JULY 2014

COMMUNICATION (TC2)
TECHNICIAN DIPLOMA IN ACCOUNTING

THE INSTITUTE OF
T

MALAW
I
CHARTERED ACCOUNTANTS
COMMUNICATION (TC2) IN MALAWI
‘January 2014 COMMUNICATION
(TC2)
TECHNICIAN DIPLOMA IN ACCOUNTING

INSTITUTE OF CHARTERED ACCOUNTANTS

IN MALAWI (ICAM)

COMMUNICATION (TC2)
 Copyright © The Institute of Chartered Accountants in Malawi – 2014

The Institute of Chartered Accountants in Malawi

P.O. Box 1 Blantyre
E-mail: [email protected]
www.icam.mw

ISBN: 978-99908-0-415-7

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means-
graphic, electronic or mechanical including photocopying, recording, taping or information storage and
retrieval systems-without the written permission of the copyright holder.

Design
PRISM Consultants
[email protected]

COMMUNICATION (TC2)
PREFACE

INTRODUCTION

The Institute noted a number of difficulties faced by students when preparing for the Institute’s
examinations. One of the difficulties has been the unavailability of study manuals specifically
written for the Institute’s examinations. In the past students have relied on text books which were
not tailor-made for the Institute’s examinations and the Malawian environment.

AIM OF THE MANAUALS

The manual has been developed in order to provide resources that will help the Institute’s
students attain the needed skills. The manuals have been developed in such a way that even
those who would like to study on their own can do that. It is therefore recommended that each
student should have their own copy.

HOW TO USE THE MANUAL

Students are being advised to read chapter by chapter since subsequent work often builds on
topics covered earlier.

Students should also attempt questions at the end of the chapter to test their understanding. The
manual will also be supported with a number of resources which students should keep checking
on the ICAM website.

COMMUNICATION (TC2)
Table of Contents
TC2: BUSINESS COMMUNICATION ................................................................................................. 2
UNIT 1: COMMUNICATION THEORY .............................................................................................. 9
UNIT 2: LANGUAGE SKILLS ........................................................................................................... 25
UNIT 3: BUSINESS COMMUNICATION ......................................................................................... 29
UNIT 4: INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION ............................................................................ 53
UNIT 5: SMALL GROUP COMMUNICATION ................................................................................ 57
UNIT 6: ORGANISATIONAL COMMUNICATION ......................................................................... 69
UNIT 7: ORAL COMMUNICATION ................................................................................................. 82
UNIT 8: ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION ................................................................................. 117

COMMUNICATION (TC2)
TC2: COMMUNICATION

AIM OF THE COURSE

To equip students with skills necessary for effective communication in business.

OBJECTIVES

By the end of the course the student should be able to:-

i. Demonstrate an understanding of the communication process in business settings.

ii. Write business documents effectively.
iii. Demonstrate an understanding of the flow of communication in an organization.
iv. Communicate effectively in different oral settings.
v. Use information technology for communication in business settings.

FORMAT AND STANDARD OF THE EXAMINATION PAPER

The paper will consist of 6 questions each carrying 25 marks. Candidates will be required to
answer 4 questions. In addition to the content, the Business Communication module
emphasizes on the correct use of language in terms of sentence construction, correct
spellings, choice of words and punctuation. Therefore, 5 marks will be allocated to correct
language use in each question. However, in those questions which require extended writing,
like memos, letters and reports there will be additional marks for correct use of language.

COMMUNICATION (TC2)
SPECIFICATION GRID

This grid shows the relative weightings of topics within this topics and should guide the
relative study time spent on each.

SYLLABUS AREA WEIGHTING (%)

Communication Theory 10

Language Skills 8

Business Communication 25

Oral Communication 17

Organizational Communication 15

Small Group Communication 7

Interpersonal Communication 10

ICT 8

TOTAL 100

Learning Outcomes

1 Communication theory

In the assessment, candidates may be required to:-

Explain the aims of communication

1.1. Describe the communication process

1.2. Identify the eight elements of communication
1.4 Describe the three media of communication

1.5 Define non-verbal communication

1.6 Explain the functions of non-verbal communication

1.7 Discuss types of non-verbal communication.

1.8 Outline the barriers to the communication and suggest how they can

be overcome

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COMMUNICATION (TC2)
2 Language skills
In the assessment, candidates may be required to:-

2.1 Identify the parts of a sentence

2.2 Construct effective Sentences

3 Business communication
In the assessment, candidates may be required to:-

3.1 Describe the characteristics of good business writing

3.2 Explain the 7 principles of effective business writing (7C’s)
3.3 Write coherent paragraphs
3.4 Describe the four aspects to consider when planning business
messages.
3.5 Explain the uses of a memorandum
3.6 Outline the parts of a memorandum
3.7 Write memos in response to different situations in the organization
3.8 Demonstrate understanding of effective notices
3.9 Outline the features of a notice
3.10 Design effective notices
3.11 Describe the purposes of business letters
3.12 Describe the importance of each of the parts of a business letter
3.13 Write different types of business letters.
3.14 Define a report
3.15 Describe the parts of a short formal report
3.16 Write effective reports

4 Oral communication

In the assessment, candidates may be required to:-

4.1 Describe the basic principles of oral communication

4.2 Outline the measures to be taken when preparing for oral
presentations
4.3 Discuss types of speeches
4.4 Explain the different oral presentation styles
4.5 Describe the methods of delivering a presentation
4.6 Use audio-visual aids in a presentation
4.4 Describe the listening process.
4.5 Discuss the reasons for listening
4.6 Describe the approaches to effective listening
4.7 Describe the effective use of the telephone in the organisation

4.8 Identify different types of interviews

4.9 Explain the communication skills related to interviews

COMMUNICATION (TC2)
 4.10 Outline the roles of the interviewer and the interviewee
4.11 Describe the phases of the interview process
4.12Mention the purposes of meetings
4.13Describe the types of meetings
4.14Outline the roles of officers and participants in a meeting
4.15Convene a meeting

5 Organizational communication

In the assessment, candidates may be required to:-

5.1. Examine the importance of communication in an organization

5.2. Describe the functions of communication in an organization
5.4 Differentiate the various communication network patterns
5.5 Discuss the flow of communication in the organisation
5.6. Analyze the advantages and disadvantages of informal
communication
6 Small group communication
In the assessment, candidates may be required to:-

6.1 Appraise the importance of small groups in an organization

6.2 Describe the characteristics of small groups
6.3 Outline the factors which contribute to the effectiveness of small
groups
6.4 State the advantages and disadvantages of small groups
6.5 Distinguish the various leadership styles
7 Interpersonal communication

In the assessment, candidates may be required to:-

7.1 Explain the goals of interpersonal communication

7.2 Identify the situations from which we can acquire interpersonal
communication skills
7.3 Describe the factors which contribute to effective interaction with
other people
8 Electronic communication
In the assessment, candidates may be required to:-

8.1 Demonstrate understanding of computerized systems of

communication
8.2 Explain usage of different forms of electronic communication
8.3 Set up relevant electronic communication according to different
situations
8.4 Analyse the effectiveness of messages transferred electronically

COMMUNICATION (TC2)
REFERENCES
ICAM Communication Manual

Adams ND Galanes (2009) Communication in Groups 7th ed New York: Mc Graw-Hill

Beeebe, S. and Masterson, J. (2006). Communicating in Small Groups. New York:

Longman.

Carlin, D. and Payne J. (1995). Public Speaking Today. , Illinois; National Textbooks
Company.

Dombeck F., et al. (1999). Communicating in the work place. Canada: McGraw Hill,
Ryerson.

Evans, D.W. (1990). People, Communication and Organisations. London: Pitman.

Gamble, T. and Gable, M. (1990). Communication Works. New York: McGraw Hill.

Guffey M.E, et al (2003) Business Communication. Canada: Thomson and Nelson.

Griffin, E. (2006). A First Look at Communication Theory. 6th Ed New: Mc Graw Hill.

Hamilton, C. (2011) Communicating for Results: A Guide for Business and Professions
Boston: Wardsworth.

Hybels, S. and R. L. Weaver II (2001). Communicating Effectively. 6th Edition, Boston:

McGraw Hill.
Krizan, A C et al (2005). Business Communication. Ohio: Thomson South Western.

Little, P. (1996). Communication in Business. London: Longman.

Leena Sen (2009) Communication in Business 3rd edition Pitman Publishing

Locker K O and Stephen, (2006). Business Communication: Building Critical Thinking Skills
3rd ed. New York.

Micheal Fielding,(2006).Effective communication in organisations 3rd ed Cape Town: Juta

and Co.

Pearce, B.W. (1993). Interpersonal Communication: Making Social Words. New

York: Harper Collins.

Ronald B Adler and Jeanne Melmhorst (2008) Communicating at work 9th ed. Boston:
Mc Graw Hill.

COMMUNICATION (TC2)
Sandra C (2009) Communication: A hands on Approach. Lansdowne: Juta and Co.

Sigband, N. B. and Bateman D. N. (1984) Communicating in Business. Illinois: Scott,

Foresmann and Co.

Stanton, N (2004). Mastering Communication. 4th ed. New York: Macmillan.

Stewart L Tubbs and S Moss (2008) Human Communication: Principles and contexts 11th
edition. New York: McGraw-Hill Higher Education.

Taylor,S (2009). Communication for Business: A Practical Approach. 4th Ed. New Delhi:
Prentice-Hall.

West, R. And Turner, H (2007) Introducing Communication Theory: Analysis and

Application New York: Mc Graw Hill.

Wilmot, W.W. and Hocker J.L. (2001) Interpersonal Conflict. McGraw Hill Companies Inc.
New York.

Zeuschner, R. (2003). Communication Today: The Essentials. New York: Pearson Education
Inc

COMMUNICATION (TC2)
UNIT 1: COMMUNICATION THEORY

OVERVIEW
This unit provides you with information on:
 Definition of communication;
 Elements of the communication process;
 Media / Forms of communication;
 Nonverbal communication; and
 Barriers to communication.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
a) Define communication;
b) Explain the stages of the communication process;
c) Identify barriers to communication; and
d) Suggest ways of overcoming the barriers.

Introduction
Communication is an important element in life. Both animals and human beings need
communication to survive. It is something we do all the time, mostly without thinking about
it. All too often there is a difference between what we say and what we think we have said,
and between how we feel we have handled other people and how they think they have been
treated. Hence the need for careful planning to communicate effectively when such ‘gaps’
occur.

Aims of communication
Communication must have an aim or a purpose. The aim can be to:
 Inform, for example the desire to supply factual information;
 Persuade-the desire to influence the recipient to accept a particular idea or opinion;
 Initiate action-the sender requires the recipient to perform a particular task;
 Enquire-to find out on the availability of a product, equipment etc; and
 Educate-give someone information about something they do not know.

THE COMMUNICATIONPROCESS

Definition of Communication
Before we discuss the communication process we need to start from the definition of the term
communication. The word communication has been defined differently by different authors.

Here are some of the definitions:

i. Communication is the process of sending and receiving information using previously
agreed upon symbols in order to produce a desired response.
ii. Communication is the art of imparting or exchanging of information.

iii. Communication is the imparting, conveying or exchanging of ideas or opinions using

oral, written or visual forms.

COMMUNICATION (TC2)
 iv. Communication is a two-way process where information (a message) is sent from one person
(the sender) through a channel (medium) to another person (the receiver), who reacts by
giving feedback (the response).

The common aspect of all the definitions is that communication is the exchange of
information through a medium.

When you look at all these definitions you will appreciate that communication is a two way
process, therefore, there should be two parties involved, a sender (transmitter, source/
encoder) and a receiver (audience recipient/decoder). For instance in the accounts office the
sender could be the accountant and the receiver could be the accounts clerk vice versa.

Stages in the Communication Process

Communication takes place in stages as follows:

i. The sender has a desire to communicate he/she makes a decision to communicate a
message in form of an idea, feeling, attitude, opinion and so on.

Example
It could be where a member of staff has a personal problem and needs to ask for a loan.

ii. The sender then encodes the message-puts it in a meaningful form that s/he and the
recipient would be able to understand – an appropriate language (a spoken word, written
word, number, picture, non-verbal communication).

Example
The member of staff has to consider how much he/she requires and purpose.

‘I would like to apply for a loan of K200, 000 to pay school fees for my children’.

iii. The sender chooses the right medium in which to encode the message.

Example
The member of staff could choose to write a memo or meet his/her supervisor in person.

vi. Then the message reaches the receiver who decodes/interprets it to understand the
meaning.

Example
The supervisor reads the memo and understands the staff member’s need.

v. The receiver provides feedback/response as an indication of whether the message has been
received as intended.
Example
Then the supervisor advises the member of staff to complete a loan application form.

Feedback can either be positive or negative.

Positive feedback shows that the message has been understood in the way the sender
meant it to be understood. The results may be the following:
 The right action is taken;

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COMMUNICATION (TC2)
  A letter/memorandum/note is written to confirm that the message has been
received;
 In telephone conversation there is accurate repetition of the message; and
 In body language there is a smile, a nod or murmur of agreement.

Sometimesnegative feedback shows that the message has not been understood and the
results may be the following:
 Wrong action is taken;
 No answer to the letter/memorandum is given;
 Letter/memo etc seeking clarification of the message is written;
 In a telephone conversation, there is failure to repeat the message correctly; and
 In nonverbal communication silence or protest may show lack of understanding.

Figure 1.1 The Communication Cycle

ELEMENTS OF THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

In order to understand the communication process, you need to look at a description of the
elements of the process.

1. The sender/The encoder/transmitter

The sender is the source of the message. The sender initiates the process of
communication-whenever the sender feels there is a need to communicate some

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COMMUNICATION (TC2)
information to the other (receiver) he/she starts the process of communication.

2. Encoding
Encoding is the process in which the sender puts the information into a form suitable for
sending. For example, if an accounts clerk wants to show a visitor that he/she is welcome
at the accounts office he/she can greet the visitor with a smile.

At the encoding stage, the sender decides how to formulate the message and can opt for
any of the following:
 The sender can use either spoken or written language,
 In other cases,the sender can also use non-verbal communication or ‘body
language’ a gesture or sign, or
 In other instances, such as advertising, it could be a photograph or film with an
accompanying slogan.

The way in which the information is encoded is crucial to the understanding of the
message.

3. The Message
The encoded information is known as the message. The message contains the meaning
that the sender wishes to convey.

4. The medium
The medium serves as means of communication it can be written, oral or nonverbal.

5. The channel
A channel refers to the means of transmitting a message from the sender to the receiver.
For example, for oral communication the channel could be the telephone system, personal
interviews, meetings and so on; for written communication the channel could be a notice
board, messenger’s services and postal services etc and for visual communication the
channel could be body language, a drawing etc.

6 The Recipient
The recipient is the target of the message. The recipient may be an individual, a group
(such as a committee), or the general public in the case of an advertising campaign.

7. Decoding
Decoding is the process by which the recipient interprets the meaning of the message.
Depending on other factors, the meaning may or may not be the same as the interpretation
originally intended by the sender.

8. Feedback
Feedback is the response or reaction the recipient gives which indicates to the sender how
the messages was interpreted.

Exercise
1. Define communication.
2. Give two aims of communication.
3. Using an illustration, explain the communication process.
4. Differentiate between medium and channel of communication.

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COMMUNICATION (TC2)
MEDIA OF COMMUNICATION

Communication between people occurs through three modes, verbal, written and
visual-non-verbal communication. Each one of the modes has both advantages and
disadvantages. Therefore, effective communication depends on the sender’s ability to
choose the right medium.

ORAL COMMUNICATION
The oral medium is the most basic of all of them and it is the most readily available in
our communication. Examples of the oral medium include face-to-face interaction,
oral presentations, seminars, conferences, telephone conversations, interviews,
meetings and so on. Just like the other media of communication, the oral medium has
both advantages and disadvantages.

Advantages
 It is a direct medium of communication.
 The physical proximity enables the listener to read the speaker’s nonverbal
signals.
 It provides instant interchange of opinions.
 The speaker gets instant feedback such that any signs of misunderstanding,
corrections, amplifications or explanations can be made on the spot.
 It is easier to convince/persuade the listener.
 It allows the participation of all those present.
 It is ideal for establishing relationships and for resolving conflicts.

Disadvantages
 The speaker might find it difficult to hold ground in face of opposition.
 The communication among a group of people is very difficult to control.
 The decisions made on the spot are inferior because the speaker does not have the
time to analyse the implication of what is said/proposed.
 In most cases there are no records of what was agreed that is why it is advisable to
keep minutes of a meeting as reminder and record of what was agreed.
 Disputes could arise on what was agreed.
 The effectiveness of oral communication heavily depends on the listener. Thus the
impatient, prejudiced or anxious listener might not get a speaker’s message as
intended.

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COMMUNICATION (TC2)
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
Some of the examples of the written medium are letters, memorandum, reports
notices, agenda, minutes, leaflets and so on.
Advantages
 It provides a written record of what was communicated.
 It provides evidence of dispatch and receipt.
 It can be used to present complex ideas.
 It gives a chance for analysis, evaluation and summary.
 It can be duplicated and multiple copies produced.
 It can confirm, interpret, and clarify oral communication.
 It is appropriate for sensitive messages.

Disadvantages
 It takes time to plan, prepare and transmit the message.
 It can be expensive.
 It is formal and impersonal.
 The reader might have problems interpreting the message.
 Feedback cannot be given instantly.
 When it has been sent, the message cannot be modified.
 The two parties cannot exchange views immediately.

VISUAL COMMUNICATION
There are times when both the oral and written medium prove inadequate for a
particular communication. Some of the examples of visual communication are charts,
graphs, tables, pie charts, diagrams,non verbal signals and so on.

Advantages
 It reinforces oral communication.
 It provides an added visual stimulus to the message.
 It simplifies written and spoken word.
 Ideas can be quantified in number form.
 It provides simulations of situations, as in films DVDs and so on.

Disadvantages
 It can be difficult to interpret if there is no explanation.
 There is a need for skills in comprehension and interpretation.
 It might turn out to be expensive.

FACTORS WHICH DETERMINE THE CHOICEOF A MEDIUM

Everyday people in commerce and industry are faced with the recurring problem of
choosingthe appropriate medium for communicating particular information. Making
such a choice is not always as straight forward as it may seem. Some of the decisions
are influenced by the following basic factors:

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COMMUNICATION (TC2)
a) Time
The time necessary to prepare and transmit the message, considering its urgency. A
phone call, for example, is quicker than a letter; a memo is quicker than a full-scale
report.

b) Complexity of message
If the message is complex the sender should choose a medium which makes it readily
understood. A written message, for example allows the use of diagrams, calculations
and so on – but if something needs to be explained and questions answered on the spot,
a discussion may be preferred.

c) Distance
When choosing the medium, the sender should consider the distance the message is
required to travel and in what condition(s) it must arrive (to be used). For instance, is
there a need for a hard copy on the receiving end? Then written communication should
be used.

d) Need for written record

The need for a written record, for example for confirmation as evidence, identification
or authorization can mean that written communication would be preferred to oral. .

e) Need for interaction

When the message requires exchange of information, question and answer, or instant
feedback, oral communication is used. Oral communication enables you to discuss
complex problems s or persuade the listener more effectively, because you can
adapt the message to the audience’s reactions.

f) Need for confidentiality

When the delivery of the message requires that there should be confidentiality then you
have to choose the appropriate medium for such a message. In fact, to ensure
confidentiality the message should be delivered straight to the receiver. The message
could be either oral or written. You will appreciate that a notice board is obviously
different in application from a private interview or confidential memorandum.

g) Sensitivity. The choice of medium should take into account the effect of the message
onthe recipient: the need for tactful presentation of the message or persuasive influence
on the recipient, the need for personal involvement or impersonality. The effect of a
letter and a face-to-face discussion in announcing news of redundancies, for example,
will be quite different.

h) Cost. When choosing a medium, in addition to considering the other factors that have
been discussed, you also need to ensure that sending the message should not be too
expensive.Nevertheless, the cost of using the system (material, maintenance, charges
and so on) is not the only consideration: staff time is also an expense which is why
face-to-face discussion with a customer is not always an effective option.

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COMMUNICATION (TC2)
Exercise
1. Mention the three media of communication.

2. Give three advantages and three disadvantages of each of the medium of

communication.

3. Explain any four factors which could determine the choice of the medium.

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COMMUNICATION (TC2)
NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
Non verbal communication is a powerful form of communication and it has been defined
in a number of ways. The following are some of the definitions:
 All communication that occurs without using words or symbols;
 Bodily actions and vocal qualities that accompany a verbal message; and
 The communication which occurs without using words.

