r t -\¼t. ~! ~to convert
(y+t)2-1 2 +x=O
, the equation to standard form.
(x-1)=-(y+l)2 \ - t') \\ \
. \ ._ ( ) \ l \
'\ Note:
When x = 0, y (y + 2) = 0 ⇒ y = 0 or - 2 From the basic graph of x =-/ ,
y 1) x is replaced with
t--;:t- \)

-)1'('CiW,J'I C\.tl- I 11\11\ ; t '" -\-v-t dw1uKov1

2) y is replaced with
y = -1------------ -------- (1,-1)
(line of symmetry)

5.2 Circle x 2 + _ y 2 = 1_' 2

A circle is a set of all points in a plane which are the same distance (radius r) from a fixed
point (centre). A basic circle with centre at the origin O and radius r is shown below.

x2 + y2 = r2 , r > 0
y

,,
,,,~,,,,
- - - - - r - - --+-- x
0

Line of symmetry: Any straight line that passes

through the circle centre at the origin
Vertices: (r, 0), (- r,O), (O,r ), ( 0, -r)
~ otes: 4 £C)()w\ ~~ I\{.
1) When sketching a circle, ensure that the same scale should be applied to both axes.
ii) Use a circle template or a pair of compasses to draw your circle.
iii) Label the centre and radius and any "obvious" axial intercepts.
1 iv) Always check if the circle passes through the origin. Refer to Self-Read Example F.

Chapter I: Graphs and Transformations I 22

 -- -
Example 12
Sketch the circle of equation x1- + 2 _J \' ' '
[Solution) Y l 16 t
x2 + y2 ==42
Note:
Centre = (0, 0) , Radius = 4 units.
y 1) Restriction on values of x : - 4 ~ ')( <S 4
(valid range of values ofx)
4
2) Restriction on values of y: - 4~ ~~ 4-
(valid range of values ofy)

-4
Example 13
2 2
Sketch the circle x + y + 4x- 6 y- 3 =0. What are the restrictions on the values of x and y?
State the equations of line of symmetry of the circle.
[Solution] 1.- J ,..__ J._ L - ti = -s
2 2 ')( tc'("',,\·\ lj 'j Use 'complete the square' to
X +y +4x-6y-3=0 ~ t.ft-H* J-'.).2---l ~-:!,J--3 2- :- 3,
convert the equation to standard
(x2+4x)+(y2-6y)_=3 . ( y+i f +nA~3 = \6
2
form. f
2
(x+2) -2 +(y-3) -3 2 2
='s 'v
2 2 2
Note:
(x+2) +(y-3) =4 1) x is replaced with (x + 2), i.e.
Centre= (-2, 3), Radius = 4 units translate basic circle 2 units in the
y
negative x-direction.

2) y is replaced with (y - 3), i.e.

I

I
I translate basic circle 3 units in the
I ~ I
I
positive y-direction.
I
I

,' 4
•
l-2/?,)
0

- IV\ l 'X-+ i,)

~- ~ - ~ "' ....}. \ "u·h ~l (i'VLL)
Restriction on values of x: -2-4 ~ x ~ - 2 + 4 ⇒ -6 ~ x ~ 2 ( lAv\ oA.
Restriction on values of y: 3- 4 =s; y =s; 3 + 4 ⇒ -1 =s; y ~7 , ).
~ t e"d-v-e.. 1
l - .t I
5
Line of symmetry: ~~ ~"faJij"'-1 LI~ +~~+ pCl}fj) \tt,, v-o~ -+
Note:
1) The standard form of the equation of a circle with centre at (/J , !£) and radius r is
( x - h )2 + ( y - k )2 = r 1 where r > 0 .
2) The general form of this equation is Ax
2
+ Ay2 + Bx+ ly+ D = 0.

23
Chapter 1: Graphs and Transformations I
 xi Yi
5.3 Ellipse-+-= 1
a1 hi 1
Let's consider the equation of a circle x1- + y2 =4 2 which has centre= (0, 0), radius= 4 units..:.... .!£...u 1
2 2 ~ V' ~ w ~ J
By dividing by (42) throughout, the equation can be rewritten as ~ + ~ = 1)
4
~.
4 -or 3/4
X 2 y2 ~ V€ [{ ~~
What would the graph look like if the equation is changed to 2 +2 = 1? G?t- fl. _i,_.
4 3 ~ 1u: tJ,ar
1
y
3

- 1 - - - - - --4-- - - - - - - 1 -4 X
-4 0 4

-3

This "elongated circle" is an ellipse.

kl. "c -e..ll i 10 r.,e..
1 1
The standard form of the equation of an ellipse centred at (0 0) is ~1 + L1 =t
' a b
where a > 0, b > 0 . .

For a> b, For a< b,

y

_ _,_---',____..__.- X
-+---------+-----+--• X
0
0 a -a a
-a

-b
-b

Line of symmetry: the x-axis and the y-axis

Vertices: ( a, 0 ), (-a, 0 ), ( O,b ), ( 0,-b)

Note:
i) When sketching an ellipse, ensure that the shape of the ellipse should correctly reflect the
relative magnitude of a and b. For example, if a> b then the ellipse should be ' elongated
horizontally' . Refer to Sclf-Read~xample G.

ii) Always check if the ellipse passes through the origin.

Chapter I: Graphs and Transfonnations I 24

 ,

-r
Fl

Example 14
l
Sketch the graph i2 + 4y 2 == 4 .
[Solution)
2 x2
2 2
x +4y ==4 ⇒ -+L=l
22 I2
~ 1
') 1
-\
_y__'
It. . \

To obtain the standard form of equation of

]
Centre (0, 0). an elli pse, ~rU ~ ~ ~ ~ ~11,f +o I.
y
I

X
-2 0 2

-1

.
. .rre
Example 15
2
Sketch 4x -16x + y2 + 2y+ 13 =0. State the equations ofline of symmetry.
4~1<'2. - ~'1) ..\ '1'2...1. l, ~ ::: - , 1

(Solution] 4- Lx1!.1-tf -1t l:i.-z ) ..\ ~-1- 1 t - I~ ~ ·_15

2 2
Ltl -x - :i)'·..\ 6 -1: 1 ) - lf-
4x -16x+y +2y +13=0 l-x-1.\'"-'- ~ \ \ Use ' complete the square' to
2 2 2 convert the equation to standard
4(x - 4x) + (y +2~)+13.=0 I~ -z.
form.
4[{x - 2}2-22 ]+[(y+I)2-I]+13 =0
Note:
4(x-2) 2 + (y+l)2 =4 1) xis replaced with (x - 2), i.e.
(x -2)2 + (y+ 1)2 =l translate basic ellipse 2 units in
I2 22 the' positive x-direction. ·
y
2) y is replaced with (y + 1), i.e.
translate basic ellipse 1 unit in the
negative y-direction.

Instead of labelling the vertices,

you may indicate the distance
between the vertex and the centre.

Lines of symmetry :

Note:
1) The standard form of the equation ofan ellipse with centre at (IL k ) is
(x-h)2 (y-k)2
--'------
2
+ ---'--=
2
I where a,b > O.
a h
2 2
2) The general form of this equation is Ax + By + lx + Dy+ E = 0.

25
Chapter I: Graphs and Transfonnations I