J Sci Food Agric 1997, 73, 315È320

Combined Effect of Drying Time and Slice

Thickness on the Solar Drying of Okra
K K Adom, V P Dzogbeüa* and W O Ellis
Department of Biochemistry, University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana
(Received 20 June 1995 ; revised version received 9 February 1996 ; accepted 9 August 1996)

Abstract : The e†ect of slice thickness and drying time on colour, viscosity, micro-
bial load, moisture, crude Ðbre, vitamin C and ash contents of okra (Hibiscus
esculentus) during solar drying was studied using three slice thicknesses (5É0 mm,
10É0 mm, 15É0 mm) obtained from a survey and Ðve drying times (0, 24, 48, 72
and 96 h). The results showed that slice thickness had a signiÐcant e†ect
(P \ 0É01) on moisture, crude Ðbre and ash contents but not on vitamin C
content, viscosity, colour and microbial load. However, the e†ect of drying time
was highly signiÐcant (P \ 0É01) on all the parameters determined. The com-
bined e†ects of slice thickness and drying time were observed to be highly signiÐ-
cant (P \ 0É05) on ash, crude Ðbre and moisture contents, viscosity and
microbial load but had no signiÐcant e†ect (P \ 0É05) on colour and vitamin C
content. There was a strong correlation between moisture content and ash
(R \ [0É926), crude Ðbre (R \ [0É94), vitamin C contents (R \ 0É928) and vis-
cosity (R \ [0É963) in all samples during drying. The study showed that a slice
thickness of 10É0 mm and a drying time of 48 h was suitable for the solar drying
of okra.

Key words : okra, solar drying, slice thickness, drying time.

INTRODUCTION vegetables for preparing stews and as additives for

soups and stews. They may also be dried and ground
Fruits and vegetables form an indispensable part of the into powder for use as Ñavouring in these dishes. In
human diet in Ghana. Their nutritional value as sup- general, when okra is used for local dishes, it is for the
pliers of minerals, vitamins, dietary Ðbre, protein and purpose of providing Ñavour, thickening and colour.
energy has been well recognised and documented They also provide some amount of vitamins, dietary
(Salunkhe et al 1991). They provide variety, taste, inter- Ðbre, energy and minerals.
est and aesthetic appeal in the diet. However, these Okra is traditionally preserved by slicing and sun
fruits and vegetables are usually in short supply during drying on the ground, racks, trays, concrete Ñoors or
the dry seasons because the indigenous ones grown other drying surfaces till they become brittle (up to 6
abundantly during the rainy season are mostly wasted, days depending on weather conditions). Dried products
due to the lack of an e†ective preservation method. are either stored whole in baskets, bowls and polyethyl-
However, some fruits and vegetables have tradi- ene bags or ground into powder for storage in bowls,
tionally been processed by drying to extend their shelf- polyethylene bags, gourds, etc. There is very little
life well beyond the few weeks when they are in season investment involved (Kordylas 1991). However, this
(Kordylas 1991). One such fruit is okra (Hibiscus escu- technique is not devoid of problems including lack of
lentus L), normally consumed in Ghana as a vegetable. pre-treatment (selection and washing) prior to drying,
The fresh, young and tender fruits are used as boiled non-uniformity of slice thickness, direct exposure of
product to sunlight, dust, dirt, insects and other pests,
* To whom correspondence should be addressed. and a slow rate of drying, thus a†ecting the nutritional
315
J Sci Food Agric 0022-5142/97/$09.00 ( 1997 SCI. Printed in Great Britain
316 K K Adom, V P DzogbeÐa, W O Ellis

and sensory qualities of the Ðnal product (Tindal 1983 ; technique (Kirk and Othmer 1955 ; Anon 1980). Vis-
Kordylas 1991). cosity was calculated relative to distilled water per gram
The objective of this study was to investigate the of sample taken.
e†ect of slice thickness and drying time on some nutri- Vitamin C content was determined spectro-
tional and sensory qualities of solar dried okra. photometrically (Ultraspec Plus, model 4054, Phar-
macia LKB Biochrom Ltd, UK) using the method
outlined by Pearson (1970).
MATERIALS AND METHODS