Characteristics of nonverbal communication

a) Nonverbal communication can either be intentional or unintentional. For instance
upon seeing a friend you can smile at them to show you are pleased to see them or
frown if they annoyed you the last time you met or talked to them.

b) The meaning of nonverbal signals could be ambiguous. One such signal is silence
which could either mean that someone is thinking about what to say or is being rude, or
is deliberately withholding the information.

c) You will also appreciate that nonverbal signals primarilytransmit feelings. Looking at
a person you might notice that the individual is either happy or sad but you cannot tell
the reason behind the feelings if the person does not disclose.

d) Through nonverbal communication an individual gives out messages continuously. In

this case it means you cannot be in a position where you do not send a message to those
looking at you. For instance in the morning when you enter the office, your colleagues
can tell whether you are happy or not before you talk to them. The information comes
from your facial expression.

e) The meaning of nonverbal signals can vary between cultures.

Functions of non verbal communication

a) To provide information
i) Repeating: This is when words and their nonverbal equivalents are used at the
same time. For instance verbal statements of agreement or disagreement are often
accompanied by a nod or shake of the head in order to indicate either positive or
negative feelings. The nonverbal signals convey the same meaning as the verbal
message.

ii) Substituting: In situations where hearing or speaking is impossible, nonverbal

communication often replaces verbal messages. In such cases, nonverbal
communication signals are substitutes because they take the place of words. For
instance, someone may beckon you in a noisy place.

iii) Complementing: Nonverbal signals are sometimes used to complete or accent

explanations of how to do something or in descriptions to specify sizes, shapes and
so on. Nonverbal signals can also be used to emphasise feelings or attitudes.
However, the same complementing gesture can accompany different emotions; for
instance tears/crying can mean excitement/sadness depending on the context.

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COMMUNICATION (TC2)
 iv) Emphasizing:You can draw attention to the most important part of your message
using gestures or tone of voice to stress on the message.

b) Revealing or hiding emotions

i) Deceiving: Nonverbal signals can be used purposely either to deceive or to give a
false impression.

ii) Revealing: There are cases when deception can be seen through one’s nonverbal
behaviour if the other party is sensitive or alert. For instance an exaggerated smile
can reveal the communicator’s inner feelings.

iii)Accenting: Accenting can be achieved by changing the pitch to stress on a word.

For instance address with the stress on the first syllable means box number through
which mail is sent either on post or the internet. While address with a stress on the
second syllable means speaking either to someone or a group

Example
He is going to ad’dress us.
What is his ‘address?

iv) Regulating: Nonverbal communication is used to control turn taking in speech. For
example you might gaze at someone in order to signal that you want to say
something or you want to contribute in a meeting.

TYPES OF NON VERBAL SIGNALS

1. Body Language(Kinesics)
Body Language concerns the use of parts of the body other than the tongue to
communicate feelings, attitudes, opinions and so on. This is done either consciously
or unconsciously. Examples of body language include:

a) Eye contact: Eye contactis a direct and powerful form of nonverbal

communication. Eye contact provides a lot of information. It elicits feelings of
trust, openness, innocence but on the other hand, it may mean deviousness, lack of
interest or show interest.

b) Facial expressions: Facial expressions are another obvious sign of feelings which
are difficult to hide. Facial expressions include a smile, frown, raised eye-brow etc
denoting, pleasure, boredom, deep thought/concentration etc.

c) Body movements: quick pacing up and down, finger drumming, leisurely strolling
transmit impatience, boredom or relaxation.

d) Gestures: Gestures refer to any significant movement of limbs or body and a

deliberate use of such movements as well as an expression of feelings. Gesture can
also be understood as a step or move calculated to evoke response from another
person. It could also be used to convey intention. The most common gestures
include: nodding, shaking of the head, shrugging shoulders, scratching, yawning
etc.

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COMMUNICATION (TC2)
 e) Posture: Posture is the carriage, state of the body and mind. It includes standing
straight and erect, lounging, sitting hunched up, leaning forward, spreading oneself
in a chair,
lying down, crossed legs, folded arms. They convey alertness, formality, care,
relaxation self confidence or (even over confidence), nervousness etc.

2 Touching: Physical contact or touching is an extension of the idea of personal space.

It is an instinctive form of communication: research has shown that touch is an
important part of the psychological development of babies and children, a source of
security and the assurance of affection. As a nonverbal signal touching can be used to
emphasise, interrupt, calm and provide reassurance. How a person touches another
communicates a great deal of information: Is the grip gentle or firm, and does one
hold the other person on the back of the upper arm, on the shoulder, or in the middle
of the back? Is the touch closer to a pat, a rub, or a grabbing? In addition to the caring
and nurturing/caring function, touching can communicate other messages. Social
conditioning affects the extent to which touch is regarded as acceptable in a range of
social contexts.

Some of the uses of touching are the following:

 Functional-Professional e.g. medical examination, haircut and so on;
 Social-politeness e.g. handshake;
 Friendship-warmth e.g. a hug, a pat on the back

3 DISTANCE (PROXEMICS)
Proximity is ‘nearness’: we use the space around us to communicate our attitude to
other people and objects. The following are the examples of the various distances
between people:

a) Intimate distance/zone-this distance begins from actual skin contact to half a

metre. Within this zone physical contact takes place easily. Therefore this
distance is used between people who are emotionally close especially in private
situations. However, the distance can also be used in public for the purpose of
comforting and protecting.

b) Personal distance/zone-this distance of half to one metre allows

communication without physical contact e.g. desks in a classroom or people in
the workplace. It is also the space used in the boardroom.

c) Social distance/zone-consultative-when a distance of one to two metres is

maintained. This allows socializing e.g. lounge furniture, or manager/client
round a low coffee table or workers in an office.

d) Public distance/zone-a distance of more than three metres, such as a lecturer

addressing students, or a speaker at a public meeting. This is the distance
between a speaker and the audience during an oral presentation.
The distance between people has an effect on their communication.The seating
arrangement can:
 Suggest dominance

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  Aid/hinder discussion by either encouraging or discouraging
interaction.
At a meeting you can control the amount of discussion through seating
arrangement as follows:
 Straight rows-minimises discussion;
 Circular-encourages discussion. However, it also depends on who sits
next to whom.

3. Orientation
Orientation is the direction in which one’s body is facing, or how people present
themselves in various ways, as in face-to-face communication; when they sit side-by-
side or when they face each other. If you face the person who is speaking to you, you
give the impression that you are listening to him. On the other hand, if you look
away, it suggests that you do not care.

4. Paralanguage-the way we say what we say (tone) communicates a message about

how we feel about the message being communicated. Paralanguage can suggest a
number of emotional feelings. Paralanguage is reflected in feedback sounds of
surprise, agreement, annoyance or impatience ‘uh-uh, ‘whew!’ ‘oops!’ ‘tsk’, ‘tut tut’

A heightened awareness of what people are saying non-verbally greatly assists one
(manager/secretary) to read a situation and to act perhaps to head off a personality
clash or calm an irate customer.

5. Dress and General Appearance

Dressing and appearance reflect a person’s personality, attitude, interests, status, age
and so on. Your personal style can indicate self-confidence or insecurity, and taste. In
business contexts, it also indicates awareness of what is appropriate for a given
situation.The way in which you dress says volumes about the way you regard the
people you are meeting. There are different dress codes – usually just understood, but
sometimes actually stated – under which you are expected to dress for a particular
occasion. Breaking these codes can convey a strong message about attitudes towards
the situation.

6. Physical Environment
The arrangement of desks, chairs, tables, and the design of the office affect the way in
which the encounter or communication takes place. So the physical can either
promote or hinder effective communication.

7. Use of time
The way we perceive time, structure our time and react to time, is a powerful
communication tool, and helps set the stage for communication. Time perceptions
include punctuality and willingness to wait, the speed of speech and how long people
are willing to listen.

Exercise
1. Define nonverbal communication.
2. Outline any three functions of nonverbal communication.
3. Mention any four types of non verbal communication.

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4. Mention any non verbal communication which could be important in the following
situations:
i. When you are speaking on the phone
ii. When you are attending an interview
iii. When you are participating in a meeting

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 BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION
A barrier refers to anything that interferes with the success of the communication
process.

1. Distortion
Distortion refers to the way in which the meaning of a communication is lost through
‘handling’. There are two forms of distortion:
 Encoding distortion is when the precise intention of the sender (what he wants to
communicate) is not translated accurately into language, so that the ‘wrong’
message is sent.
 Decoding distortion is where the language used is not properly understood by the
receiver, so that the ‘wrong’ message is received.

2. Noise
Noise is another barrier to communication and refers to distractions and interference in
the environment in which communication is taking place. Noise can take the following
forms:
a) Physical noise, such as other people talking in the accounts office, customers talking
at the cashier’s office sound from machines or passing traffic.
b) Technical noise involves a failure in the channel (means) of communication while
information is being transmitted. For example a breakdown in a computer printer as
you are printing a report, a crackle on a telephone line or bad handwriting may
prevent an effective exchange of information from taking place.
c) Social noise is interferencecreated by differences in the personality, culture or outlook
of the sender and recipient.
d) Psychological noise such as excessive emotion (like anger or fear) prejudice or
nervousness, can interfere with the effective transmission of a message: the meaning
may get clouded by irrelevant expressions of emotion or attitude, or the message may
reach the recipient in a garbled state (because of a nervous stammer).

The following are other barriers to communication:

3. Lack of knowledge
a) It is difficult to communicate effectively with someone whose knowledge of a
particular
subject is considerably less than yours.

4. Perceptual Bias/Differences in perception

People view certain things in life differently because of a number of factors such as
differences in age, culture, education, social status, etc. Such perceptions could cause
communication breakdown.

5. Lack of interest
If the recipient of the message has no interest in what is being communicated, the result is
communication breakdown.

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6. Jumping to conclusions
Sometimes we conclude about the outcome of a communication based on previous
misconceptions even experiences we have about the sender or the receiver.

7. Stereotyping
Sometimes we have prejudice against certain groups of people without proper grounds.
Our convictions of certain people/individuals/tribes etc. have no valid basis.

8. Language
The fact that two people speak different languages to each other means that there is
likely to be communication breakdown between them.

9. Personality
Someone who is arrogant can affect the behavior of the other person. This kind of ‘clash
of personalities’ is one of the most common causes of communication failure.

10. Failure to offer or seek feedback

A situation where the receiver of information fails to answer questions asked by the
sender and fails to ask questions when the information is not clear.

11. Information overload:

Information overload is where the sender communicates a lot of information which the
receiver is unable to handle within the given time.

Overcoming the barriers

Now let us move on to examine ways in which we might make sure that we
communicate as effectively as possible. If we can predict some of the likely problems
before we communicate, we may be able to avoid them. Here are a few simple rules that
we can follow:

1. Defining the purpose:

You could ask yourself the following questions:
 Why am I communicating?
 What is my reason for writing or speaking?
 What am I hoping to achieve? Change attitude? Change of opinion?
 What do I want the receivers to do?
 What is my purpose? To inform, persuade, entertain?

2. Audience Analysis
Who is my audience?
What sort of people are they in terms of personality, education, age, status, etc?
How are they likely to react to the content of my message?
What do they know already about the subject matter?

3. Place and context

 Where will the message be communicated? In an office?
 What is my relationship with the receiver?
 Is the message a response? Query? etc

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4. Subject
 What exactly do I want to say?
 What do I need to say?
 What do they need to know?
 What information can I omit?
 What information must I include?

5. Tone and Style (How)

How am I going to communicate my message? With words or pictures, or both?
Which medium will be appropriate? Written or spoken?
Which words will I use to create the right tone?
In some cases the answers to these questions will come quickly. Still, the golden ruleis to
think ahead to ensure effective communication.

Exercise

1. Explain what is meant by barrier in communication.

2. Explain how any four barriers can affect communication.

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UNIT 2: LANGUAGE SKILLS

OVERVIEW
This unit provides you with information on:
 Using English effectively;
 Spelling rules and punctuation;
 Grammar;
 The PASS Principle for planning business messages;
 Principles of business writing;
 Paragraph development; and
 Forms of business writing.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of thisunit, you should be able to:
a) Use English effectively;
b) Use punctuation appropriately;
c) Write grammatically correct sentences;
d) Develop effective paragraphs;
e) Use the principles of business writing; and
f) Write effective memos, letters, notices and reports.

The ability to use English correctly and effectively is an essential skill which all those
working in business or the public service must seek to master. Often the most effective
use of the language is the result of much conscious effort and practice. As such it is a
must for the manager, accountant or clerk to appreciate the importance of speaking or
writing in a way which will achieve positive results.

USING ENGLISH EFFECTIVELY

Grammar for communication

A good communicator must be able to use words appropriately in order to get positive
results. To achieve this, the communicator requires mastering the following language
skills:

Constructing Sentences
When you are writing, ensure that the sentences give a complete meaning. As such,
every sentencemust have a subject and a verb.

Subject
The subject can be a noun, a noun phrase, a noun clause or a pronoun.
Examples:
a) The accountant signed all the cheques this morning.

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 b) The new accounts clerk prepared the payment vouchers.
c) That the strike lasted four weeksis true.
d) He refuses to sign the cheques if they are not brought in a folder.

Note: The italicized words are subjects

Verb
The verb expresses action or a state of being. For example the words signed, prepared,
is, and refuses.

Sentence Types
When you are writing, use a variety of sentences to express the ideas in order to give or
show a particular effect.

The simple sentence

Use the simple sentence if you want to express a single idea. e.g. The customer did not
settle the bill.

The compound sentence

Use the compound sentence when you want to express two independent ideas. For
example The customer did not settle the bill and closed the account.

The complex sentence

Use the complex sentence to express an independent and a dependent idea. For example
Although the customer settled the bill, he closed the account.

Passive and Active Voice

Use the active voice in most of your sentences, however, in situations where you want to
give unpopular messages you may use the passive where emphasis is on the action rather
than the doer of the action.
Example:
Active – Chikondi photocopied a lot of documents last weekend.
Passive – A lot of documents were photocopied last week (by Chikondi).

Writing Better Sentences

Every sentence should express a complete idea should be grammatically correct.

Subject Verb Agreement

The subject and verb must agree in number. If the subject is singular then the verb must
also be singular. If the subject is plural then the verb is plural too. In the present tense
when the subject is in the third person singular you must add an –sor –esat the end of the
verb. The singular subjects are singular nouns or pronouns.

Examples:
Wrong: The woman walk with a limp
Correct:The woman walks with a limp.
Wrong: He like signing the cheques in the morning.
Correct: He likes signing the cheques in the morning.
Wrong: They signs all the cheques in the morning.

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 Correct: They sign all the cheques in the morning.

Sentence fragments
A fragment is a sentence which is not complete; and therefore not grammatically correct.
Causes of fragments might be a missing subject or a missing verb.
Examples:
Wrong: Looking forward to doing more business with you.
Correct: We look forward to doing more business with you.
Wrong: Wishing you the best in your studies.
Correct: I wish you the best in your studies.
Wrong: The students working in the computer laboratory.
Correct: The students were working in the computer laboratory.
Wrong: The lecturer marking the assignments in the office.
Correct: The lecturer is marking the assignments in the office.

The first two examples do not have subjects. While the other two do not have complete verbs.

Run-on sentences
Run-on sentences are two or more sentences which are joined without a punctuation
mark.
Examples:
WrongKamwendo is a lazy student he does not submit assignments.
Correct: Kamwendo is a lazy student. He does not submit assignments.
Wrong: The members of staff were given an increment they are not satisfied.
Correct: Although the members of staff were given an increment, they are not satisfied.
Wrong: Chimwala is sick he did not report for duties.
Correct: Chimwala is sick.He did not report for duties.

Parallelism
Parallelism is a balance of words or expressions which match each other in form and
usage. When words or expressions are used in a sentence they should be consistent with
one another.

Wrong:He is strong and a competitor.

Correct: He is strong and competitive.

Wrong: John is hard working and can be trusted.

Correct: John is hard working and trust worthy.

Dangling modifiers
The dangling modifier occurs when there is a modifier in a sentence without a noun to be
modified.

Wrong: After watching the game, the snacks were put away.
Correct: After watching the game, we put away the snacks.

Misplaced modifiers
A misplaced modifiers is when a modifier is placed far away from the noun it modifies
such that the meaning is distorted.

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Wrong:Mavuto only has K50, which is not enough for his bus fare
Correct: Mavuto has K50 only, which is not enough for his bus fare
As a communicator you need to pay attention to some of the language problems which
can affect the clarity of your message and render your communication ineffective.

EXERCISE
The following sentences are incorrect. Write their correct versions
1. I like this class, it is very interesting
2. My professor is intelligent I’ve learned a lot from her.
3. Because I forgot the exam was today
4. Then I attended Chimwala Academy. An Academy that was a bad experience.
5. The Scene was filled with beauty.
Such as the sun sending its brilliant rays to the earth and the leaves of various shades
of red, yellow and brown moving slowly in the wind.
6. He talked for fifty minutes without taking his eyes off his notes. Like other teachers in
that department, he did not encourage students’ questions.
Join two independent clauses with one of the following co-coordinating, conjunctions
(and, but, for , or, nor, so, yet).
7. He enjoys walking through the country. He often goes back packing on his vacations.
8. He often watched TV when there were only reruns. She preferred to read instead.
9. They weren’t dangerous criminals. They were detectives in disguise.
10. I didn’t know which job I wanted. I was too confused to decide.
Choose the correct form of the verb that agrees with the subject.
11. Annie and her brothers (is, are) at school.
12. Either my mother or my father (is, are) coming to the meeting.
13. The dog or the cats (is, are ) outside.
14. George and Tamara (does not, do not ) want to see the movie.
15. Benito (does not, donot) know the answer
16. One of my sisters (is, are) going on trip to France.

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COMMUNICATION (TC2)
UNIT 3: BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
OVERVIEW
This unit presents you with information on:
 Planning business messages;
 Principles of effective business communication;
 Memorandum;
 Notices
 Letters in business.
 Reports

Learning outcomes
By the end of this unit, you will be able to:
a) Explain the factors to be considered when planning non-routine messages;
b) Describe the principles of effective business communication
c) Explain the uses of a memorandum;
d) Explain the parts of a memorandum;
e) Design effective notices;
f) Outline the importance of the various parts of a business letter;
g) Identify different types of letters;
h) Write letters that achieve their purpose-to convey your message and maintain
goodwill;
i) Demonstrate understanding of the mechanics of letter writing and letter lay out; and
j) Write short formal reports.

Introduction
Business communication is a form of deliberately planned communication. In business, apart
from communicating the message you also portray the image of the organization. Therefore it
is important that you take your time to plan the message.

PLANNING BUSINESS MESSAGES

Planning is an important stage of any form of communication. The planning ensures that the
communication presents a message which is meaningful to the recipient/audience.

Proper planning helps you to organize what you are going to say or write bearing in mind the
needs, the expectations and the abilities of the intended receiver of the message

So, the first thing you must do when faced with any task of presenting information is to come
up with a plan for the communication. One common approach is PASS, and it highlights four
key elements to consider in planning.

PASS stands for:

 Purpose - Identifying purpose or objective for the communication
 Audience - Identifying who you are communicating with
 Structure - Identifying the organization of the material you wish to
communicate
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  Style - Identifying the appropriate type of formality and the tone of the
voiceyou will use.

It is worthwhile to consider the importance attached to each of the four elements mentioned.

The importance of considering purpose

The basis of all organization and planning is the clear identification of the aims and
objectives you are trying to achieve.

In business you might want to communicate for many reasons. For example in internal
communication situations, you might be:
 Informing colleagues, line managers or subordinates about something:
 Responding to a previous communication
 Obtaining a decision or requesting action

In external markets you may be:

 Trying to raise awareness in the media
 Persuading customers to buy or
 Stimulating some other response such as ringing a customer for more information

Why is it important to identify the purpose of your communication?

 To focus your mind on what you have to communicate
 To enable you to accumulate or gather information you need for the message
 To consider the best way to send the message
 If you have a clear idea of your intention, you are more likely to know if you have
achieved your objectives

The importance of the audience

In any form of communication, what you are trying to do is to convey information to an
audience. ‘Audience’ refers to the recipients of the message. Whatever is said or written
must therefore, take into account the needs of the audience including:
 Who they are
 What they need to know
 Their level of knowledge
 Their circumstances of the communication
 What will most appeal to or motivate them

You should bear in mind that your relationship with the audience also matters.

Structure
In business communication, the structure of the message refers to the organization of ideas.
Therefore, effective communication depends on which aspects of the message the sender
would want to emphasise. Nevertheless, every message should have an introduction, a body
and a conclusion/summary.

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Style
Style is about using the best words in the best order. When planning a business message you
should decide on the words to be used in order to convey the intended meaning. The choice
of words determines the way the message is understood, this is called the tone.

Exercise
Explain the importance of each of the following in planning business messages:

i. Purpose
ii. Audience
iii. Structure
iv. Style

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PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

In business and industry, as well as in government, important decisions, agreements and

statistical information are often put in writing. Written communication is preferred to oral
communication because of the permanency of the record it provides. It can also reach distant
places without any distortion. Effective written communication involves planning the content
and choosing the appropriate words to present the ideas. Therefore, whatever you write, a
memorandum, a letter or a report, it must have the following qualities which are called the 7
C’s.

1. Completeness
When you present information, make sure to include all the facts the reader needs for you to
achieve your purpose. Therefore completeness means comprehensive treatment of the subject
at hand; it results in clear motivating messages. Specific, pertinent details aid clarity whereas
Nonessential details and long descriptions confuse the reader. To achieve completeness in
your message always consider the reader. The person familiar with the subject will need few
details but the uniformed person will need complete explanations and interpretations. One
way to ensure that you provide all the necessary information is to check if the communication
answers all the questions asked either directly or indirectly. Provide all the information
required for the reader to understand and act as desired. The information should provide
answers for all the 5w and h questions. The questions are: what? Who? Where? When? Why?
and How?

2. Conciseness
In order to ensure that you present all the points on a particular issue, you might be tempted
to cover a number of pages. However, as a sender, ensure that you present all the ideas in as
few words as possible. Therefore, conciseness simply means saying all that you want to say
in the fewest possible words without sacrificing completeness and courtesy. The following
could assist you to achieve conciseness:

a) Omit trite expressions

Trite expressions/clichés also called ‘deadwood’ should be avoided in
memorandum, letters and reports. For example:
 It has come to the notice of management = Management has noticed
 Enclosed please find a copy of my C.V. = I have enclosed a copy of my
c.v.
 Please be advised that the computer will be dispatched to you within the
next two weeks=wasted words which should be left out.
 The two reports have been sent under a separate cover=separately.

b) Avoid unnecessary repetition and wordy statements

You should refrain from saying the same thing more than once unless you are
convinced that the effectiveness of your communication depends on such repetition.
Avoid wordy expressions like the following:

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 i) A long period of time instead of a long time
ii) At this point in time instead of now
iii) Due to the fact that instead of because
iv) In due course instead of soon

3. Consideration
When you write, put the recipient in mind in order to avoid offending him/her. You should
try to put yourself in the recipient’s place in order to visualize the receiver’s needs,
expectations, desireswhile at the same time taking into account the interests of your
organization. Such an approach enables you to handle the issue from their point of view. This
approach is called the ‘you attitude’ empathy, the human touch, or the understanding of
human nature. You need to show interest in the reader and try to show how s/he is going to
benefit from what you say. Emphasise positive, pleasant facts while playing down negative
ones.

Consideration can be achieved in four main ways

i.Focus on ‘you’ instead of ‘I’ and ‘We’. Begin the message with ‘you’ and keep your
reader in the message until you finish. Nevertheless, it is not advisable to use the you
approach in the following situations:
 When the receiver has made a mistake;
 When the receiver has expressed a different opinion from your own.
ii. Show interest in the reader. Show your reader how s/he will benefit from what the
message is saying.
iii. Emphasise the positive, pleasant facts. Although you cannot always have a positive
message, you need to de-emphasize negative information as you emphasize the positive
aspects of the message. Avoid using negative words by stressing what can be done
instead of what cannot be done. Above all, avoid words like no, never, impossible,
cannot and so on.
Remember the golden rule: Show to others the same fairness and honesty you expect from
them. In short, consideration means you are genuinely thoughtful about the recipient of your
message and consider his/her probable reactions to the message.

4. Concreteness
Make sure that the message you write creates a vivid picture in the receiver’s mind by using
specific facts and figures. You should avoid using vague ambiguous words like the following:
large, low, short, several, soon, few and so on.
However, there are cases when general expressions are permissible, for example:
i. When it is not possible to be specific.
ii. When you want to be diplomatic.
iii. When you want the reader to form his/her opinion or when the exact figures are
unimportant.

Examples
Abstract Concrete
A significant A 53 % loss
The majority 62 percent
In the near future By the end of the month

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5. Clarity
When you write ensure that the reader should understand what you conveying. The reader
should interpret your words with the meaning similar to the one you have in mind.
Communicating clearly simply means writing to be understood rather than misunderstood.
Clarity depends on careful, efficient planning that produces a logical, easy-to-follow
arrangement of material in which ideas flow smoothly from the beginning to end.
Clarity can be achieved through:
a) The use of short, familiar conversational words. When you have a choice between a
long and short word, use the short and familiar word.
 Avoid technical jargon. If you must use them then define them briefly and
clearly
 Ensure to write within the reader’s level of understanding
 Do not use wordy expressions
b) Ensure that the sentences and the paragraphs express the ideas effectively through
unity, coherence and emphasis.

6. Courtesy
As individuals, we all want to be treated with courtesy, but, when you are writing, the
absence of the reader can make you discourteous. Such an approach will not get the desired
results. So, always strive to write tactfully by avoiding expressions that may belittle, irritate
or hurt the reader. The following are some of the expressions that can hurt the reader:
 I do not agree with you
 We do not believe
 You claim that
 Your complaint
 You have to
 Surely you do not expect
 Your failure to
 You should know
Promptness is another form of courtesy. In business, it is necessary to answer letters or
memos promptly.

7. Correctness
When you write, ensure to use the right level of language. The appropriateness of the
language will be determined by the subject matter, the purpose of the communication and the
reader. Correctness is accuracy as a result of good judgement and conformity to an accepted
conventional standard. After writing, you need to check your work in order to get rid of errors
in the figures and the facts. You also need to check errors in tense, punctuation, choice of
words and sentence construction.

PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT
In addition to writing effective sentences, you also need to develop a skill in paragraph
development. Therefore this section provides you with the basic information on how to write
good paragraphs. Effective letters and memos are a result of well developed sentences and
paragraphs.

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COMMUNICATION (TC2)
A paragraph is a collection of related sentences dealing with a single idea. Good
paragraphing assists your readers in following the ideas which you have presented in a piece
of writing. You can have fantastic ideas, but if those ideas are not organized, your readers
will not understand your message.

Basic Rule
The basic rule of thumb when writing paragraphs is to keep one idea to one paragraph. If
you begin transition into a new idea, that new idea belongs to a different paragraph. There are
times when you can have one idea and several bits of supporting evidence within a single
paragraph. You can have several points in a single paragraph as long as they relate to the
overall idea of the paragraph.

Elements of a Paragraph
To be as effective as possible, a paragraph should be unified, coherent and well developed.
However these elements overlap. Using and adapting them to your individual purposes will
help you to construct effective paragraphs.

Unity
The ideas should be presented in sentences and paragraphs which are unified. Each sentence
should present a clear idea and each paragraph should have one main idea. To ensure unity,
link sentences together by arranging them to form a close relationship of ideas. The same
point of view should also be maintained among sentences making up a paragraph. The main
idea is expressed in the topic sentence.Usually the topic sentence is placed at the beginning of
a paragraph. The rest of the sentences contain the details that develop the main idea.
However, if the main idea is unfavorable, use the indirect approach where you start with the
less important points and then the most important one.

Coherence
Coherence is the trait that makes the paragraph easily understandable to the reader. You can
help create coherence in your paragraphs by creating logical bridges and verbal bridges. In a
paragraph, a logical bridge is where the same idea of a topic is carried over from one sentence
to the other while a verbal bridge is where key words are repeated in some sentences.

Development
The topic, introduced by the topic sentence should be discussed fully and adequately. This
varies from paragraph to paragraph depending on the author’s purpose. Some paragraphs
have two or three sentences in which case, the paragraph could not be fully developed.

Guidelines for paragraph development

 Use examples and illustrations
 Cite data (facts, statistics, evidence, details)
 You can use quotes and paraphrases of what other people say.
 Use an anecdote or story.
 Define terms in the paragraph.
 Compare and contrast.
 Evaluate causes and reasons.
 Examine effects and consequences.

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COMMUNICATION (TC2)
 Analyse the topic.
 Describe the topic.
 Offer a chronology or sequence of events.

A Topic Sentence
A topic sentence is the sentence that states the main idea which the paragraph is going to
develop. You will notice that not all paragraphs have clear-cut topic sentences. The topic
sentences can be anywhere in the paragraph.

You should start a new paragraph in the following situations:

1. When you begin a new idea or point

If you have extended idea that requires multiple paragraphs each, new point within that idea
should have its own paragraph.

2. To contrast information or ideas

Separate paragraphs can serve to contrast sides in debate, different points in an argument or
any other difference.

3. When the paragraph is too long or the material is complex

4. When you are ending your introduction or starting your conclusion

Your introductory and concluding material should always be in a new paragraph. Many
introductions and conclusions have multiple paragraphs depending on their content, length,
and the writer’s purpose.

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FORMS OF BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

MEMORANDA
Among the most frequently used means of communication in companies and institutions are
memoranda, letters, notices and reports. Some of these means of communication are used
externally as well as internally in the same way as the letter, while one, the memorandum is
only used within an organization.The word memorandum (memo in short) originally meant a
reminder or confirmation; a note to help the memory. It has since come to include a wide
variety of written messages exchanged between people working within the same organization

In any organization, the recording and storage of the details of a lot of policies, decisions, and
routine daily business is essential for the efficient running of hierarchic organization. More
importantly the storage of information in written form is very essential in the accounts
department.

Characteristics of Memoranda

1) Memoranda are generally short and deal with one subject.

2) The contents of memoranda are usually neutral and routine, but can sometimes be
sensitive and confidential. Memoranda convey many different types of messages.
3) Unlike other forms of communication memos are written by:
i. One individual to another;
ii. An individual to a group;
iii. A group (representatives of members of staff) to an individual (the accountant).

Uses of memos
In the organization memos are used to:
a. Send unsolicited suggestions or ideas upwards.
b. Instruct or give advice downwards.
c. Request or seek help or cooperation.
d. Confirm a message, especially following a telephone conversation or discussion.
e. Seek information, confirmation or advice.
f. Clarify, explain or introduce a message
g. Amend or modify existing policies or practices.

Memos sent from juniors to their senior are usually responses to requests, but memos are also
used as juniors to formally convey information and ideas to seniors without being asked.

Memos are also exchanged between equals for instance arranging meetings, asking for
information, placing orders among other messages.

Format
1. A memo contains no addresses for either the sender or receiver and no salutation or
complimentary close.
2. Most organizations have their own particular style of printed form which varies
considerably from firm to firm.

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COMMUNICATION (TC2)
3. A memo may have the name of the organization and/or department across the top, simply
headed ‘MEMORANDUM.’
4. The following information should be included in the memo format
i. To. identifies the receiver of the memo;
ii. From. identifies where the memo is coming from;
iii. Date. shows when the was written;
iv. Subject. states the issue(s) to be discussed in the memo, the subject must be
capitalized or underlined so that it stands out;
v. CC. indicates who have received copies of the memo;
vi. Encl’/Att.’ tells the receiver what else should be expected together with the
memo.
5. If you have used your full name at the top, you need only your initials at the bottom. End
with a full name if you have not used it at the top.

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COMMUNICATION (TC2)
 ORGANISATION’S NAME

To: (Recipient’s name or designation) Ref: (for filing)

From: (author’s name or designation) Date: (in full)
Subject: (main theme of message)

CONTENT

Signed: (optional)
Author signs/initials
CC (recipient(s) of copies)

Encl. Att’: to indicate accompanying material

STRUCTURE OF A MEMORANDUM

SUBJECT: Synthesis of the theme/central idea of the memo.

Content

Introduction Puts the message in context by providing the reason/purpose

for the memo.

Identifies the related components i.e. people, places, events,

time who, why what when or where.

Body Presents the main idea/essence of the memo’s message- gives

information, instructions, and explanations and so on.

It could be several paragraphs depending on the subject.

Conclusion It states what the sender expects from the recipient of the
memorandum.

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COMMUNICATION (TC2)
NOTICES
While the memorandum tends to receive more attention as a means of internal
communication within the organisation, the importance of the notice should not be
undervalued. A notice is a written or graphic message posted for general attention, which
aims to attract attention to information or advice in such a way as to promote speed, ease and
memory. A notice is used in situations when you want to reach out to a large number of
people as a group rather than individuals. Notices are designed to achieve this through
providing information in a concise and eye-catching way. Sometimes a notice is used as a
back-up to the circulation of a memorandum to members of staff, reinforcing and confirming
the message. The aim of the notice is to provide:

 impact and emphasis in the presentation of the message;

 longer-term display of the message, as a continual reminder and record; and
 ease and speed of reading.

Notices are designed to impart important information, therefore, you should identify the
purpose of the communication. After planning the content, you can plan the design of the
notice. The following are some design elements:

You should use simple and direct vocabulary and the message should be short. In addition,
you should use a clear heading for the notice. The use of space between lines and wide
margins helps to make the message to stand out. You should also highlight the most
important words and phrases.

DESIGNING AN EFFECTIVE NOTICE

The notice should attract attention through visual appearance and impact. The design of the
notice depends on the content.

Essential features of a notice

Visibility: Use big font size on a large paper.

Attractiveness: Use pictures, graphics and colour to attract attention.

Brevity: Present the message in as few words as possible.

Clarity: Use a clear heading. This will ensure that the notice will draw the attention of its
intended recipient.

Use action verbs to emphasise what the audience should do after reading the notice.

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COMMUNICATION (TC2)
Use plenty of space

 Always leave plenty of space between lines.

 Leave wide margins on both sides and at the top and bottom.

Highlight important words or phrases like dates, times of meetings, telephone number to ring
in an emergency; places to assemble in case of fire and so on by:

 Using capitals
 Underlining them
 Using different colours

Use illustrations like in the example below:

DON’T SMOKE

Displaying notices

The notice must be displayed at places where it will be seen easily.

Notice boards should be sited in areas where all the relevant people will see the notices.

 They should be set at a height where the average person can read the notices

 Notice boards should be kept tidy. Out-of-date notices should be removed.

 The board should be divided clearly into sections so that notices on different topics
are placed in different areas.

Example of a notice

NOTICE

ATTENTION: ALL ICAM CANDIDATES

MAKE SURE YOU PAY YOUR EXAMINATION FEES

BEFORE THE CLOSING DATE

Exercise:
Design a notice to discourage noise in a library.

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COMMUNICATION (TC2)
BUSINESS LETTERS

The nature of business letters

A business letter is a written medium of communication used by people belonging to two
different organisations. Inspite of electronic communication the business letter is still used
widely to make enquiries, confirm information, collect outstanding debts, settling,
advertising, complain and answer complaints etc.A business letter can further be used as a
means of relaying many other messages which arise from specializations and different
business situations in both the commercial and public service scenarios / world.In many
instances the letter forms the only contact between organizations and acts as either
ambassador, or salesman or both. Hence theappearance of the letters matters because the
organizations reputation depends on it. Managers further realize the importance of composing
the letter in such a manner that it evokes response from the recipient.A mastery of the skills
of letter writing, an appreciation of the displayed letterhead and the letter layout are therefore
essential to an efficient letter writer.

Lay-out of business letters

Business letters have several features in common. However, some of these features may only
be included if required by a specific letter. The following are the specific features:

a) Letterhead
A letterhead is the printed part of an official letter sheet. It is carefully designed and
printed. It contains information that the recipient needs in order to reply to the letter. It
has the following information:

i. The organisation’s name and status e.g. Ltd denotes it is a limited company.
ii. The address of the organization from which the letter was sent (including
postcode)
iii. Telephone, fax, telex numbers and e-mail address.

Furthermore the letterhead gives some indication of the organisation’s activities if this
is not implied in its name. (Hardware and General Dealers Stockists of iron sheets,
electrical appliances etc). A printed letter sheet may also include:

 A list of company directors

 The address of the company’s registered office.
 Its registered number
 Its country of registration

b) Letter logos
The logo is the graphic symbol on the letterhead. It is very often the same trademark used
for product packaging, delivery lorries, newspaper advertisements, etc. In short the logo
is a concise visual symbol of what the organization does, the values it represents, how it
sees itself and wants to be seen. Below is an example of Malawi College of
Accountancy’s logo

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COMMUNICATION (TC2)
c) References
Each letter will have to be precisely identified for filling and retrieval purposes. The
letter reference consists of the author’s and text processors’ initials and paper file.
For example:

Our Ref: Signals the reference given to the current letter-the one being written for
example Ref JKF/sh, F99.6

Your ref: Tells the recipient the reference number of the letter to you which you are
acknowledging and referring to.
Date:Set in sequence, day, month, year, for example 23 March,2000.

d) The recipient’s address

The recipient may be any of the following:

 An organization
 A designated’ individual: The Finance Officer
 A named individual: Mr J Pahuwa - Invoice Clerk

Details of address follow immediately after the recipient’s name/designation. For

example:

Malawi College of Accountancy

P O Box 30644
Chichiri
Blantyre 3

e) Salutation
The opening greeting is conventionally paired with an appropriate complimentary
close to mark to the end of the letter depending on the tone and degree of formality.

e.g: Dear Sir/Madam Yours faithfully

Dear Dr./Mr/Mrs Yours sincerely

Dear Sir Ketumile Yours sincerely

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COMMUNICATION (TC2)
 Dear Joe/Mary Yours sincerely
My dear Chikonde Kind regards
Best wishes
Affectionately

f) Subject heading
This gives a one-or-two word identification of the main subject of the letter. It directs
the reader’s thought to the matter in hand and provides a convenient signal for
those scanning for contents when sorting mail or retrieving material from files.

e.g. House Allowance

g) Main body
The main body of the letter carries the content of the letter. It is divided logically into
paragraphs taking the form of blocked or indented paragraphs with, perhaps, centred
tables, separated by double spacing. In most cases the paragraphs are divided into
introduction, body, and conclusion.

h) Writer’s signature, name and designation

This is the writer’s identity. The typist should leave space for the writers’ signature.
Since the signature is often illegible, the writer’s name should be printed below by his
department or designation. Where necessary if someone else is signing a letter on behalf
of the writer, the writer’s name is preceded by ‘For’ or pp: (per procutiorem). For
example:

For: O M Kathamalo
SALES MANAGER

i) Enclosures and copy references

If you are putting something other than the letter in the same envelope, such as a
cheque, you must call the reader’s attention to it. Refer to it as having been enclosed.
A clear ‘signal’ must be put at the foot of the letter. For example Att: Curriculum Vitae
or Encl: Annual Report.

If a duplicate of a letter has been sent to an interested third party, it must be

acknowledged in the following manner:

C.C. (Carbon Copied to)

e.g. CC : The Finance Officer
The Registrar, etc

Sometimes the letter continues on the second page and these are called Continuation
Sheets.

j) Continuation Sheets
The second sheet, and subsequent sheets, of the letter will be on plain (un-headed) paper.
To ensure that these subsequent sheets are linked to the first sheet, they should be headed
as follows:

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COMMUNICATION (TC2)
 Name of recipient, page number in the letter, date

e.g: P Masamba -2- 28th March, 2000

k) Open or closed punctuation

i. Open punctuation involves omitting all punctuation from the elements outside the
body of the letter. There is no punctuation mark in the presentation of the following
elements:

 the date, the address block, the salutation and the complimentary close.
 Abbreviations and initials.

ii.Closed punctuation involves the inclusion of commas after the date, each line of, the
name, address block, salutation and complimentary close.

NOTE: The body of the letter should be fully punctuated.

l) Letter content
The presentation of the message in a letter is important and needs careful planning. The
writer needs to plan how the letter will be introduced, how details will be presented, and how
the conclusion will be given.

The opening paragraph/ The introduction

The opening paragraph puts the message into a context, either by initiating an action, by
responding to a received stimulus etc. This can be achieved by:
(a) Acknowledging receipt of previous correspondence
(b) Giving the reason for writing the letter.

The middle paragraphs – the body of the letter

 Develops the issue(s) raised in the introduction. For example the nature of the
complaint may be described.
 Depending on the nature of the letter and issues at hand you can write several
paragraphs, each dealing with one principal aspect.

The closing paragraphs

The conclusion does the following things in a letter. It:
 Provides a summary of the main points.
 States the essential action the writer needs from the recipient for example paying a bill as
in the case of a collection letter.
 Emphasizes the reason for writing the letter.