Experimental design Microbial load determination

A completely randomised design comprising three slice A 2 g portion of each sample was weighed into 10 ml of
thicknesses (5É0 mm, 10É0 mm and 15É0 mm), Ðve sterile 1 g litre~1 peptone solution in a sterile beaker.
drying times (0, 24, 48, 72 and 96 h) and three replicates Contents were shaken for 5 min and Ðltered into sterile
per treatment was used in this study. The slice thick- test tubes. Appropriate dilutions were then prepared
nesses were selected on the basis of a preliminary survey using 1 g litre~1 peptone solution as diluent. A 1 ml
conducted among producers and retailers in the okra portion of each appropriate dilution was inoculated
industry. unto malt extract agar (BDH) using the pour plating
technique with plates incubated at 37¡C in a Gallen-
kamp incubator (model IH-150, Gallenkamp Co Ltd,
Sample preparation and drying UK) for 48 h. The colonies were counted using a Gal-
lenkamp Colony Counter (Gallenkamp Co Ltd, UK).
Fresh okra fruits were obtained from the University Counts were expressed as log of the colony forming unit
farm in Kumasi. These fruits were harvested 5È8 days (CFU) g~1 of okra sample.
after fruit set, which is a normal practice by Ghanaian All parameters were monitored on fresh weight basis,
farmers. Fruits of average dimensions : 60È80 mm long with the exception of vitamin C content which was
and 15È20 mm diameter, were selected for this study. expressed on drying matter (DM) basis.
The fruits were sliced into 5É0 mm (T1), 10É0 mm) (T2)
and 15É0 mm (T3) thick transverse slices using a fruit
slicer designed and manufactured by the Mechanical Temperature and relative humidity monitoring
Engineering Department of the University of Science
and Technology (UST), Kumasi. The slices were then Temperature and relative humidity in the solar dryer
dried in a solar tent dryer, designed and manufactured were monitored throughout the drying period using a
by the same department of UST, under the following thermohydrograph (model 252Ua, Wilh Lambrecht
conditions ; temperature : 30È60¡C ; air speed : 0È0É2 m KG, Gottingen, Germany).
s~1 (thermal anemometer) ; load : 2É5 kg m~2.
Analysis was carried out on samples after 24, 48, 72
and 96 h of drying for moisture, crude Ðbre, ash and
vitamin C contents, colour, viscosity and microbial load RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
(mould count). Analysis was also done on the fresh
samples (0 h) which served as the control. The results of the combined e†ect of drying time and
slice thickness on the nutritive and sensory quality of
solar dried okra are shown in Figs 1È7.
Analysis The results show a general decrease in moisture
content from 895 g kg~1 to between 90É3 and
Moisture, crude Ðbre and ash contents of all samples 95É9 g kg~1 with increasing drying time for all the slice
were determined using the AOAC official methods of thicknesses (Fig 1). For the Ðrst 48 h of drying, the rate
analysis (AOAC 1984). of water loss was signiÐcantly dependent on the slice
The colour of okra samples on the L *a*b* colour thickness (P \ 0É01) and the trend in moisture loss was
space was determined using a Minolta Chroma Meter as follows : 5É0 mm [ 10É0 mm [ 15É0 mm. Charm
(model CR-200, Minolta Camera Co Ltd) on the milled (1971) and Kordylas (1991) observed a similar trend in
samples. The Chroma meter was calibrated with a white their studies on the drying of some vegetables. After the
standard tile (L \ 97É63, a \ [0É48, b \ 2É12). Ðrst 48 h of drying, the loss in moisture was minimal
Sample viscosity was determined by boiling 2 g of especially for 15É0 mm samples, 5É0 mm and 10É0 mm
milled sample in 100 ml distilled water for 5 min. The samples showing no signiÐcant change in moisture loss.
resulting solution was cooled, Ðltered (cheesecloth) and Crude Ðbre content on the other hand increased with
its viscosity determined using the U-tube viscometer drying time for all sample sizes (Fig 2). The increase was
E†ect of drying time and slice thickness on the solar drying of okra 317

higher during the Ðrst 48 h of drying, with 5É0 mm

samples showing a more rapid increase during the Ðrst
24 h. However, there were no signiÐcant di†erences
(P \ 0É05) between all samples after 48 h of drying. The
increase may very likely be attributed to concentration
e†ects due to the loss of water from the samples (Chang
and Morris 1990). A high negative correlation
(R \ [0É94) between crude Ðbre content and moisture
content seems to support this observation.
The trend in ash content (Fig 3) was similar to that
observed with crude Ðbre content its level increasing
with drying time for all the slice thicknesses. The ash
content for 5É0 mm, 10É0 mm, 15É0 mm samples were all
signiÐcantly di†erent at 24 and 48 h (P \ 0É05).
However, after 48 h of drying, the ash content of each
sample remained fairly constant. The 10É0 mm and
15É0 mm samples showed no signiÐcant di†erence
(P \ 0É05) after 48 h of drying, but both had higher
ash contents than 5É0 mm after 72 h (P \ 0É01) and
96 h (P \ 0É05) of drying. The trend observed may be
attributed to concentration e†ects (Salunkhe et al 1991),
considering that ash content strongly correlated to
moisture content (R \ [0É926).
Vitamin C, a common component of most fruits and
vegetables, is not very stable and is usually destroyed
during processing through the combined action of heat,
oxygen and light (Bender 1966 ; Eheart and Odland
Fig 1. Changes in moisture content of okra with drying time. 1972). There was signiÐcant (P \ 0É01) loss of vitamin C
from all samples during the Ðrst 48 h of the solar drying