Common types of letters

There are different types of letters according to their functions. The following table
summarizes these types:

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COMMUNICATION (TC2)
Area Letter Classification Use/Purpose
General Inquiry  To seek information/ confirmation
Acknowledgement  To provide information/confirmation.
Information  To seek redress of a deficiency.
Complaint  To rectify a complaint
Adjustment
Financial Collection 1,2,3  To obtain settlement of a debt.
Letter of Credit  To authorize an advance of credit
Sales advertising Sales Letter  To sell goods or services
Follow –up sales letter  To remind of sales offers
Unsolicited sales letter  To advertise goods or services.
Appointment Application  To apply for a post
Resignation  To confirm resignation from a post
Reference enquiry  To seek confidential particulars
Reference reply  To provide confidential particulars

Planning a letter
Letters that get results do not just ‘happen’. They are thought about like every other form of
effective communication. The writer may be guided by considering the following: What?
Who? When? Where? Why? How? Etc.

To plan your letter well you will need to review the background that has led to the need for a
letter. This will often mean reviewing previous correspondence, and it is helpful to underline
key points in incoming correspondence and make notes in the margins which will ensure you
don’t leave out important details.

As you review the background, the reader and reason for writing, the nature of the problem
you have to solve will become apparent. At this point determine the type of the letter you
must write. For example if a customer is claiming unsatisfactory service on your part and
you are unable to satisfy the claim – an unfavourable adjustment is the likely result.

The writer of a letter acts as an ambassador for an organization who tries to maintain or build
goodwill. This task may either be simple in some cases or difficult in others, depending on
the anticipated reader reaction.

Letters should begin by clearly identifying the subject in the first paragraph and end by
suggesting what happens next so that the reader is quite clear who has to do something next,
or whether the matter is now complete. In between the introduction and the conclusion you
include the details which should be set out in paragraphs –one main idea in each paragraph.
Within this basic framework you can use your skill in choosing words to create goodwill
whatever the nature of your message.

EXERCISE
1. Read the following letter carefully and correct the errors of convention, structure and
language use.

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COMMUNICATION (TC2)
 Malawi Bureau of Standards
P O Box 946
BLANTYRE
Our Ref: IMB/tp

Mr A Zangwa
P O Box 50
Blantyre

Dear Sir

QUALITY COMPLAINT

With reference to your letter of yesterday’s date, we have thoroughly investigated your complaint
regarding the quality of the items dispatched to you on the 3rd January and their does seem to have
been a temporary problem in our Inspection Department on that day.

I would appreciate further details, of the defects found, the particular product effected and its batch
number. I enclose our Defects report Form, and would be grateful if your could complete and return
it to me as soon as possible. I will then be more than happy to immediately replace the relevant items
without delay.

Meanwhile please accept my apologies for any inconvenience caused.

Yours sincerely

N Chiyembekeza
Sales Director

2. Imagine that you are workingin the credit section. You have received a request for credit
reference for a small company with which your firm has never had any debt collection
problems. Write an appropriate reply.

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COMMUNICATION (TC2)
REPORTS
What is a report?
Scholars do not agree on one definition of reports, as such, the definitions range from one
extreme to another. However, the following definition is the one which has been accepted
by a number of scholars. A business report is an orderly and objective communication of
factual information that serves a business purpose.Now, let us look at the key words in
the definition. The first is orderly. By being orderly it means the various section of the
report are presented using a specific arrangement. Reports are prepared carefully and the
care in the preparation distinguishes reports from casual exchange of information. The
second key word is objective. In a report, the facts should ‘speak’ for themselves.
Therefore, the facts should not be biased. The basic ingredient of reports is factual
information. The information in a report is based on facts which present the situation as it
is - not as the writer sees it. The factual information is based on events, records, data and
so on. Reports are not written just to be kept, but to serve a business purpose. Although
some reports are not used immediately, they serve as a record and are used when the need
arises.

A report can also be simply defined as a document written in response to a request for
information. This definition it means that before writing a report, the writer receives
instructions to investigate a problem or give feedback. In the instructions, the writer is
required to gather the facts, write the report and draw a conclusion and then recommend
action. In fact, reports are a form of written communication used heavily in business and
organizations as a formal summary statement in response to a specific request for
information.

CLASSIFICATION OF REPORTS
Reports can be classified in various ways depending on their nature and purpose. The
following are some of the classifications:

a) Regular and Routine. Theseare reports which are submitted regularly. The examples
include: health and safety reports, maintenance reports, progress reports, staff
appraisal reports, sales reports, production targets reports, financial reports and so on.

b) Occasional reports. These reports are submitted when something unexpected

happens. For instance accident reports, disciplinary reports and so on.
c) Periodic reports. These reports present an account of the activities of a task that have
taken place over a definite period of time. Depending on the arrangement such reports
can be written monthly, quarterly, or annually. These reports serve to appraise what
has been done in the reported period and help to plan for the future.

d) Progress reports. As the term suggests, the reports specify what job has been done
and what still remains to be done. Progress reports are often associated with
construction works and projects.

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COMMUNICATION (TC2)
PURPOSE
In the organization, reports are written to be used. Reports could be meant to:

a) Assist management in decision-making. Those in management do not have the time

to carry out detailed investigation into the matters on which they make decisions.
They depend on the information collected by other members of staff. Some people are
commissioned to carry out an investigation and write a report.

b) Provide a permanent record and be a source of reference. The report should provide
all the details necessary to be confirmed and recalled in future.

c) Provide information to interested parties, such as through an article in a newspaper.

This may also involve persuasion, if it is related to an issue, product or topic that is
relevant to your organization or department.

d) Make your own views known. There are times when you might want to suggest
change of some sort, it is at this time that you might need to write a report in order to
present your ideas. In this case you make the reader to appreciate the weaknesses of
the current situation then you recommend the changes that should be made.

Audience/Reader
As the writer of a report, you need to realize that you know more about the subject matter
of the report than the user (s). Therefore, the information should be communicated
objectively so that the report users should make their own judgments. You must recognize
the needs and abilities of the report user. For the report to be effective you should:
 Keep the vocabulary, sentence and paragraph structures as simple as possible to
ensure that the ideas are clear.
 Be aware of the ‘jargon’ or technical terms which the user might not understand. If
possible define these terms or jargon.
 Know the type and level of detail that will interest the users and be relevant to their
purpose.

Planning the report

As a report writer, before you can begin to think about what information you will need
and where you will find it, you need to consider answers to the following questions:

i. Who is the user of the report?

ii. What type of report will be most useful to the user?
iii. What exactly does the user need to know, and for what purpose?
iv. How much information is required, how quickly and at what cost?
v. Do you need to give judgements, recommendations and so on?

When you know the user, what he/she wants and why, and if you are aware of particular
constraints imposed on you in terms of report size and time, you will have a good
framework for planning the structure and the content of the report.

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COMMUNICATION (TC2)
Style
Unlike other forms of writing such as the memorandum and the letter, the report has
certain stylistic requirements. In fact, a report is unique in presentation and it is expected
that the facts in the report should speak on their own and facts should be presented in a
way that makes them easy to follow and understand. Some of the aspects of style are the
following:

Objectivity and impersonality. The report should be presented objectively. Ensure to

avoid all value judgements and emotions in the content of the report. The report should
not be biased. Avoid using personal pronouns in the report; the pronouns can undermine
the credibility of report and the recommendations. Instead use only the third person, e. g.
‘the writer’ or ‘the researcher’. For instance you should avoid expressions like In the
investigations I discovered that…instead you say The investigation/It was discovered
that… It often helps to use the passive voice.

Use plain English-simple, straightforward words that will be understood by most

people. Although the report has to be clear and brief, you have to always write full
sentences (not telegraphic style).Use a well-worded title that summarizes the report.

Tense. Reports usually present information on events that have already taken place, so
they are written in the past tense, e. g. The writer found that…A discussion was held….

Ease of understanding. In order for the report user to follow the facts, you must organize
the material logically using clear headings and the facts should lead to the conclusion(s) or
recommendation(s). Relevant themes should be signaled by appropriate headings, or
simply be highlighted for easy scanning.

Structure
The structure of the report gives us three types of reports. The reports are:
 The short formal report
 The short informal report
 The long formal report

The short formal report

The short formal report is used in contexts where a middle manager reports to senior
management. It should be laid out according to certain basic guidelines. The report will
be split into logical sections, each referenced and headed appropriately.

Parts of the short formal report

Title/subject head come up with the title

You should write this in capital letters, for example:REPORT ON AN INVESTIGATION

INTO THE CAUSES OF LOW STAFF MORALE

The title of the report should be written at the top of the report.

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COMMUNICATION (TC2)
1. Terms of reference/introduction . The terms of reference (TORs) arethe instructions
which you received for you to write the report. They state what you were asked to do,
who asked you and when you received the instructions. When you are writing the report,
then you turn the TORs into an introduction. In the introduction you should write the
purpose of the report and if necessary include the scope. In simple terms the report states
what the purpose of the report was, who requested the report and when, who the writer is
and if necessary when (the date) the report is to be submitted.

2. Procedure (or method). In this section,you should tell the reader the steps which you
took to investigate the problem, collect the facts for the report so on. The reader should
know how you gathered the information. Was it by library research, observations, questionnaire,
interview and so on. Where necessary, you can also indicate the number of people interviewed. For
you to answer the question: How did you gather the data? You need to give information on the
observations made, interviews conducted, telephone calls made, documents or computer
files consulted, analyses made, meetings held and questionnaires administered. You
should briefly describe the methods.

3. Findings The findings constitute the main part of the report. The findings section is
where all the information you gathered using various methods must be presented. It does not
matter whether the data are favourable or unfavourable, you should still present the facts
objectively. The one who authorized the report wants to have the truth- and the truth need not
always be pleasant. If you try to withhold the facts you will distort the true picture.

If the report covers more than one topic, you should use appropriate headings and
subheadings. The content should be complete, but concise, and clearly structured in
chronological order, or order of importance or any other logical relationship. The
information could be set out as follows:

A. Section heading
i. Sub heading
a) sub point

4. Conclusions. Inthis section you present your interpretation of the findings. The conclusion
serves to tell the report user what the findings of the report mean. You should make sure
that the conclusions are drawn from the facts which you have presented.
5. Recommendations In the recommendations section you suggest solutions to the problems
investigated so that the recipient can make a decision if necessary. All the
recommendations should be in line with the facts.

The short informal report

The other type of report is the short informal. The report is used for less complex information
especially on issues which are not strictly business. For instance, if you wanted to make
suggestions on social life in the organization, the short informal report would be the most
appropriate. The structure of the short informal report is less developed, it will not require an

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COMMUNICATION (TC2)
elaborate layout. There are three main sections, each of which may be headed in any way
appropriate to the context in which the report is written. The three parts are:

1. Introduction/background/situation-This section combines the introduction and the

procedures and it creates the context for the report.

2 Findings/analysis/information-This section presents the facts of the report. The

information is sometimes called situational information.

3. Summary/conclusion/recommendations. The third section gives the direction of the

report, it could be a summary or a conclusion or even recommendations. In the organization,
the informal report could be sent in a memorandum format or an e-mail.

Exercise

1. Define a report

2. What do you expect in each of the five parts of a report?

3. Explain style in relation to report writing.

52
COMMUNICATION (TC2)
UNIT 4: INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
OVERVIEW
This unit provides you with information on:
 Interpersonal skills;
 The nature of interpersonal skills; and
 Techniques for developing interpersonal skills.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
a) Define interpersonal communication;
b) Explain the goals of interpersonal communication
c) Identify the situations from which we can acquire interpersonal communication skills;
d) Describe the factors which contribute to effective interaction with other people.

Definition
Interpersonal communication refers to the way a person interacts with another person-usually
in formal settings.

No human being can live in isolation. In the organization we interact with people as we do
different tasks. Those we interact with could be our colleagues or those in management. The
effectiveness of our interaction with others is dependent on our interpersonal skills. The terms
social skills,and interpersonal skills all refer to the ways which we use to interact effectively
with all the people we come in contact with in our daily lives. The interaction can take place
either at the work place or outside

Our success in the way we interact with others depends on our interpersonal skills. If you are
to interact with others effectively you should work to develop your interpersonal skills.

GOALS OF INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION SKILLS

Interpersonal communication is meant to achieve the following four goals:

 To convey or obtain information. Your interaction with other s might be intended to

give them information which they might have requested or the information which you
want them to know. In other cases you might want to obtain information from those you
interact with.
 To change other people’s attitude or opinion. It is obvious that no two people can have
the same opinion on most of the things. As such there are times when you might need to
make someone change his/her opinion on a particular issue in order to agree with you.
Therefore, you can only succeed in influencing someone through interaction.
 To change other people’s emotional state. When someone is angry he/she cannot work
effectively. Therefore, you might want to try to make the angry person calm down.
Through your interpersonal skills you can change the other person’s emotional state.

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COMMUNICATION (TC2)
 To change people’s behavior in such way that they should act as we wish them to
act. There are times that you might not agree with how someone behaves. For instance
your colleague might be working slowly on his/her tasks and usually delaying the
submission of reports, therefore you might use your interpersonal skills to attempt to
change the other person’s behavior.

METHODS OF ACQUIRING INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION SKILLS

Interpersonal skills do not develop by chance, they have to be developed. While some of
the skills are in born the others have to be developed. And the interpersonal skills can be
acquired through:

(I) Learning from others

(II) Improved practice
(III) Applying them in a variety of situations to achieve the desired goal.

Some situations from which we can acquire interpersonal communication skills

When we interact with others, an opportunity for the development of interpersonal
communication skills arises.

Activity
List down all the situations when you interact with others.

How to get on well with other people

Interpersonal communication is meant to improve your interaction with those people you
come in contact with in your daily life. The following are some of the skills which would
assist you to get on well with others:

Cheerfulness. Cheerfulness is an important interpersonal communication skill which

will enable you to get on well with other people. In fact, you will realize that you gain
quite a lot when you are cheerful with others. It is obvious that people with bad temper
do badly in various situations for instance in social interaction s, at working places; and
at different meetings.

Good temperedness and a sense of humour

In your social and business life, you will notice that a good temper and a sense of
humour, are essential for good relationships with others. At work, despite the
developments in information technology and the infiltration of other cultural values, old-
fashioned politeness along with seemingly small things like remembering people’s
names, addressing them the way they like still matter a great deal.

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COMMUNICATION (TC2)
Self – presentation. Self-presentation is the way you want others to see you. The way
we show ourselves to others is the way they actually see us. The way you present
yourself to them will show that you belong to any of the following categories:
1. Alertness or dormant;
2. Interested or un interested;
3. Friendly or cruel;
4. Attractive or ugly;
5. Intelligent or dull;
6. Bored or interested;
7. Faithful or a dishonest;
8. Sober or a drunkard;
9. Humble or arrogant;
10. Religious or pagan

Personality
In interpersonal communication, what you look like also does count because it influences
other people’s readiness to interact with you. Inevitably, good-looking people do well in
social interaction than those that are plain looking.

Those who are plain looking have to work extra hard at seeming to be pleasant people.
Often times these people do not have genuine friends, but sympathizers. If they are
ladies, educationally they have an advantage over the good-looking ladies in that they are
not often disturbed in their studies by men.However, it must be mentioned here that
sexual attractiveness is an added advantage to both sexes at work and school, provided it
is not shown too obviously.

Good-looks. Although good-looks are an important asset in social interaction not all of
us can be good-looking. Hence in the absence of this important asset, we should all try
to dress impressively for our work and to appear well groomed.

Unfortunately what the boss, customers/clients consider as appropriate or impressive

dress and grooming may be different from your point of view. Consequently, it is almost
impossible to impress all the most important people at any given occasion of the day.
Notice again that even the question of the most important people is open to debate.

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Essential factors in successful social interaction with other people

There are a number of factors which contribute to effective interaction with others. Some
of the factors are as follows:
 Being aware of what effect you are having on the other person
 Being sensitive to the other person’s feelings and reactions
 Establishing rapport
 Retaining the other person’s attention without making him feel you are talking
more than is justified by your role.
 Always keeping a two-way communication flow between you and the other
person.

Exercise:
1. Define interpersonal communication.
2. Explain the goals of interpersonal communication
3. Identify the situations from which we can acquire interpersonal communication skills
4. Describe the factors which contribute to effective interaction with other people.

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COMMUNICATION (TC2)
UNIT 5: SMALL GROUP COMMUNICATION
OVERVIEW
This unit provides you with information on:
 Importance of small groups in an organisation;
 Characteristics of small groups;
 Factors which contribute to the effectiveness of small groups;
 Advantages and disadvantages of small groups; and
 Leadership in small groups.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
a) Explain the importance of small groups in an organization;
b) Describe the characteristics of small groups;
c) Outline the factors which contribute to the effectiveness of small groups;
d) State the advantages and disadvantages of small groups; and
e) Distinguish the various leadership styles.

INTRODUCTION
In an organization, there is lot of interpersonal communication. However, there are times
when individuals working in isolation cannot achieve the required objectives. It is in such
situations that there is need to work in a group. A small group is a task- oriented group with
specific objectives to achieve, information to share, a problem to solve or a decision to make.
Mostly the group comprises members of staff working in the same organization.

CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE SMALL GROUPS

A small group has a number of characteristics and the following are some of them:
 A small group has at least 3 members.The maximum may be any number of
members up to 20. When the group is large most members are likely to be passive.
 In small group communication there is interaction among the members who share a
common purpose or goal.
 The members feel a sense of belonging to the group, and have an influence on each
other.
 A small group has a shared identity and one of them could be the name which is
used to refer to the group. For example the accounts department.
 A small group should have a leader.
 It should have norms governing behavior

Advantages of working in small groups

There are some benefits when people are working in a group compared to when they are
working in isolation. Some of the advantages of groups are the following:
 Groups have more information resources than individuals.
 The decisions made can be more superior than those made by individuals.
 Groups are more creative in problem-solving.
 Members are satisfied with the group’s decision because of their participation in the
decision making process.
 Small group communication leads to personal satisfaction and job enjoyment which
might also promote productivity.

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  Small groups improve learning and comprehension of the ideas discussed
 Group members understand themselves better as they interact with others.
 Understanding of problems or issues is better in a group than when one is doing
everything alone. This is because analysis of a problem is shared and improved.
 In groups individuals are provided with opportunities to develop more effective
communication skills including those of persuasion.
 The group offers more options as solutions to a problem than is the case of
undertakings done by individuals.
 In groups participants are more committed and more motivated to work with greater
productivity.
Disadvantages of working in small groups
Although working in small groups has positive results, sometimes problems occur. Therefore,
you need to know some of the problems so that you can avoid them when you are involved in
small group communication. The following are some of the disadvantages of small group
communication:
 There could be pressure from some members on others to conform to the majority
opinion.
 The group can be dominated by an individual member as a result the other members
may be dissatisfied because they feel alienated from the decision-making process
though they are part of the group.
 Some members may rely too much on others to get the job done.
 In a group decision making takes longer.

Effective group participation

As a group is working, individuals take up different roles which are identifiable in the
individual’s communication styles. The following are some of the roles:
 Initiator. The initiator is the individual who proposes new ideas, procedures, goals
and solutions in order for the discussion to start.
 Information giver. Where necessary, the information giver supplies the evidence and
relates the experiences relevant to tasks. He/she contributes his/her experiences and
facts relevant to the question or task at hand.

 Information seeker the information seeker asks for information and seeks for
clarification from other members.

 Opinion giver . The opinion giver states his/her own beliefs, attitudes, judgements in
relation to the topic under discussion.

 Opinion seeker. Theinformation seeker solicits the opinion and feelings of the others
and expands the ideas of the others through examples, illustrations and explanations.

 Energizer. As the name suggests the energizer stimulates the group to be energetic
and active in the discussion.
 Recorder. The recorder records suggestions, decisions and agreements of the group.

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 LEADERSHIP STYLES AND SKILLS
It is generally accepted that for anyone to manage or lead others he/she must be an effective
communicator. The leader usually gets things done through others. This is where
communication is an indispensable part of the work of a leader. The leader has to constantly
interact with others in order to get things done. And human interaction is basically a
communication activity.

What is leadership? Many definitions have been proposed but one simple definition is that
leadership is the process of influencing people to direct their efforts towards the
attainment of particular goals.

For example a manager gets his supervisors to provide services or produce goods. In this
way, the manager is a leader.

LEADERSHIP THEORIES
There are four theories which attempt to explain how leaders emerge in small groups. The
four theories are the following:

a) The trait approach: This theory claims that there are certain traits or qualities that a person
must have in order to become a leader in a small group. The qualities could be physical
appearance, popularity, intelligence and forcefulness. It claims that some people are born
leaders-they are natural leaders. However, this assertion has been proved untrue, as such
leaders can be trained, therefore, those who have been exposed to leadership have a high
potential for becoming leaders.

b) The role or functional approach: This theory claims that there are certain roles that must be
performed in a group if the group is to be successful in achieving its objectives. In such a
group, an individual is a leader when he performs the leading role required in the group.

c) The situational approach: This theory claims that people rise to the occasion of leadership
in situations for which they have been trained. If the group has a serious task to perform, a
leader may emerge. This kind of leader is known as an emergent leader. This person may not
remain the leader of this group in a different situation.

d) The contingency approach: This looks at leadership as a combination of a number of

factors:
i. The situation: The trust and respect of followers in the one leading them. The power
of the position i.e. how much powers the person in that post/position has including the
task to be done.
ii. The leadership style adopted by the leader i.e. how much freedom the leader gives to
the subordinates.
iii. The subordinates-the support which the subordinates give to the leader contributes to
the success of the leadership.

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FACTORS WHICH CONTRIBUTE TO EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP
a) The leader: His/her job is to create an environment in which teamwork can be achieved.
To achieve this, the leader must have:
 Drive: This is the physical and mental effort to have things done.
 Credibility: This is the reliance placed on the word of the leader i.e. the leader should
mean what he says.
 Competence: The abilityto do the job well.
b) The subordinates: The group must give support to the leader who in turn must build
team spirit and trust among the subordinates.
c)The environment: The environment must be conducive to producing good work.

FUNCTIONS OF LEADERS
Leaders have certain task functions like organization, initiation of tasks and distribution of
information. They also have maintenance functions, which include promoting interaction
amongst members and integrating the group.

STYLES OF LEADERSHIP
Leaders do not act in the same way all the time. They have a range of different styles, all of
which affect ways in which they communicate. Different situations could call for different
leadership styles.

There are three basic leadership styles which can be noticeable in any group

1. AUTHORITARIAN/DICTATORSHIP/AUTOCRATIC LEADER: This leader

controls all the activities of the subordinates such that the leader determines policy,
procedures and makes all the decisions. The subordinates are merely expected to implement
the plans of the leader. Communication is always one way-downwards. The leader is not a
good listener and is not willing to understand the feelings of others. The leader announces
decisions and does not consult first with others.

Advantages
i.Fast decisions making
ii.High productivity
iii.Members are disciplined
iv.The group is under control

Disadvantages
i. Members do not feel part of the decisions
ii. The group resents the tight control exercised by the leader
iii. Decisions cannot be made in absence of the leader
iv. It promotes overdependence on the leader

The leadership is suitable in situations where quick, strong decision-making is vital, e.g.
when there is a target to be achieved in production or when the leader is dealing with
unskilled subordinates or where a crisis has arisen.

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2. DEMOCRATIC LEADERSHIP

The leadership is people-centred. The leader is a good listener in concerned about the welfare
of the members. The leader guides the group when doing a task and allows suggestions from
the members. The leader leaves most of the decision making to the group itself.

Advantages
i.Members contribute to decision making and feel part of the decision.
ii.There is free flow of information among group members.
iii.Suitable when working with skilled individuals

Disadvantages
i.Slow decision making
ii.Few members can dominate the group
iii.Some members might misuse the freedom and disrespect the leader

This leadership is suitable for most organizations like in colleges.

3. LAISSEZ-FAIRE LEADERSHIP
The leader using this style leaves subordinates to do as they please. His main concern is
being liked by subordinates. He allows maximum interaction. He may offer suggestions but
decisions are left entirely to subordinates.

As can be seen, the styles above are on a continuum, from the authoritarian with strict
controls to the Laissez faire with no controls.

There is no style that is recommended universally since each will be useful in different
circumstances. For example, in crisis situations the authoritarian may be best while for
creative work, the laissez faire may be best.

The leader is not concerned about either the group or the task. There is no need for
communication between the leader and the members because the members work independent
of the leader. The leader merely gives members the goals and guidelines but leaves the group
free to make the decisions.

Advantages
i.Group members that are highly motivated, creative and eager to get on with the job
without being directed, work very effectively under this kind of leadership.
ii.Group members set their own objectives and enjoy greater freedom.

Disadvantages
i.Group members might be frustrated due to the absence of guidanceespecially the in
experienced.
ii.The leader is regarded as weak, lazy and inefficient.
iii.Low production

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The leadership is suitable for a situation where the leader is working with highly motivated,
well-educated, self-directed group members, e.g. a group of engineers who have to design a
bridgeor other professional who know what they are doing.

FACTORS AFFECTING EFFECTIVENESS OF LEADERS

All managers want to be effective leaders. How does effectiveness come about? It is
dependent on three main factors. Firstly, the leader, then subordinates, and the environment.

a) The leader
His job is to create an environment in which teamwork can be achieved.

To achieve this, the leader must have Drive, Credibility and Competence.

 Drive.This is the physical and mental effort expended by the leader. Research has
shown that good leaders show a great deal of drive.

 Credibility.This is the reliance placed on the leader’s word. If the leader promises
promotion – or indeed punishment- it must be delivered. Subordinates will not be
impressed with leaders/managers whose word cannot be trusted.

 Competence This is the leader’s ability to do the job well. Subordinateslook up to

managers for assistance for example. The subordinates will thus be ready to follow a
leader whom they see as competent.

b) The subordinates
No matter how hard the leader works, support from the subordinates is very important. The
group’s norms and attitudes towards the leader must be positive. The leader himself, as
already stated, must instill team spirit and trust in his subordinates.

c) The environment
Besides the leader himself, the environment plays an important part in the performance of his
leadership. Organisations tend to create internal competition for resources. For example,
Sales may want to spend more while accounting may wish to cut down on expenses. This
creates challenges for the manager to reconcile the various ‘competitor’s for resources.

General characteristics of effective leaders

There are no universally accepted characteristics to describe effective leaders. While it may
be generally agreed that good leaders must be good communicators, the other characteristics
may not always hold true in all situations. Here is a list of some general characteristics.

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  Superior IntelligenceA good leader must be more intelligent than the average of his
subordinates. If not he will have a hard time convincing others.
 Emotional Maturity-The leader must have self-confidence and be able to direct
subordinates in a calm conscientious manner. This is particularly true of crisis
situations. The leader must keep his temper cool when other are losing theirs.

 Motivation Drive-The leader must exert physical and mental effort to get things
done. He must also seek highly motivated subordinates who will help him to achieve
organizational goals.

 Problem Solving Skills-The leader must know how to size up a situation, figure out
what is wrong and what should be done and how it should be done. He must have the
confidence to learn from the past and appreciate he cannot solve all problems alone.

 Managerial Skills-These are divided into three: technical, human and administrative
skills. The manager must have the technical skills to actually do the work. He must
have the human skills to manage the people and the administrative skills to integrate
all parts of the organization and determine how each can fit into the overall picture.

 Free from anxiety-The leader must ensure that he does not allow personal problems
to distract him from carrying out leadership tasks.

 Better informed-The leader must be more well-informed that the average

subordinate.

 Honest-The leader must be more reliable than the average subordinate

 Good past recordHe must have achieved a number of successes prior to assuming his
role as a leader.

 Consistent-The leader must be consistent in performing his various duties. The

leader should not show any favouritism, and so on.

Exercise:
1. Explain the importance of small groups in an organization.
2. Describe the characteristics of small groups.
3. Outline the factors which contribute to the effectiveness of small groups.
4. State the advantages and disadvantages of small groups; and distinguish the various
leadership styles.

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COMMUNICATION (TC2)
CONFLICT MANAGEMENTAND PROBLEM SOLVING
Conflict is a reality of organizational life. As you work in the organization and interacting
with people you would find that conflicts are inevitable. A conflict can arise on an issue
which is either personal or business. A conflict can be looked at as a situation in which the
goals of two or more people are incompatible or mutually exclusive. An example of a
conflict could be where an accounts clerk for example wants to knock off as usual at 5pm and
is not ready to extend the time because has s/she has to attend to personal issues after the
normal office hours. But the accountant wants the clerk to finish working on a report which is
overdue but cannot be completed within the office hours, and it necessitates knocking off
late.

However, -the problem is not with conflict per se but rather with the way the conflict is
handled when it arises. If handled properly, conflict can produce good results. But a poorly
handled organizational conflict can be dangerous. The conflict can have a negative effect on
relationships and cause reduction in productivity.Hardy (1993) believes that conflict is
necessary for change. If there were no urge to compete and no need for disagreement an
organisation would be in a state of complacency.

BENEFITS OF CONFLICT
In the organization, conflict can have a number of benefits, some them are the following:

a) It can function as a safety value, letting people ventilate frustrations that are blocking
their effective functioning.
b) It can lead to solving troublesome problems. It has been said elsewhere that: ‘Nothing
can be changed until it is faced.’ Problems seldom go away because they are ignored;
they usually grow worse.
c) It can promote group loyalty and cohesiveness. People who overcome their conflict
successfully often feel have faced and overcome a threat together and make progress
towards their mutual goals.

DISADVANTAGES OF CONFLICT
When a conflict is not handled effectively it can lead to a number of disadvantages. Some
of the disadvantages are:

a) Conflict can create tension among members of staff and affect their performance.

b) Conflict can result into some problems in the organization.

CAUSES OF CONFLICT
There are many causes of conflict between people in the organization. The following are
some of them:

a) Organizational structure: The hierarchy within a company creates room for conflict.
The very nature of being an organization in terms of the officers, status of different
members, the duties and so on create room for conflict.

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 b) Inadequate Job Performance Measures. Conflict occurs when employees feel that
their performance has not been measured adequately and fairly resulting in missed
opportunities.
c) Ambiguity. Misperception results whenever there is ambiguity in the messages sent
to employees. When messages are not clear, employees cannot know and understand
what is expected of them and behave accordingly.

d) Competition for limited resources. In the organization it is not possible for an

individual to get all the resources required. The resources which an individual might
want would include materials or equipment. A conflict arises when two or more
people disagree on who should use the sources.

e) Communication. Communication breakdown can give rise to frustration. When staff

do not get the information which they are looking for conflict could arise.

f) Competition: conflict may arise where individuals would like to emerge the best, for
example fighting for promotion or rewards from superiors.

g) Role conflict. Role conflict is when an individual is placed in a predicament to

choose between two competing demands or expectations. If you comply with one
aspect of a role, compliance with the other is difficult or impossible. For example this
would happen if you received two contradictory instructions from two people above
you in the organization where you are working.

h) Personality clashes. Some disagreements arise because people dislike each other. A
personality clash is an antagonism between two people due to differences in
preferences, interests, values and styles.

i) Aggressive personalities. There are some people who like attacking their colleagues.
Such people, instead of looking at the issue, criticize the other person or attack the
other person. People of that nature are aggressors. Aggression can be either physical
or verbal. Physical aggression can take the form of physical attack while verbal attack
can take the form of insults, teasing or ridicule.

CONFLICT MANAGEMENT STYLES

When a conflict arises, there are different ways in which individuals handle such
conflicts. The way one handles conflict depends on two factors: the needs to satisfy one’s
concerns (assertiveness) and to satisfy the concerns of others (cooperativeness). Based on
this understanding, there are five ways of handling conflict.

a) Win-lose Strategy (Competitive). In win-lose strategy power takes centre stage. It is

necessary for you to defeat your opponent to get what you want. The approach assumes
that only one person can get what he/she wants. The victory of one party is matched by
the other party’s total defeat.

b) Lose-lose strategy(Accommodation). Accommodation is aimed at satisfying

the other person’s concern without taking care of your own interests.

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 c) Compromise. Compromise is where both parties get a fraction of what they wanted.
In this case both parties settle for moderate but incomplete satisfaction.

d) Avoidance. Avoidance approach means that the person is not concerned with the
interest s of both parties. The person may withdraw from the conflict or let the
situation remain the way it is without doing anything about it.

e) Problem solving-Win-win strategy is a situation where the conflict is resolved to the

benefit of both parties.

Exercise:
1. Define conflict.
2. Outline any two disadvantages and any three advantages of conflict.
3. Mention any five causes of conflict.
4. Distinguish the different conflict management styles.

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PROBLEM‐SOLVING
When a conflict is not handled properly it can create a number of problems in the
organization which can result in low productivity.

Problem solving is part and parcel of decision-making. There is a general sequence moving
from problem to decision which is recognized by most management authors. It will therefore
be useful in this case to consider the techniques involved in the decision making process or
problem solving procedure.

Steps in the problem-solving process: When a problem arises there is a need to find ways of
resolving it. Although some problems can be solved haphazardly, the problem solving
procedure provides steps which help the parties involved to find a mutually satisfying
solution to the problem.

1.Define the problem. Before you start seeking a solution to a problem you ought to know
whatthe problem is. Without a clear definition of the problem it would be virtually impossible
to begin to find the solution. In the definition, the problem should be clear to all the parties
concerned, as such, it is necessary to understand the following aspects of the problem: You
need to understand the symptomsof the problem. The question could be, what things show
that there is a problem? You also need to know the extent of the problem. This involves
understanding the magnitude or the seriousness of the problem. In the definition, the
problem should be presented using precise words. If there are some difficult terms which
have been used, the terms should also be defined.
2. Analyse the problem. After defining the problem clearly, you need to analyse the various
aspects of the problem. You should list all the topics that need to be looked into or
discussed, including the causes and if necessary past efforts to try to resolve the problem.

3. Establish a checklist. The third step is to develop a check list for a good solution. The
checklist attempts to put limits for the solution in terms of the practicality of the solution.
A checklist of the possible criteria for a good solution should be outlined including those
who should be satisfied by the solution.

4. List all the possible alternatives. At this stage the group should list the possible solutions
to the problem. The ‘solutions’ should be listed down the way they are given without
analyzing them. The aim should be to get as many ideas as possible so that the group has a
long list of possible solutions.
5. Evaluate each alternative based on the established criteria. The fifth stageinvolves
looking at the list of possible solutions in order check how each one of them matches with
the established criteria. Those alternatives which do not automatically meet the criteria
should be eliminated. And those which are complementary should be combined into one
in order to reduce the number of options. At this point the group should consider strengths
and weakness of each alternative.

6. Select the best alternative(s) as your solution. This stage involves choosing the best
alternative solution and drawing up a plan for implementing the solution.

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7. Implementation of the solution. At this stage, the group implements the solution to the
problem. The group should check any challenges which arise from the implementation of
the solution

Exercise:
Outline the steps in the problem solving procedure.

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COMMUNICATION (TC2)
UNIT 6: ORGANISATIONAL COMMUNICATION
OVERVIEW
Unit 6 provides you with information on:
 The importance of communication in an organization;
 Functions of communication in an organization;
 Formal communication which includes directions of communication and network
patterns;
 Informal communication/grapevine; and
 Barriers to organizational communication.

Learning Outcomes
On completion of this unit, you should be able to:
a) Explain the importance of communication in an organization;
b) State the functions of communication in an organization;
c) Describe the directions and network patterns of formal communication;
d) Explain informal communication and state its advantages and disadvantages
e) Identify barriers to organizational communication.

THE IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATIONIN AN ORGANIZATION

An organization is a group of people constituted to achieve certain goals. The achievement

of those goals largely depends upon proper co-ordination and intergration of human effort.
Co-ordination and intergration of various human activites is possible if there is an effective
system of communication in the organization which provides for the exchange of information
and sharing of various ideas at various levels.

Organizations have clearly defined systems of communications so that every member knows
who to approach for information.

FUNCTIONS OF COMMUICATION IN AN ORGANIZATION

Communication serves four vital functions an organization: These can be summarized as

follows:

i) Informative function
There must be some information about the people and activities of the organization
for example the organization’s hierarchy, products etc. The receiving or giving of
information underlines all communications functions, either directly or indirectly.

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 ii) Command or instructive function (regulatory function):
Those who are superior in the organization, often initiate communication either for
the purpose of informing their subordinates or telling them what to do, how and when
to do it. Examples include policies, procedures, instructions etc.

iii) Persuasive function

The persuasive function of communication is to influence employees/employers in
changing their behavior in the desirable direction. Examples include junior staff
lobbying for better conditions of services, increased salaries etc and managers
satisfying employees’ needs to increase productivity, reduce labour turnover etc.

iv) Integrative function

Communication ensures that there is a synergy of the various sections, departments of
the organization to enable goal accomplishment. This helps in maintaining
organizational stability and identity.

Organizational structure
An organization is a structured entity with clearly defined positions, these different positions
result in an organization chart. The organizational chart shows which subordinates answer to
which supervisor(s). The chart shows the following:

a. Authority: the chart shows who is responsible to whom?

b. Unity of command: The principle is that each person should get instructions
from one boss is shown in the chart.
c. Span of control: It shows the number of subordinates who answer to a single
supervisor.
An example of an organization chart is presented in figure 1
Organizational Chart

General Manager

Assistant General Manager

Sales Manager Human Production Finance

Resources Manager Manager

Remaining Remaining Remaining Remaining

staff in staff in Staff in staff in
“sales” “Human “Production” “Finance”

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FORMAL AND INFORMAL COMMUNICATION
In the organization both management and employees need information in order to perform
their functions. To satisfy such information needs management sets up formal communication
networks which are used to send and receive the information. Alongside the formal
communication, the informal communication also operates. The informal communication
arises on its own but management should not ignore its existence because it has a role to play
in the organization. The informal communication plays positive and negative roles in the
organization.

Internal formal communication networks

Vertical communication passes up and down in various departments:

i) Downward communication
Downward communication is the flow of information and messages from higher
levels of management to subordinates working within the organization through an
organization’s formal chain of command or hierarchical structure. Messages and
orders start at the upper levels of the organizational hierarchy and move down toward
the bottom levels. Responses to downward communications move up along the same
path. Examples include notices, circulars, instructions, announcements etc.

Downward communication has the following advantages:

a) Organizational discipline.
Downward communication follows the organizations hierarchy. As such
organizational discipline and member compliance is much easier to maintain.

b) Efficiency
Downward communication offers efficiencies because instructions and
information come from the sources in power that are able to co-ordinate
activities from the top of the organization. Employees receive feedback from
the superiors who manage them.

c) Effective communication of goals

Management can easily communicate goals and assign responsibilities
regarding achieving those goals.

d) Ease of delegation
Delegation is much easier if the delegation comes directly from above.

Downward Communication has the following disadvantages:

a) Distortion: Downward communication can become distorted as it proceeds
through multiple levels of the organization.
b) Slow feedback: It takes time for messages to go down the organization vice versa
and then down again. Feedback can be slow.

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 c) Interpretation problems: Due to distortion and the time it takes, downward
communication can have a negative impact on organizational morale.

ii) Upward Communication:

Upward communication is the flow of information from lower levels of a hierarchy
(subordinates) to the upper levels (bosses). Examples include responses to requests,
suggestions, reports, grievances etc.

Some advantages of upward communication are:

a) Feedback: Managers can get feedback from employees that can help to improve
organizational development. Employees who are encouraged to provide feedback feel
respected and that they have a say in how the organization is run.
b) Mutual Trust:Mutual trust brings employees and managers closer to each other. As
trust grows, relationships between employees and managers become stronger.
c) Introduction of new policies. Frontline employees do the work every day. They can
tell managers if something works or does not. Employees can be instrumental in
forming new policies or changing those that are outdated. Etc.

Disadvantages
Some disadvantages of upward communication are:
a) Filtering:
Filtering occurs when an employee passes a message intended for upper level
management through an immediate supervisor who may change the message to reflect
his opinion or understanding of the situation. Consequently, upper management may
not receive the intended message sent by the employee.
b) Delay:
Frontline employees hesitate to let managers know of a problem because doing so
means acceptance of failure. Delays occur
c) Reluctance:
Sometimes employees are reluctant to provide information through upward channels
because of fear.
d) Technical language:
For example where professionals use specialist language
If an IT technician has an issue to communicate, he may use technical terms which the
manager may not understand etc.
In vertical communication information is disseminated in a chain like fashion.

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 BOARD

GENERAL MANAGER

DEPARTMENTS

THE REST

iii) Horizontal Communication

Horizontal communication is the transmission of information between people, divisions,
departments or units within the same or similar levels of organizational hierarchy. It is
also known as lateral communication for example communication that takes place
between departmental managers.

Advantages
a) Decreased misunderstandings between departments working on the same project.
b) It may result in better implementation of top-level decisions because employees at
this level co-ordinate directly with each other.
c) Horizontal communication facilitates team work if a project requires tasks from
different people or departments.
d) It may also increase job-satisfaction and motivation by creating more employee
empowerment in communication.