Fig 2. Changes in crude Ðbre content of okra with drying

time. Fig 3. Changes in ash content of okra with drying time.
318 K K Adom, V P DzogbeÐa, W O Ellis

Fig 4. Changes in vitamin C content of okra with drying time.

of okra (Fig 4). This indicated the signiÐcant e†ect

(P \ 0É01) of drying time on vitamin C content of okra Fig 5. Changes in relative viscosity of okra with drying time.
during drying. However, no signiÐcant di†erences were
observed among any of the samples throughout the
drying period. This suggests that the rate and possibly
the extent of vitamin C destruction during solar drying
of okra was not signiÐcantly inÑuenced by the thickness
of the samples. Vitamin C content remained fairly con-
stant after 48 h for all samples.
Viscosity, an important sensory attribute of okra
which is a factor in consumer appeal, increased with
drying time for all slice thicknesses. However, there was
a signiÐcant decrease (P \ 0É05) in viscosity after 72 h
of drying for both 10É0 mm and 15É0 mm samples, while
that for the 5É0 mm sample decreased (P \ 0É05) grad-
ually after 48 h of drying (Fig 5). Viscosity in okra is
caused by mucilages which become concentrated in the
dried product as moisture is removed. Thus, the concen-
tration e†ect resulted in increased viscosity (Dev and
Quensel 1989). The decrease in viscosity during the
latter drying stages for all samples may be due to
increased crystallinity in the structure of the mucilages
as a result of the progressive decrease in moisture
content (Holdsworth 1971 ; Fennema 1985). Overall
analysis showed a correlation coefficient (R) of [ 0É963
between viscosity and moisture content.
Figure 6 shows the colour variation of the di†erent
slice thicknesses of okra fruit with drying time. Figure
6(A) shows a chromatic shift of sample colour from
green towards red (a* values become more positive). Fig 6. Changes in colour values of okra with drying time.
E†ect of drying time and slice thickness on the solar drying of okra 319

cant di†erence in green colour (P \ 0É05) between

10É0 mm and 15É0 mm, but both were greener
(P \ 0É05) than 5É0 mm samples. No signiÐcant di†er-
ence (P \ 0É05) in green colour between the three
samples was observed after 48 h of drying.
Figure 6(B) which reÑects the trend in visual lightness
or whiteness (L* values), showed a general decrease
during the Ðrst 48 h of drying followed by an increase
after 48 h. The decreasing trend was due to enzymatic
browning occurring at the cut surfaces of the samples
(PenÐeld and Campbell 1990), as well as possibly the
degradation of chlorophyll to olive-brown pheophytins
(Gold and Weckel 1959 ; Tan and Francis 1962),
resulting in darkening and hence the decrease in L*
values. The increasing trend after 48 h may be due to
the fact that, with increasing dryness, browning
becomes less severe after it has reached a maximum at
48 h (intermediate moisture content of 122É1È
211É3 g kg~1) resulting in higher L* values. A similar
observation was made by Labuza et al (1970) in their
studies on some vegetables. However, slice thickness
had no signiÐcant e†ect (P \ 0É05) on the changes in
whiteness of the dried okra with drying time.
Microbial load of the okra samples increased during
the Ðrst 24 h of drying (Fig 7) and this may be due to
Fig 7. Changes in microbial load of okra with drying time. the high moisture content of the samples and the high
temperatures which served as a favorable environment
This e†ect is caused by the temperature-dependent deg- for growth (Nury et al 1960 ; Gould 1989). The decreas-
radation of chlorophyll to pheophytins (Mackinney and ing trend after 24 h may be due to the lowering of water
Joslyn 1941 ; Schwartz et al 1981 ; Yamauchi and activity resulting from the loss of moisture from the
Watada 1993). After 24 h of drying there was no signiÐ- samples leading to inhibition of microbial growth

Fig 8. Temperature and relative humidity variations in the solar tent dryer.
320 K K Adom, V P DzogbeÐa, W O Ellis