Disadvantages
a) Management may have a greater problem maintaining control as horizontal
communication increases.
b) Horizontal communication can also create conflict between employees exposed to
each other through the communication process.
c) It is also time consuming if vertical communication is required to ratify decisions
or to confirm information received through horizontal communication.
d) It may create lack of discipline if strict procedural rules of communication are not
imposed and followed.

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 Internal informal communication networks

Informal communication takes place through the social networks formed by

individuals and groups within the organization. A typical example of informal
communication is ‘grapevine’. Unlike formal communication, it is not set by
management hence not organized. However grapevine is present within all levels of
staff in the organization. It exists because of a natural desire to know things and it
brings as sense of belonging to employees and managerial staff alike.

Advantages of Grapevine
a) It is faster than formal channels
b) It is about 75% accurate
c) People rely on it when they are insecure, threatened or faced with organizational
change.
d) employees use the grapevine to acquire the majority of their, ‘on the job
information’
e) It allows managers to know the reaction of its subordinates.

Disadvantages
a) It is not controlled by management
b) It serves the interests of those involved
c) It is based on gossip and rumour
d) Can fuel anxiety, conflict, misunderstanding, resentment etc.
e) It is a challenge to management.

iv) Diagonal communication

Diagonal communication is the flow of information between people who work in
different departments/sections at different levels. For example Human Resource
Manager sending information to an accounts clerk in the Accounts Department. This
type of communication was introduced in organizations to carter for communication
challenges associated with new organizational forms such as matrix and project-based
organizations.

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COMMUNICATION NETWORK PATTERNS IN AN ORGANIZATION
Organization communication as already discussed can be transmitted downward,
upward, horizontally, diagonally and through the grapevine. The actual patterns of
communication connecting senders and receives are called communication networks.
The following are five of the more frequently used networks: wheel, circle, and all
channels.

Fan Network-In this network, information originates from one source and sent
(disseminated) to many people at the same time. An illustration of the fan network is
presented below.

Flow of communication

 It acts like a fan.

 It is used by executive management to the rest of the organization.
 The message here reaches everyone at once.
 It can be done orally or in written form.

When it is orally done, it is difficult to get feedback, for you cannot tell whether people are
listening or whether they understand or not. For example, a speaker at a mass rally cannot
get feedback easily.

When the fan network is in written form, feedback is almost impossible to get, because there
is no guarantee that the message is getting to the right people (e.g. a memorandum and a
notice). For example a memorandum on a notice board directed to specific groups of the
audience may not get to them.

An example of the fan network is when a notice is placed on the notice board in a college to
give information to students.

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The wheel Network

B C

D E
 In the wheel network, interaction and communication go through the centre.
 The wheel is common in a situation where there is little interaction between group
members and there is reliance on central decision- making. For example four lecturers
reporting to the Head of Programmes may not interact with one another directly but may
do so through the head of programmes.

The Chain Network-The chain network is a network where information is sent by the
sender to the receiver who in tuirn passes it to the next recipient. It can be done either
vertically or horizontally. In an organization information travels along reporting lines. An
employee knows to whom he is supposed to get information and to whom he gives
information and instructions. The chain network is illustrated below.

B D OR A B C D E

C D

 No single member can interact or communicate with all the others.

 It may be represented as a straight line for example in the chain of command

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The Circle Network

B E

C D
The circle works in the following ways. It:
 Links together the ends of the chain providing an opportunity for each member to interact
with two others directly.
 Gives a higher level of satisfaction for all members.
 Is common in informal situations such as discussion around a table.
 Can be effective for transmitting messages.

The Y Network

A B

E
The Y combines elements of the wheel and the chain, because it focuses on C as the
central contact

 However it does not allow interactions and communication among members in

different areas.
 It characterizes the pattern of relationships often found between an organisation and
its customers (A & B) and the organization is represented as a chain with customer
contact at the end (C)
 It can also be found in an organisation where a department head (C) forms the only
link between that department and others.

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The web or all channel network / Star network

The Web Network

B D

A E

 Each person can communicate freely with every other individual within the group.
 It is the most common pattern of informal interaction and communication. For example
in friendship groups, everyone can talk to everyone.
 Provides the greatest level of members’ satisfaction.

Daisy Network-In the daisy network the source of the information will talk to people
individually on a personal basis. S/He can also receive feedback from them in form of
comments, suggestions and so on. The daisy network is illustrated below.

 It looks like a daisy flower

 It is a network similar to one-to-one pattern of communication
 It provides an opportunity for individualizing the message.
 It facilitates easier feedback

An example of this is when a General Manager sees each of the staff members individually to
give them his evaluation of their performance instead of addressing them as a group. He
therefore listens to their feedback individually.

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Exercise
1. Explain the importance of communication in an organization.
2. State the functions of communication in an organization.
3. Describe the directions and network patterns of formal communication.
4. Explain informal communication and state its advantages and disadvantages.
5. Identify barriers to organizational communication.

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MOTIVATION AND COMMUNICATION
The behavior of an individual in the organization may be affected by different factors. The
individual’s behavior is affected by his/her needs.According to Abraham Maslow, all human
beings have got needs which can be arranged in a hierarchy. Therefore, in the organization
there is a need to come up with open communication which will motivate the employees to
communicate their needs. In the hierarchy, the bottom two levels are survival needs while the
higher levels needs are psychological. These needs have an effect on people’s communication
behavior and one needs to be sensitive to these needs and satisfy them wherever possible. The
human needs as presented by Abraham Maslow are the following:

1.Physiological needs. These constitute the basic needs of the body. Before we attend to
other drives, we first have to satisfy desires for things such as food, water, shelter, and sex.
If you have not eaten the whole day you cannot think about studying or chatting with
friends until you have got some nourishment. If you have had a sleepless night you might
not be ready to go out to chat with friends, instead, you would want to relax. When your
physiological needs have not been satisfied you will have problems in communicating
effectively. Therefore, it is necessary to provide refreshments in meetings.

2. Safety needs. After we have met most of our physiological needs, our next concern is for
safety. As human beings we like to feel secure, stable, and in control of the things around
us. Some people work hard all their lives and save in every way possible so that they will be
free from fear and anxiety when they retire. All of us think of ways to protect ourselves
from danger by doing things such as investing in life insurance, putting locks on doors,
employing guards installing burglar alarms and so on. Management ensures that employees
have a sense ofsecurity in their employment by providing for a period of notice when one
wants to resign or when one has been dismissed.

3. Social/Love needs. Although some people put love as their most important human need,
physiological and safety needs are usually met first or in combination with other needs.
Love involves another person and it is not a one-way street as such, it is only through
giving and receiving affection, care, and concern that we gain approval and acceptance
from others. To increase our sense of belonging, many of us get involved in types of group
activities, but generally we satisfy the love need through relationships with family, friends,
and lovers. In the organization, there is a need for management to create opportunities for
staff to interact informally like organizing social events.

4. Esteem needs. After we feel loved and accepted then we look for respect from others..
Usually we must first acquire self-esteem or worth before others start respecting us.
Esteem is a desire for dignity, achievement, competency, and status. Some people further
their education to degree or masters level in order to be promoted so that they could be
respected.

6. Self-Actualisation needs. Our last basic human need is for self-actualisation, or striving
for all that we are capable of being. Self-actualisation includes long-range goals for using
our full potential and developing ourselves in all areas.

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The

Figure 5.1 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

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UNIT 7: ORAL COMMUNICATION
OVERVIEW
The unit provides you with information on:
 Oral communication in general;
 Skills for effective oral communication;
 Speaking skills;
 Listening skills; and
 Oral presentation skills.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this unit you should be able to:
a) Define oral communication;
b) Describe the listening process;
c) Explain the benefits of listening;
d) Discuss speaking skills; and
e) Make effective oral presentations.

Introduction
Oral communication is an important and perhaps the most widely used verbal medium of
communication and the most basic way of sending and receiving messages. From the time
you wake up to the time you go to sleep you do more talking than writing. Some people even
talk in their sleep but we rarely hear of people writing in their sleep!
Oral communication can be informal like in day-to-day conversations and face-to face
encounters, or it can be formal like in meetings, interviews, public address or speeches at a
formal gathering. Formal communication is usually referred to as a presentation.

ORAL COMMUNICATION DEFINED

Oral communication is the exchange of information, thoughts, ideas, and feelings using
speech or word of mouth.

SKILLS NECESSARY FOR EFFECTIVE ORAL COMMUNICATION

There are two main categories of language skills used in oral communication namely:
speaking skills and listening skills. Since these are used simultaneously it is important for
both communicators (sender and receiver) to develop and perfect these skills for effective
communication.

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1. LISTENING SKILLS

Listening is an integral aspect of oral communication. You probably spend more time
listening than you do speaking, reading or writing. Like all communication listening is an
active process that requires careful thought and practice.

Types of listening

 Content listening – this is listening for information on a particular subject or topic.

From a myriad of information you screen the message for those facts that are relevant
to you or the situation.
o E.g. Listening to a lecture you only select main points and those points that
will help you remember certain facts about the topic
 Critical/ discriminative listening – it involves evaluating the importance and validity
of facts.
o E.g. if you are called to settle a dispute you evaluate statements given by both
sides.
 Emphatic listening – this is emotive listening where the listener tries to understand
the needs and feelings of the speaker, puts himself/herself in the place of the speaker
and identifies with the speaker’s situation, feelings and appreciates facts put forward.
o E.g. if an employee asks for a loan to take his/her mother to hospital company
rules could be relaxed a bit if the accountant puts himself in the situation of
the employee.
 Pleasurable listening- it is listening that gives pleasure or is pleasant to the ear
because the message is good to hear.
o E.g. listening to management talk about salary increment ,bonuses for the end
of year, or an office outing for employees and their spouses

Process of listening
An effective communicator needs to understand that listening is a process. As a process it
goes through the following well defined stages:

1. Reception/ hearing is the act of registering what is being said by the speaker
2. Attention is the act of focusing the mind to understand what the speaker is saying.
You tend to pay more attention to information you think is important and interesting.
3. Perception/judging is the act of interpreting and absorbing what you have heard in
order to get meaning. It also involves evaluating the message and deciding whether it
makes sense to you. E.g. a student taking notes in a lecture will take down only the
key points which make sense.
The meaning of a message may differ from person to person.
4. Retention refers to committing to memory what you hear and
5. Retrieval/ recall is the ability to remember what you hear.

Skills required for effective listening

Listening is an art that requires skills if it is to be effective. To be a good listener you need to
understand that different situations call for different types of skill to suit a particular situation.
There are a number of skills you need in order to be a good listener but we are going to look
at only a few namely:

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  Listening actively - listen closely to content and intent. Give the speaker your
undivided attention and process the message as you listen. Active listening may be
shown by actions like nodding, taking down notes and asking questions for
clarification to ensure mutual understanding.
 Thinking fast- while you are listening you should be able to think about what you are
hearing and ensure mutual understanding.
 Identifying main ideas-listen for the main ideas that the speaker is making.
Differentiate facts from opinions.
 Correct interpretation- you should be able to interpret both verbal and non verbal
messages correctly to ensure that the meaning you get is the one intended by the
speaker.
 Offering/sending feedback-this means responding appropriately. it is important
because it assures the speaker that you understand what is being said.
 Awareness of potential barriers – a good listener should know the potential
barriers to listening and avoid them.

Benefits /rewards of good listening

Good, active listening has more benefits and rewards than one can imagine. Some of the
important rewards or benefits are:

 It enables the listener to get new information and broaden your knowledge.
 It leads to the development of good interpersonal relationships with workmates,
employers, customers, friends, family members, because it is people like those who
give them a listening ear.
 It reduces misunderstanding since any questions or queries can be clarified.
 It leads to improvement in personal efficiency, i.e. you do what is required by the
person giving the information.
 It results in problems being identified in good time and solutions being found.
 It saves money by avoiding errors which would be costly to the organization.
 It ensures goodwill and wins clients – a good listener builds trust in people

While good listening has a number of benefits or rewards, the converse is true i.e. that poor
listening will result in the listener losing these benefits

Barriers to effective listening

As communicators we rely on the spoken word for a large portion of the information we
require every day to function and survive socially, educationally, and professionally. As such
we would expect that listeners should be able to retain the bulk of the information they get.
However, studies have shown that an average person remembers only about half of what is
said in a ten minute conversation. This means that there are more barriers to listening than
expected. Some of the most common barriers are:

 Fast rate of speaking – if a speaker is fast the listener looses track of the content and
finally loses interest.
 Distractions (both external and internal) –a person has a limited memory span and
attention is distracted easily. So any form of distraction can be a barrier to listening.
 Lack of motivation – people often lack the motivation or interest to listen. This
usually happens for several reasons for example when the subject matter is not
relevant to their needs, or because of the approach the speaker uses.

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  Attitude– receiver’s listening might be affected by a negative attitude. For example,
if the listener decides beforehand that subject or the speaker or both are going to be
boring they might not listen and might miss the essence of the talk.
 Prejudice – this is when the listener anticipates beforehand what the speaker is going
to say. This may prevent the listener from listening with concentration.
 Context – if the context in which the verbal message is conveyed is ignored the
listener might misinterpret the message.
 Non – verbal cues – non verbal cues like facial expressions, gestures, etc add
meaning to a verbal message. If the listener ignores these he/she might miss the
underlying message.
 Pretence – sometimes people pretend they are listening when, in fact, they are not.

2. SPEAKING SKILLS

Next to listening, speaking is the second mostly used communication activity. Speaking and
listening go together and complement each other to complete communication. Just as it is
important for communicators to have listening skills, it is even more important to have
speaking skills since in the majority of cases, speakers are the ones who initiate the
communication process.

The following speaking skills are necessary for effective and efficient oral communication:
 Knowing and defining the purpose – whatever you say must have an aim or a well
defined purpose. You should also be able to judge how much to say and how to say it.
Only then can communication be meaningful.
 Understanding of the audience/receiver – you must have a reasonable knowledge of
the person you are going to talk to i.e. know their background, personality, level of
education, even possible reactions to the message.
 Logical structuring of a message – the message has to be structured in such a way
that it is easy to understand but also it is receiver- friendly. For example an employer
who is about to fire an employee should formulate the message in such a way that the
employee feels that he/she has been of service to the organization but the firing was
inevitable.
 Choice of an appropriate style - adapting the style to suit the purpose and audience.
 Masterly of mechanics of speech – this includes selection of an appropriate
vocabulary, proper pronunciation and clear articulation of words and expressions.
Poor pronunciation can distort meaning and put off the audience. For example ‘rice’
and ‘lice’ mean different things. If pronounced the same in different contexts the
meaning might be distorted.
 Seeking feedback – a speaker should be on the look-out for feedback from the
audience. This will help him/her adjust the speech, talk or conversation accordingly.
 Tactfulness and sensitivity – consider the feelings and needs of the audience and aim
to address these positively as you speak.
 Good listening skills – as a speaker you also need to learn to listen actively. This
helps to make the communication interactive and much more meaningful.
 Persuasiveness – learn the art of persuasion.

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3. ORAL PRESENTATIONS SKILLS
The speaking skills discussed in the preceding section are general skills that can be used in
informal oral communication like in conversations, or in formal communication in business
settings. Oral communication or using speaking skills in a business setting is referred to as
an oral presentation.

Oral presentations are basically public speaking verbal communication techniques. They
may include a speech, talk or lecture. They are used in a work setting to pass on information
to groups of people. For example:

 A Supervisor giving technical instructions to a group of new apprentices or

 Sales Manager addressing his field sales personnel.

Public Speaking (PS) can also be used at formal social gatherings. For example, at wedding
ceremonies, funerals, receptions, meetings, social and religious functions.

Oral presentation contexts in business

Oral presentation context are varied. Some common oral communication contexts in a
business setting are:

 Meetings to discuss issues and make decisions.

 Inductions of new members of staff to inform them about the job, the organizations
culture.
 Consultant’s presentation to management to recommend course of action.
 Briefings on findings or facts related to the work.
 Technical presentations by specialists/experts made to management and staff in a
specific are of work.
 Sales people making a presentation to clients to demonstrate the benefits of a
product.
 A demonstration on how to perform a specific task.
 Oral reports presented after a research to interested parties.
 Press conference with Journalists to clarify an issue.
 A brief speech to introduce a new member of staff or a guest speaker at a gathering.

THINGS TO CONSIDER WHEN PLANNING PRESENTATIONS

Presentations vary. The type and mode of presentation will to a large extent be determined by
the following factors:

a) Audience
The speaker should consider the size and the composition of the audience. The material
(content) to convey and language to be used during the speech will be dictated by the
composition of the audience. The speaker will not speak to villagers in the same way he/she
would to city dwellers. Neither will he/she speak to politicians in the same way as he/she
would to football players.
 Audience factors to be considered:

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 Topic – is it to their interest? Is it relevant to their situation? How much of the
knowledge/information do they need?
Categorization – what kind of grouping do you have? By sex, age, education
geographical area etc
Orientation – determine whether they are senior decision makers, lower level
staff, new recruits, technical experts etc
Motivation – why are the audience at your presentation?

b) Purpose of the speech

The purpose of any Speech will also affect the choice of the material to be used by the
speaker. Again, the purpose of the speech will influence the Speaker’s tone as he speaks. For
an effective and impressive presentation, the purpose should be relevant to the needs and
expectations of the audience. The speaker should identify the purpose to the audience in order
to focus their mind to the topic. Some common purposes of presentations may include:

 Briefing to provide technical information to staff and management

 Instructions to tell others how to perform a task
 Introduction of a person or product
 Persuasion to get your audience to accept your proposal or point of view.

c) Subject matter (message) and approach

The subject matter to be presented and the approach to be used will largely be determined by
the needs of the audience and the complexity of the content. Some topics are simple and
straight forward while others are complex. Some require basic knowledge while others
require technical expertise.

The subject matter of the presentation will also be determined by the availability of the time
in delivering the speech.

Since most of the speakers are limited by time, it will therefore be necessary for the speaker
to select the subject content. To sustain the attention of the audience, the subject matter
should have the following attributes:
 Interest – it should be lively, entertaining and relevant to the audience.
 Congeniality – it should be audience friendly, positive and supportive. It should not
be offensive or tackle sensitive topics.
 Credibility – it should be believable, from a source perceived to be trustworthy. It
should also contain facts which are known or can be verified.
 Accessibility – this means that the message should be clear, easily understandable and
visible in case of visual or non verbal communication.

PREPARATION OF THE ACTUAL PRESENTATION

Once you have thought of the audience, purpose and subject matter carefully, then you should
start collecting the relevant material for the presentation. The following may include sources
of your material.
 Your own vast experience
 Books

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  Newspapers
 Magazines (local and international)
 Films
 Television and radio

As you take down notes from these sources always keep in mind the main purpose of your
speech.

Structuring the content (message) of the presentation

The message has to be well thought out, well organised, following a logical order. Follow
these steps:

 Brain storm – jot down as many ideas on the subject as you can manage.
 Prioritize – classify related ideas and select a main idea or “theme” which will be the
focus of your presentation. Then put together several key points on the “theme”.
 Structure – the key points should now be put in a logical order to show how your
presentation will flow from one point to the other.
 Outline – Once the material has been arranged, then start thinking how to present it.
Using the key points which you have arranged in logical order you make an outline of
the actual presentation to include:
a. An introduction - this announces the main areas of concern in that
speech.
b. The body-this will discuss or develop those main areas of concern which have
been outlined in the introductory paragraph.

c. The Conclusion - this summarizes the main points of your speech

including personal views.

Compilation of the presentation / speech

There is no rigid way of doing it. It varies from speaker to speaker. Here are some of the
notable ways of compiling it.

 Write out the whole speech in full and then condense it on small cards in a note form.
 Write out the introduction and the conclusion in full and then condense it on small
cards in a note form.
 Write out the whole speech in full. However, make sure you don’t read it as you
deliver it. If you read it listeners will be bored, for your whole attention will be on the
printed paper.
 The most commonly used method of compiling a speech is simply to write out the
main points and any factual data such as dates and figures on separate post cards. This
allows the speaker to keep eye contact with his audience and will also act as a prompt
to help through your speech.

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Use of illustrations or Visual Aids
You may want to use some illustrations for some aspects of your speech. Well and good.
These may be photographs, video clips, films, real objects, charts; or graphs to present some
of the following items:

 Statistical data;
 Technical specifications
 Business growth or deterioration;

In this case then we should always remember that our illustrations/Visual Aids
should be:

 Simple
 Clear;
 Displayed in such a way that the whole audience can see them, or it.

DELIVERY OF THE PRESENTATION /SPEECH

It is very natural to feel nervousness when speaking to the public for the first time.
The best way to overcome this feeling is to be confident about yourself and your subject
matter.
For you to be confident in both cited aspects, you need a thorough preparation of your
speech.

Effective delivery of your presentation therefore depends on the following factors:

 Knowledge of the subject matter
 Non verbal communication
 Good knowledge of your audience
These will give you confidence.

Helpful tips
Your personal appearance is very important in that it gives you credibility. Remember first
impressions matter.

Before the delivery of your speech, know well in advance the layout of the room where you
will deliver your speech.

Make sure that any equipment that you might want to use e.g. Overhead projectorOHP is in
good condition. Again, check in advance any notes or illustrations (diagrams, pictures,
graphs etc) which you might want to use.

During the delivery of the speech, keep the following points in mind:
 Speak naturally clearly and audibly. Speak to the whole audience and not just one
section.
 Do not be afraid to use gestures and expressions in your speech
 Do not speak too fast and do not be afraid to pause
 If you are using illustrations or chalk board remember always to face your audience you
speak.

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  When using illustrations or chalk board, remember not to block the view of your
audience.
 Try to avoid mannerisms such as jiggling things in your hands or playing with your
hair, as this distracts and eventually irritates the audience.
 Speak slowly, giving the audience time to take in what you saying or doing.
 Maintain eye contact by looking directly at the audience. This will show confidence
which in turn will make the audience have confidence in you.

Questions
A good speaker should have the ability to respond to questions from the audience. Questions
provide the opportunity to clarify misunderstandings. Normally, the speaker invites
questions at the end of the speech.

Do not allow questions during the delivery of the speech for the following reasons:
 To avoid disrupting the flow of the speech. Some people in the audience will forget
points already made.
 To avoid forgetting the place you were at in the notes.
 To avoid side tracking and losing focus of the main topic.
 To avoid initiation of a dialogue between the questioner and speaker, thus ignoring the
rest of the audience in the end.

TYPES OF ORAL PRESENTATIONS

Oral presentations in the business setting are normally divided into two general categories:
• Informative
• Persuasive

Purposes
• An informative presentation is used to promote understanding of an idea.
• Persuasive presentation is used to influence decisions, viewpoints or choices.

However there is an overlap between informative and persuasive presentation because for an
individual to be persuaded he/she has to understand the situation first and to understand they
need to have adequate information.

INFORMATIVE PRESENTATIONS
These are normally used in business situations to provide information that enables operations
to go on in the business. Supervisors are updated on ongoing activities to enable them to
make sound decisions. Supervisors are able to communicate company policies and
operational procedures downwards to employees. Additionally employees communicate ideas
and proposals upwards to supervisors and horizontally to fellow workers.

Examples of informative presentations

An oral briefing: designed to present maximum facts in a short period. For example, a
briefing given to an individual employee or supervisor or a group of supervisors to furnish

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each other with the latest developments. Oral briefings are generally informal but others are
formal such as a status of a project to the entire department.
An oral report is designed to present detailed information hence requires a longer period of
time. For example,a research report on the feasibility of introducing a new accounting
package, a demonstrative report explaining how to use a new machine, or investigative
report examining a problem area such as causes of high labour-turnover in an organization
will require a longer period of presentation time.

Characteristics of high –quality informative presentations

• Accuracy: providing correct facts and figures
• Objectivity: reporting facts of the situation or events rather than one’s biases or feelings
about facts
• Completeness: reporting all relevant facts
• Impartiality: reporting all or both sides’
• Selectivity: reporting only the facts that are relevant.
• Interpretation: providing background meaning where necessary for the listeners’/readers’
comprehension or drawing others view as believable- someone in whom they can place
their confidence.

PERSUASIVE PRESENTATIONS

Persuasion is communication intended to influence choice therefore it is used to limit options

that are perceived acceptable.
Many persuasive presentations are fairly informal and are given within the organization by
supervisors to their employees or by employees to their supervisors. For example, policy
change or postponement of a deadline for a planned activity.

On the other hand persuasive presentations given to individuals or groups outside the
organization are more formal. For example, Standard Bank might plan a formal presentation
about a new product to a number of companies.

FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN PERSUASION

When preparing a persuasive message the sender should consider the following:
 His attitude;
 His credibility;
 His personality;
 His social standing, economic status, gender, education religious and political ties.

The basic elements that enhance a speaker’s credibility are the following:
 Trustworthiness - Can be viewed from different angles. For example speakers who
avoid eye contact, shift their eyes from place to place, always looking over listeners
heads seem to have something to hide.

 Competency - Means an expert knows what he is talking about. He can relate personal
experiences which are relevant to the topic.

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  Dynamism is another element of credibility. The speaker should be forceful,
enthusiastic and a good clear voice.

 Objectivity - An objective speaker is one who is open minded, impartial and appears to
view evidence and arguments in an unbiased manner. She/he will discuss all view
points but will still show why his/her arguments are the best.

 Status/rank - In organizations another element of credibility is the formal

position/(status) or rank of the speaker.
 Therefore, the higher the organizational status of the speaker the higher his credibility
and the greater the effect upon the audience.

 Psychological needs of the listener - Persuasive presentations will even be more

successful if arguments are adapted to personal needs of the listeners.

There is need for speakers to carefully analyse their listeners to determine for example their
personal and job reward needs and then relate the persuasive proposals to those needs.

Other listeners’ Opinions - Groups have key persons who the rest look up to. To persuade
the group a speaker must first persuade these key people or opinion leaders.

The receiver of the message:

The sender of the message should consider the following points in his/her persuasive speech:
 First get the receiver’s attention;
 Motivate him to get a positive response
 Analyse his needs to make his speech in line with these needs; and
 Give him a reward if necessary.

The sender can get the receiver’s attention by:

 Telling him/her unexpected information;
 Telling him/her pleasing information;
 Telling him/her only relevant information.

FACTORS THAT LEAD TO PERSUASION IN BUSINESS

 Evidence and logic of a message

Evidence is defined as factual statements and opinions not originating from the speaker
but another source. This forms the basis for the logical arguments a speaker develops.

These include

 Comparison: A comparison shows similarities or differences between two or more items

from the same class or category. For example monthly travel expenses of the five top
managers. Comparisons should relate something the audience does not know or
understand to something they do know and understand.

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 Illustrations: are effective and provide variety to your presentation. A narrative or story
is told in such detail that the listener can visualize mentally. Illustrations can be factual
(something that actually happened or hypothetical (imaginary).

Phrases commonly used are:

“suppose for a moment”
“imagine”
“put yourself in this situation”.’ And other similar phrases.

They should be detailed and vivid and must relate clearly to the point you are supporting.

TECHNIQUES IN PERSUASION
Persuasion techniques are part of interpersonal communication skills. They are aimed
at persuading or influencing people to do something for us. So our concern in this
section is to show how to persuade other people to do something for us.

Preparing Persuasive Presentations

 Determine the exact reaction you hope to achieve from your listeners who you are hoping
to inspire into agreement or conformity.
 Analyze your audience and their needs. It would also be important to identify key people
who are likely to influence decisions of the other listeners. If your listeners are worried
about not having enough to pay their bills you could persuade them to increase
productivity which would lead to increased sales as well as their salaries. This would
make the presentation more persuasive.
 Determine your initial credibility with your listeners can then be increased.
 Carefully research your topic (in bold). Then decide the best method for presenting
evidence to your listeners.
 Decide how to organize your presentation for the best effect
 Practice the presentation until you feel confident with it.

PROCESS OF SUCCESSFUL PERSUASION

1)Preparation Stage
a. Know the purpose of the message;
b. Know your audience
c. Know you subject matter.
2)Stage
a. Have interest in the receiver first. Engage him into a genuine conversation. Appeal
to him emotions.
b. Inform and convince him in the following manner.
 State facts and statistics
 Give supporting case histories
 Quote personal experience
 Clarify through visual aids
 Use comparisons
 Involve audience in demonstration
 Anticipate and answer any question from them

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3) Urge Action
Tell the listeners what to do, how, when, and where to do it.

As a presenter you need to decide how you can assist the audience to understand the points
which you make. In addition to the explanations, visual aids help to clarify the points. Some
of the visual aids you can use are presented below.

TYPES OF VISUAL SUPPORT

Equipment/Medium Advantages Disadvantages
Slides  Allow use of colourphotos: good for  Require a darkened room: may
Slides are usually still mood, impact and realism hinder note-taking
photographs, but may  They are pre-prepared: do not use up  Malfunction and/or incompetent
include text and the speaker’s time use of the projector cause
diagrams, projected onto  Controllable sequence/timing: pace frustration and distraction.
a screen or other surface. content/audience needs
Film/Video shown on a  They show moving images which  Does not allow interruption
screen or TV monitor have impact and realism
 Can enhance the credibility of the
presenter.
Overheads: films or  Can be used for different content  Require physical handling which
acetates projected by  Low cost can be distracting
light box onto a screen  Additional points can be added on the  There is a risk of technical
behind/above the sheets breakdown
presenter  Not adaptable to other means of
projection
Flipcharts: large paper  Low cost, low risk  Small, still, paper-based
pad mounted on frame-  Can be prepared in advance  Since they are hand-prepared they
the sheets are ‘flipped’ to  Easy to refer back could be of low quality
the back when finished  Allows addition of information
with during presentation
Handouts: supporting  Can be prepared in advance  May encourage passive listening
notes handed out for  The audience does not need to take
reference during or after many notes
the session
Props and  Enhances the speaker’s credibility  May not be available
demonstrations: objects because the audience can see the  There is a risk of self-defeating
or processes referred to object ‘hitches’
are themselves shown to  The presentation has impact
the audience
Presentation software:  It has impact and interest due to the  Requires PC, data projector:
for example, Microsoft multi-media expensive, may not be available
PowerPoint. PC-  Professional design and functioning  There is a risk of technical
generated slide (smooth transitions) breakdown: not readily adaptable
show(with animation and  Use of animation to build, link and to other means of projection
sound) projected from emphasise as points are added
PC to screen via data  ‘presentation notes’ can be added to
projector slides for presenter cues

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Exercise
1) Define oral presentation
2) As an accountant, how useful are the skills in oral presentation to you?

3) Outline the format of an oral presentation or speech of your choice

4) What are the major factors you would consider before the formation of your presentation?

5) Identify and explain the vital sources of information any public speaker would have at his
disposal.

6) Describe the structure of a presentation / speech.

7) Explain the factors you would have in mind during the delivery of a public speech.

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TELEPHONES

Purpose of telephone calls

All areas of the organization use the telephone for sending and receiving information. Using
the telephone as an effective communication tool requires an understanding of the purpose of
the communication and the effect that telephone communications can have on your audience.

Using the telephone effectively can result in a number of benefits:

The first benefit is that it could result in an increase in the level of personal contact and the
development of good interpersonal relationships both internally and externally. As you speak
on the phone you have an opportunity to interact with the other party on the receiving end
and it enhances personal contact.

In addition, using the telephone enables the caller to get an immediate response on issues.
Such responses might be important in maintaining good customer relations because the
customer might get a response.

 Improved information flow within and around the organization.

 A reduction in the time spent writing letters (and awaiting a response) and
consequently reduction in administrative costs.

Preparation

Effective use of the telephone requires that the user should know how to use the equipment.
When you want to make a call you need to prepare for it.

a) Know why you are making the call. What information do you wish to convey or
obtain?
b) Know to whom you should be talking. Find out names if possible.
c) Know what you want to say, and the order and manner in which you want to say it.
i. Have a checklist of points.
ii. Have all relevant documents and references material to hand.
d) Make sure you will not be interrupted, distracted or disturbed once you have dialed.

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Making calls
When you get through to the dialed number, wait for a greeting and identification from the
answering party. If necessary, seek the identification. (‘Good morning. To whom am I
speaking?’) It is time-wasting and embarrassing to start giving information to a wrong
person.

If the target recipient of your call is out or otherwise unavailable, then carry out your ‘Plan
B’, which may be one of the following.

i. Ask to speak to someone else who might be knowledgeable enough to help you.
ii. Leave a message with the one who answered the call. Make it a brief one, but dictate
clearly all essential details of whom you are, where you can be contacted, and what the
main subject of your call was to be. State whether you wish to be called back.
iii. Arrange to call back at a convenient time, when it is anticipated that the target will be
available.

 Once you get through to the appropriate person, the business of the call should be
covered as briefly as possible.
 Greet the other person by name: if you do not know it-find out first.
 Prepare the ground by briefly explaining the context of your call, what it is about,
and any other relevant details.
 Remember that the other person cannot see you to read your lips other nonverbal
signals. Therefore, speak clearly, spell out proper names and figures; use your tone
of voice to reinforce your message.
 Seek feedback. If you are not receiving any signals, ask for some ('Have you got
that?’)
 Close the call effectively. Emphasise any action you require, and check that the
other person has understood your expectations.

Taking calls
It is very important that those who answer the telephones in an organization should be
efficient, courteous and helpful. When taking calls there is a need to:

 Give a courteous greeting and identify yourself in whatever way is appropriate

(name, department, organization)
 Identify and note the caller’s name and organization as soon as possible.
 Listen carefully to the message: it might require instant action or response.
 Check your understanding. If the other person speaks too fast, or you do not
catch something, are not sure you have heard it right, or simply do not understand,
say so: a courteous interruption to ask for a repletion or spelling is helpful to the
caller.
 Never leave callers hanging. If you have to transfer them to another extension or
put them on hold, tell them what you intend to do.
 Speak clearly and with a certain formality, and keep your tone appropriately
helpful, courteous and alert.
 Take concise notes of any details you require in order to follow up conversation.
If you are giving information, pace it so that the caller can take notes.

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Sample telephone message

CLEAR VISION GRAPHICS

Telephone message form
For………………………….
Date…………………………..
From…………………………
Of……………………………….
Time…………………………………………………………………
Messagetaken by…………………………………………………...

……………………………………………………………………………………...
………………………………………………………………………………….......
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
Please Will call again Returned your call

Exercise
1. Explain how you can prepare to make a telephone call.
2. Explain what an individual should do when receiving a call.
3. Outline any four habits which should be avoided when receiving a call.

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INTERVIEWS
Definition
An interview is a form of oral communication involving two parties one of whom has a
preconceived and serious purpose and both of whom speak and listen from time to time. In
the definition, you will notice than the key words are ‘oral communication’‘two parties,
’‘purpose’, ‘speak and listen’. What you will notice from these key words is that an interview
is a deliberate plan to communicate specific information orally in order to fulfill a purpose.
Therefore an interview is conducted for two reasons. The first is to obtain information
(interviewer) while the second is to convey information (interviewee).

TYPES OF INTERVIEWS
There are several types of interviews and these interviews are distinguished by the goals they
are meant to accomplish.

1) Information-gathering interview-in this interview the purpose is exchange of

information. It focuses on giving and receiving data for decision-making, problem-
solving and building good will. The one who conducts the interview seeks to obtain some
specific information to achieve a particular goal. Some of the people who are involved in
this type of interview are buyer-seller; doctor-patient; lawyer-client; teacher-student and
so on.

2) Persuasive interviews-meant to convince someone to accept a particular idea. For

instance interview with customers to open accounts. Negotiations of pay and conditions
of service.

3) Counseling interview-the aim is to assist an employee on a personal problem either

inside or outside the organization. It is common knowledge that people do not leave their
private problems in a drawer when they arrive at work and pick them up when they leave
for home. Therefore, the interview focuses on creating a favourable work relationship
through showing interest and concern in helping an individual person.

4) Interrogation interview-this interview is different from others in that there is usually an

offence involved. Therefore this type of interview has a negative connotation because the
victim is treated as a suspect. For example when there is some money or items missing
from the accounts office the officers might be interviewed either internally or interviewed
by the police in order to get their side of the story which would lead to the conviction of
the one involved.

5) Exit interview is conducted with someone who has resigned from the organization. The
interview is conducted when the one who has resigned was holding a very important
position. The aim is to know the reasons for the resignation in order to find ways of
retaining staff.

6) Disciplinary interview is conducted when an employee is accused of misconduct.

Therefore the interview is meant to investigate the offence and decide on the action

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 required. The interview focuses on changing undesirable behaviour, improving
relationship and performance.

7) Performance appraisal/Evaluation interview is meant to evaluate the performance of

an individual holding a particular position in order to recommend him/her for promotion
or training and so on.

8) Recruitment/selection/employment interview is face-to-face encounter between a

prospective employer and a prospective employee. The objective of the employer is to
hire the best person possible while the applicant is interested to get the job. This type of
interview is one of the most important because within it some of the most critical,
original, and personal decisions are made. The productivity of an organization depends on
the ability of its management to recruit and select the best personnel.

Communication skills
The success of an interview depends on the communication skills of both the interviewer and
the interviewee. The skills involved may include the following:

 The ability to interpret other people’s body language and to use your own effectively.
When the interviewee enters the interview room he/she might be nervous, therefore there
is need to assist him/her to settle down.
 The ability to identify what roles you and others are in. The interviewer is the leader
during the interview, therefore, it is necessary that he/she exercises his/her role effectively
throughout the interview.
 The ability to listen attentively and actively. Both the interviewee and the interviewer
need to listen effectively. The interviewee needs to listen to the questions while the
interviewer should listen to the responses to the questions and analyse how effectively the
question is addressed.
 The ability to read between the linesof a message, by recognizing underlying attitudes,
bias, or deliberate ambiguity. The interviewer should analyse the responses for any
inconsistencies.
 The ability to put the interviewee at ease, to persuade, to smooth over difficult situations
i.e. diplomacy.
 The ability to identify false or dishonest arguments when they are being used, and to
construct a logical argument yourself. The interviewer needs to be attentive when
listening to the responses in case of false responses.
 The ability to recognize how much information, and of what kind, another person will
need and be able to take in.
 The ability to use appropriate questioningstyles to obtain relevant, complete and
accurate information.
 The ability to convey enthusiasm, sympathy, support, trustworthiness and other personal
factors, as required.

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 Limitations of interviews
The employment interview as a way of assessing an individual’s suitability for employment
has a number of weaknesses some of them are that:
 Interviews are of limited scope and duration. It is not possible to address all the areas
that may need coverage, in depth.
 Interviews are artificial situations. It should be noted that both parties come prepared
for the interview. Due to the advance preparation it is difficult to get true behaviour,
opinions, feelings or personality.
 An interview often puts the interviewee under pressure and in some cases the
interviewer could also be under pressure.
 An interview involves complex communication processes, and its success depends on
the willingness and skill of both parties to communicate. If the interviewer is not
skilled enough, he/she may make the interview less effective.

Nevertheless, planning and skilled conduct of the interview can minimize the effect of most
of the limitations. It is necessary to set out and adhere to the scope and agenda of the
interview. The interviewer should ensure that the interviewee is put at ease in order to enable
him/her to communicate effectively.

THE INTERVIEW PROCESS

The basic organization of an interview is generally the same for all interviews. Most
interviews are organized into five main phases. As an example, we are going to discuss the
organization of the employment/recruitment interview because such an interview takes place
in every organization.

The employment interview

1. Preparation
During the preparation stage, the interviewer has to determine the objectives to be achieved
and make a plan to achieve them. The plan is in form of the framework of the interview
which must spell out what points must be made or the information that must be obtained or
given to the interviewee. However, the interviewer should not adhere to the plan rigidly, there
is need to be flexible in order to respond to the situation as the interview progresses.

The interviewer also needs to prepare the physical setting for the interview. The physical
preparation includes setting a suitable time for the interview. The room and layout of chairs
should create a relaxing atmosphere for the interview.

The interviewer should plan the framework of the interview by

2. Opening phase of the interview

The opening phase of an interview has three basic steps: rapport, orientation and motivation.

I. Rapport: Since interviews are stressful situations, the interviewer has the duty of setting
the tone of the interview by putting the interviewee at ease. The interviewer has to establish
rapport with the interviewee. Rapport is a comfortable relaxed feeling (I respect you as an
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 individual) that makes both parties receptive to the interview situation and willing to talk.
The first few minutes of the interview are very important in the interview because they
determine the course of the whole interview. Therefore, it is necessary to create an
atmosphere where the interviewee will exhibit real feelings; in fact, first impressions are
difficult to erase. If both parties establish a good relationship in the opening phase, the
purpose of the interview is likely to be achieved.

The venue of the interview also contributes to the atmosphere of the interview session,
therefore, to provide a relaxed feeling, the interview should be held in a room which is free
from distractions. When the interviewee enters the interview room, the interviewer should
greet him/her. In order to remove tension, the interviewer should refer to a topic of mutual
interest to make the interviewee talk so that he/she could settle down in a relaxed mood.