(Gould 1989). The microbial load of 5É0 mm samples Bender A E 1966 Nutritional e†ects of food processing. J
were higher (P \ 0É01) than those for the 10É0 mm and Food T echnol 1 261È263.
Chang M C, Morris W C 1990 E†ect of heat treatment on
15É0 mm samples (no di†erence existed between chemical analysis of dietary Ðber. J Food Sci 55 1647È1649.
10É0 mm and 15É0 mm) during the Ðrst 24 h of drying Charm S E 1971 T he Fundamentals of Food Engineering. The
and this may be due to the higher surface area : weight AVI Publishing Co Inc, Westport CT, USA.
ratio of the 5É0 mm samples. Dev D, Quensel E 1989 Functional property of linseed protein
Figure 8 shows the variations in temperature and products containing di†erent levels of mucilages in selected
food systems. J Food Sci 54 183È185.
relative humidity in the solar dryer during drying. High Eheart M S, Oldland D 1972 Storage of fresh broccoli and
temperatures with correspondingly low relative humid- green beans : E†ect on ascorbic acid, sugars and total acids.
ity values were recorded during the afternoons (12 :00È J Am Diet Assoc 60 402È404.
15 :00 GMT) each day. Fennema O R 1985 Food Chemistry (2nd edn). Marcel Dekker
Statistical analysis of the data obtained for all the Inc, New York, USA.
Gold H J, Weckel K G 1959 Degradation of chlorophyll to
factors studied under the drying conditions showed pheophytins during sterilization of canned peas by heat.
that, the model was highly signiÐcant (P \ 0É001) with Food T echnol 13 281.
an R2 (coefficient of determination) of 0É99 for moisture, Gould G W 1989 Mechanism of Action of Food Preservation
crude Ðbre and ash contents, 0É98 for viscosity, 0É87 for Procedures. Elsevier Science Publishers Ltd, London, UK,
vitamin C content and 0É84 for microbial load. The p 105.
Holdsworth S D 1971 Dehydration of food products. J Food
e†ects of drying time, slice thickness and the interaction T echnol 6 331.
between the drying time and slice thickness were all Kirk R E, Othmer D F 1955 Encyclopedia of Chemical T ech-
highly signiÐcant (P \ 0É01) factors contributing to the nology (Vol 14). The Interscience Encyclopedia Inc, New
variation in the moisture, crude Ðbre and ash contents York, USA, p 756.
of the dried okra. The variation in viscosity and micro- Kordylas J M 1991 Processing and Preservation of T ropical
and Subtropical Foods. Macmillan Education Ltd, London,
bial load were signiÐcantly (P \ 0É01) a†ected by the UK.
drying time, and the interaction between drying time Labuza T P, Tannenbaum S R, Karel M 1970 Water content
and slice thickness. and stability of low moisture and intermediate moisture
However, change in vitamin C content was only foods. Food T echnol 24 543È550.
a†ected signiÐcantly (P \ 0É01) by the drying time. Mackinney G, Joslyn M A 1941 Chlorophyll-pheophytin for-
mation : Temperature coefficient of the rate of pheophytin
formation. J Am Chem Soc 63 2530.
Nury F S, Miller M W, Brekke J E 1960 Preservative e†ect of
CONCLUSIONS some antimicrobial agents on high-moisture dried fruits.
Food T echnol 14 113.
It is evident from the overall results that solar drying is Pearson D 1970 T he Chemical Analysis of Foods (6th edn).
Chemical Publishing Co Inc, New York, USA.
an e†ective method for producing dried okra, which PenÐeld M P, Campbell M A 1990 Experimental Food Science
allows for shorter drying periods compared with the (3rd edn). Academic Press Inc, New York, USA, pp 118È
traditional open-air sun drying method. However, the 120.
drying time, the slice thickness and the combined e†ect Salunkhe D K, Bolin H R, Reddy N R 1991 Storage, Pro-
of these two parameters are very important factors to cessing and Nutritional Quality of Fruits and V egetables
(2nd edn, Vol II). CRC Press Inc, Boca Raton, FL, USA.
consider in producing the dried okra. From this study, Schwartz S J, Woo S L, Von Elbe J H 1981 High performance
it can be concluded that a slice thickness of 10É0 mm liquid chromatography of chlorophylls and their derivatives
and a drying time of 48 h would be most suitable for in fresh and processed spinach. J Agric Food Chem 29 553.
the solar drying of okra using a solar tent dryer. Tan C T, Francis F J 1962 E†ect of processing on pigments
and colour of spinach. J Food Sci 27 232.
Tindal H D 1983 V egetables in the T ropics. The Macmillan
Press Ltd, London, UK, pp 325È328.
REFERENCES Yamauchi N, Watada A E 1993 Pigment changes in parsley
leaves during storage in controlled or ethylene containing
Anon 1980 British Pharmacoepia (Vol II). University Press, atmosphere. J Food Sci 58 616.
Cambridge, UK.
AOAC 1984 Official Methods of Analysis (14th edn). Associ-
ation of Official Analytical Chemist, Washington, DC,
USA.