On the other hand, the interviewee can create a good first impression by being on time,
dressing appropriately, being prepared for the interview and appearing confident and
relaxed.

II. Orientation: In addition to establishing rapport in the opening phase of the interview, the
interviewer should give a clear orientation (overview) of the interview to the interviewee.
The orientation step should include the following information:
 The interviewers’ names: There is a need to introduce the interviewers to the
interviewee.
 The purpose of the interview: There is a need to mention the position for which the
interviewee is being interviewed and state the purpose of the interview at the outset of
the interview.
III. Motivation: The third step in the opening phase of the interview involves motivating the
interviewee to give straight forward and complete answers.
o Motivation involves encouraging the interviewee to give more points/facts. The
motivation can be done either verbally or nonverbally. Some of the verbal positive
cues are the following: That’s very interesting, tell me more, ‘Yes, I see what you
mean’, ‘Alright, Yes and so on. On the other hand, the following are the positive
nonverbal cues: Occasional affirmative nodding of the head, Leaning forward,
Sitting appropriately and so on.

IV. Body/Question-answer/Substantive phase

This phase of the interview is the longest because it is at this stage where the interviewer asks
the questions which were prepared in advance.

Although the list of questions is important, it is not necessary always to follow them
precisely. The set questions should provide guidance and where necessary some questions
could be arise from those which were set in order to explore some areas which appear
important as the interview progresses. It could also happen that when answering one question
the interviewee can provide the information sought in another question either directly or by
implication. In short, there is a need to know the areas that need more exploration and those
that will not seem worth pursuing.

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The interviewer also has responsibility to answer questions and when necessary anticipate
them. The interviewer is expected to control the interview by asking questions, monitoring
the interviewee’s answers and soliciting whatever clarification is needed to make the meaning
clear.

On his part, the interviewee should come prepared for the interview with a list of strengths,
areas of knowledge and past accomplishments usually in form of curriculum vitae. The
interviewee should also anticipate possible questions and carefully think through honest
answers to each question. Some of the types of questions which can be asked in an interview
are presented below.

Types of questions

a) Direct questions these are questions which aim at obtaining precise details and directing
the interview towards a specific goal. For instance: Why are you interested in joining this
organization? The direct questions have an advantage in that they save time and help in
focusing the interview. However, too many of the direct questions may put off the
interview as the interaction will not give a chance to the interviewee to express himself
freely.

b) Open-ended questions these are questions which do not demand exact responses. The
questions force the interviewee to respond in complete sentences, encouraging the
interviewee to talk, and keeping the interview flowing. The questions allow the
interviewee to express his ideas freely without being defensive. For example: Who do you
think people say you are? However, such questions can easily let the interview lose
direction. The success of such questions depends on the interviewer’s listening skills
because he/she has to select relevant information from non-essential information.

c) A closed question is one which offers a choice of responses, such as ‘yes’ or ‘no’.
However, the question has a number of disadvantages:
 The question elicits answers only to the question asked by the interviewer;
 It does not allow the interviewee to express his personality so that interaction can take
place;
 It makes it easier for interviewees to conceal things.

d) Clarification questions these questions aim at obtaining detailed information where the
response was not clear or was misunderstood. The questions are used to clear up
confusion, get more facts, seek a definition of some term or phrase or show the
interviewee that you are interested in what he has just said.

e) Probing questions these questions aim at pursuing issues the interviewee has raised.
The interviewer wants to get more information on specific topics; he/she wants to confirm
his own interpretation or clear shady areas; to substantiate to the other party that this is
indeed what he has stated; to demonstrate a feeling of concern and interest.

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 f) Hypothetical open questions these are questions which are set on an invented but
possible situation in the work environment. The aim is to find out how the interviewee
would handle such a situation. For instance: If one of the customers overpaid you, but
he/she did not realize it, what would you do?

g) Leading questions suggest a certain reply to the interviewee. For instance we are looking
for somebody who likes detailed figure work. How much do you enjoy dealing with
numbers? However, the problem with these questions is that the interviewee will simply
give the answer that he thinks the interviewer wants to hear.

h) Multiple questions are just two or more questions asked at once. These types can be used
to encourage the interviewee to talk at length, without straying too far from the point. The
questions might also test the interviewee’s ability to listen to a large amount of
information.

IV. Closing phase of an interview

The closing phase of the interview is the time to establish the future relationship between the
interviewer and the interviewee. It is used to decide if any future meetings are necessary and
set a date for such a meeting. In the closing phase is also a time to give the interviewee a
chance to ask questions. Finally, the closing of an interview should always end with each
participant thanking the other for the time given and the cooperation shown.

V. Follow up

Once the interviewee has left, the interviewer should:

a) Assimilate the information gained

b) Determine any action required or agreed as a result of the interview
c) Make notes, or build the notes up into a more complete record for the relevant file or
report
d) Initiate any actions agreed at, or required by, the interview
Exercise
1. Define an interview.
2. Give any four types of interviews.
3. Outline any four communication skills required in an interview.
4. Explain any three roles of the interviewer and any three roles of an interviewee.
5. Give any three questions that can be asked in a job interview.

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MEETINGS
What is a meeting?
A meeting is a gathering which brings together a number of people within a system with a
definite communication purpose.

Meetings can either be formal or informal. The formal meeting is the gathering of specific
people where decisions have to be made on particular matters by means of set procedures. On
the other hand, an informal meeting could be a gathering of accounts clerks discussing plans
to form a social football team.

Types of meetings

a) Board meeting. A body such as a limited company operates through board of directors
who are responsible for managing the company’s affairs. Some of the business at such
meeting might include:
 Assessing the development of the company’s business;
 Agreeing to acquire additional capital;
 Receiving reports from various committees;
 Appointing senior staff and so on.

b) Committee meeting. In most cases the board of directors delegates powers and duties to
committees which carry out certain tasks and report back to the board. Some of the
committees in an organization are: Executive, Advisory, standing, ad hoc sub, joint and
so on.

c) Annual General Meeting (AGM). This is a meeting which is held once a year to which
all shareholders must be invited. Some of the business to be transacted includes:
 Receiving the director’s and auditor’s reports;
 Examining the accounts and balance sheets;
 Sanctioning the dividend;
 Appointing or re-appointing directors and so on.

d) Extraordinary meeting. An extraordinary general meeting is normally called to transact

business which cannot conveniently wait for the next the next scheduled meeting.

Purposes of meetings
Giving information:
 To hear a statement of policy;
 To receive instructions, to learn about new procedures;
 To brief a group of subordinates;

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 Obtaining information or ideas:
• To hear subordinates views on a problem;
• To find out what happened;
• To investigate a situation;
• To obtain information.
Progressing or coordinating activities of individuals or departments:
• To discuss what action is needed;
• To coordinate the work of different sections or departments.
Negotiating a contract or agreement:
• With Trade Unions or a contractor.
Resolving a problem:
• To overcome an obstacle to the implementation of a plan;
• To discover what the problem is;
• To motivate members of staff in order to get them committed.
Formulating policy:
• About the use of certain equipment.
Preparing a plan or recommendations:
• To formulate proposals for senior management to consider.
Reaching a decision:
• How to apply a plan.
• What to do about something or someone.

Benefits of meetings
A meeting can be beneficial in the following ways:

 Communication and personal contact. A meeting helps people to get to know one
another. In fact, establishing good personal relationships is important in organizational
life.
 Motivation and satisfaction. When members participate in a meeting decisions may
improve individual motivation.
 Representation. Meetings enable the various different interests in a decision to be
represented as ‘equals’.
 ‘Letting off steam’. A meeting provides an opportunity for members to air their
grievances. Such grievances might have been blocking an employees’ effective
performance.
 Participative problem-solving. Members feel that a meeting gives them an opportunity
to contribute to a decision.
 Learning. Participants benefit from the knowledge and opinions of others.
 Involvement. Members feel part of the policy under which they would be working.
 Self-assessment. Members can evaluate their own opinions beliefs and attitudes in the
light of those of others.
 Understanding. Members develop a better understanding and appreciation of each other.

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 Organization of a meeting
The basic documents used for a formal meeting are:

Notice of meeting;

Agenda;

Chairperson’s agenda;

Minutes of the meeting.

Notice of meeting
Before a meeting is held, a notice must be given to those entitled to attend. The notice can
only be sent by a person authorized to call the meeting, usually the chairperson, although the
notice is often signed by the secretary.

The notice must show the title of the meeting, the day and date, time and place where the
meeting will be held. It will specify whether an agenda has been attached. It will be signed,
and that person’s official position in the group will be indicated.

The notice is usually sent in advance of the meeting date (usually 21 days) so that members
can reschedule their other activities in order to keep the date and time free, and can prepare
themselves for the meeting. The notice required is often laid down in the regulations
governing how meetings should be convened in the organization.

A sample of notice of a meeting is presented below.

SHOP OWNERS ASSOCIATION

TO: All members of Shop Owners Association

FROM: The chairman
DATE: 31st September 20…

SUBJECT: NOTICE OF MEETING

The next meeting of the Shop Owners Association will be held at Shoprite complex on
Sunday, 21st October, 20—from 8a.m.

I hope it will be convenient for you to attend. Items for inclusion on the agenda should reach
me by Friday 5th October.
Signed:
NdazionaKamowatimwa (Secretary)

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Agenda
A meeting should (and can effectively) only discuss one subject at a time. It is standard
practice to draw up a list (called ‘an agenda’-Latin for ‘things to be done’); therefore an
agenda is a list of items to be discussed at a meeting. The agenda is prepared by the secretary
in consultation with the chairperson. In most cases, the agenda is sent at the same time as the
notice of the meeting.

The agenda is distributed in advance to those attending the meeting, so that:

• Everyone knows the subject of the business to be covered at the meeting, and can prepare
speeches, questions and so on accordingly.
• Everyone knows the order of business, and can if necessary arrange to attend only the
relevant sessions of the meeting.
• The chairperson can keep the meeting to a schedule, and within a framework for debate,
of which every participant of the meeting is aware of.

The agenda will usually contain the following elements:

a) Apologies for absence simply presented as apologies. Once the meeting has been
declared open by the chairperson, apologies sent to the secretary by members who are
unable to attend the meeting for various reasons are read out.
b) Minutes of the last meeting. Membersareasked whether or not the minutes of the
previous meeting are a correct reflection of what was agreed during the meeting. The
members are expected to say if the minutes are a true record of the meeting. The minutes
are sent in advance, therefore the members are expected to have read them before coming
to the meeting; otherwise members would waste time reading the minutes in the meeting.
However when you are told to draft an agenda for a recently formed committee you must
not include an agenda item, ‘minutes of the last meeting’.
c) Matters arising. At this point members consider the progress that has been made since
the previous meeting. If a situation has developed, or action been taken in response to the
previous meeting, the fact should be reported. However, this section should not be taken
as an excuse to re-open a dispute.
d) Correspondence. Letters received by the secretary from outside parties relevant to the
meeting are reported.
e) Fresh business. This may include plans to be made, reports to be delivered and
discussed, or particular proposals to be debated and decided on.
f) Any other business (AOB). If a topic has been overlooked, or has arisen between the
drafting of the agenda and the meeting, it may be dealt with at this point. ‘AOB’ should
not be considered an excuse to bring up an item on an unprepared (and probably tired)
meeting: if the matter is important enough it may be carried over to the next meeting.
g) Date of the next meeting. Members can agree as to when they could meet again for the
next meeting. The meeting is then formally declared closed.

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 Sample agenda

SHOP OWNERS ASSOCIATION

Agenda
1. Apologies for absence
2. Minutes of the last meeting
3. Matters arising from the minutes
4. Parking restriction
5. Security around the shopping areas
6. Any other business
7. Date of the next meeting

In some cases the notice of the meeting and the agenda are presented on different pages such
that the agenda is attached to the notice, but in other cases the two can appear on the same
page as in the example below:

SHOP OWNERS ASSOCIATION

TO: All members of Shop Owners Association
FROM: The chairman
DATE: 31st September 20…

SUBJECT: NOTICE OF MEETING

The next meeting of the Shop Owners Association will be held at Shoprite complex on
Sunday, 21st October, 20—from 8a.m.

I hope it will be convenient for you to attend. Items for inclusion on the agenda should reach
me by Friday 5th October.

Agenda
1. Apologies for absence
2. Minutes of the last meeting
3. Matters arising from the minutes
4. Parking restriction
5. Security around the shopping areas
6. Any other business
7. Date of the next meeting

Signed:

NdazionaKamowatimwa (Secretary)

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Chairperson’s agenda
A special version of the agenda is usually produced in order to help a chairperson lead and
control the meeting efficiently. This agenda gives additional information including times and
reminder notes. Each item on the agenda is followed by brief notes: information updates,
background detail, explanations, reminders of when an item was previously discussed, any
problems that might arise between members and need sensitive handling. There is also space
for the chairperson to make notes. Documents or papers to be discussed during the meeting
will be attached to the chairperson’s agenda.

SHOP OWNERS ASSOCIATION

CHAIRPERSON’S AGENDA

For the meeting to be held at Shoprite complex on Sunday 21stOctober, 20—from 8a.m.

Agenda Notes
1. Apologies for absence
2. Minutes of the last meeting
3. Matters arising from the minutes
4. Parking restrictions
5. Security around the shopping areas
6. Any other business
7. Date of the next meeting

Preparing the location

Most of the considerations for the venue of the meeting are the same as those for interviews,
however, due to the nature of the gathering the following need to be considered:

• Accessibility. For meetings which are not held in the organisation’s boardroom, the
location should be chosen so that participants can get to it, and find it.
• Size. The room should be big enough to accommodate the number of people attending
the meeting comfortably. However, the room should not be too big or small that
people feel swamped or lost.
• Facilities. There should be provision for facilities required:
o For use within the meeting (power points, overhead projectors, desks or tables.
o For the participants’ comfort and convenience (refreshments, cloak rooms, and
so on)
• Seating arrangements.
o A large formal meeting may be more appropriately seated around a table: a
circular table being less confrontational and less status-conscious than a
rectangular.

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DUTIES OF OFFICERS AND MEMBERS
Duties of the chairperson
Before the meeting the During the meeting After the
chairperson is responsible for:  Introducing topics clearly by meeting
identifying the related elements  Checking
 Fixing the date and time of the  Exchanging, developing and summing and signing
meeting up the ideas from the members the minutes
 Choosing and preparing an  Preserving order and harmony and of the
appropriate location/venue for the dealing with irrelevances by: meeting
meeting o Ensuring that only one person  Monitoring
 Establishing and understanding speaks at a time the progress
the items to be discussed o Speakers must address the of the
 Ensuring that members are chair actions
informed about the meeting o Observe procedures agreed at the
 Ensuring that correct procedure is  Guiding the meeting through its meeting
observed in convening the business, making sure that each item is
meeting valid within the regulations
 Starting the meeting on time  Making sure that only those entitled to
speak do so
o Get decisions effectively by
giving rulings on points of
dispute
Duties of the secretary
 Obtain the material for the  Ensure to bring all necessary  Prepare a draft
meeting from previous minutes documents copy of the
or new sources  Take notes on the agreements minutes
 Drafting the agenda to a logical made
order of priorities  Assist the chairperson by  Act on and
 Agree with the chairperson on providing the necessary communicating
the draft information the decisions
 Circulating the notice of the made
meeting, the agenda and any other
related documents
 Preparing the venue of the
meeting
 Arrive at the venue of the
meeting before starting time
Duties of members
 Inform the  Make disciplined contributions  Read and verify
secretary/chairperson about  Take note of decisions and actions minutes
items for the agenda required  Carry out any
 Read all the papers received and actions required
if necessary prepare their own and if necessary
supporting papers report back
 Attend on time

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Minutes
Minutes are a true and accurate record of the deliberations of a meeting. As a written record
of a meeting, minutes are an important and effective means of communication in an
organization.

a) They serve as a record of the proceedings and they are a source of reference.
b) Minutes are meant to check on ill-considered contributions.
c) Minutes are used as a basis for implementing a particular action agreed in the meeting.
d) Minutes can also serve as a basis for coming up with policy based on the agreement in the
meeting.

Presentation of minutes

HEADING. The heading of minutes presents the following information:

Declaration: The minutes of the meeting of the

Convenor: Shoppers Owners Association

Venue: held at Shoprite complex

Day and date: on Sunday 21st October, 20---

From: 8 am

The complete heading will read as follows: The minutes of the meeting of the Shop Owners
Association held at Shoprite complex on Sunday 21st October, 20---from 8a.m.

MIDDLE BODY. Below the heading are entries of the names of the participants in the
meeting under the respective labels as follows:

 Present: Names of all those who attended the meeting starting with the
chairperson’s name.
 By attendance/Invitation: Names of special delegates invited to the meeting.
 Absent: Names of those who did not send any communication after the formal
invitation.
 Apologies: Names of those participants who excused themselves for one reason or
another from attending the meeting.

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 END BODY
The presentation of the end body of minutes varies according to the types of minutes.

Types of minutes
There are three types of minutes.

1. Resolution minutes. The resolutions (or decisions) are recorded without describing the
debate that preceded the agreement. This is a brief, strictly relevant method, which also
serves to disguise possible conflicts and division within the meeting. For instance:
Minute Minutes

7/2007 Parking restrictions

Members agreed to restrict the parking of vehicles in the complex to customers and members
of staff within the complex.

2. Narrative minutes. In these minutes a concise summary of the discussion leading up to the
resolution is added. This presentation enables individuals to go on record with their views
and also enables the organization to assess their soundness of judgment in light of events:
on the other hand the individual gains the satisfaction of ‘making his mark’ but also makes
himself/herself accountable for his/her words. Narrative minutes are presented in the
reported speech for example:

‘The chairman told members that a number of customers and

members of staff have complained about the lack of parking space
due to the taxi drivers who use the same car park. Mr. Chimwendo
proposed that the tax drivers should be asked to pay for parking as
a way of scaring them away. However, Mrs. Sizimpita disagreed
and argued that if all the drivers are able to pay then the problem
will not be solved. Mr. Kameza suggested that the taxi drivers
should be asked to relocate to the other side of the road where
minibuses are parked.

The members agreed to restrict the parking of vehicles in the

complex to customers and members of staff.’

3. Action minutes. In organizations where the chair of the meeting has clear authority to
direct members’ actions, the format of ‘action minutes’ may be used to indicate explicitly
what is expected as a result of resolutions, and who is responsible. A right hand column
may be used to note the name of the person who has undertaken or been asked to perform
the necessary action. The column is labeled action.

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FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO THE SUCCESS OF A MEETING

1. Agenda. The agenda enables the participants to prepare thoroughly for the meeting. it
also shows the sequence of the discussion items. The accompanying notice gives details
of the venue, day and time of the meeting.
2. Participation. A meeting can only be held when there is requisite attendance called
quorum. The success of the deliberations depends on the active participation of the
participants.
3. Advance notice. Participants to the meeting need enough time for them to reschedule
other engagements in order of priority. A hastily convened meeting, unless it is of
emergency in nature should be discouraged because people caught off-guard either do not
bother to attend the meeting or come to the meeting ill-prepared.
4. Requisite documents. Apart from the agenda, relevant documents that will be discussed
in the meeting need to be circulated to participants beforehand.
5. Venue. The venue of the meeting should be ideal for the purpose of the meeting for
instance the boardroom for a management meeting. The venue should comfortably
accommodate the participants and it should be free from distractions; hence conducive to
discussion.
6. Time. The time of holding the meeting should be in general convenient to the
participants. It would be inconvenient for people of some religious persuasions to conduct
business meetings on the Sabbath. Monday mornings and Friday afternoons would not be
convenient times for holding meetings.
7. Duration. The duration of the meeting should also be within reasonable duration for
mental aptitude. A meeting which is unnecessarily long wears participants down. The
time allocated for an item should also be rational.
8. General organisation and administration. Depending on the nature of the meeting,
such arrangements as messengerial services, refreshments or communication facilities
should be available for participants.
9. Chairperson’s abilities. The success of the meeting largely depends on the abilities of
the chairperson. For the meeting to be a success there is need for standing orders to be
followed and ably interpreted and applied by the chairperson. In addition the chairperson
should be able to structure, control, summarize and record the discussion in order to give
the meeting a direction,

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TERMINOLOGY OF MEETINGS

Ad hoc From Latin, meaning ‘for the purpose of’, as for example, when a sub-
committee is set to organize a particular activity.

Adjourn To stop the discussion of a meeting before reaching a conclusion so

that the discussions would be continued at a later date.

Advisory Providing advice or suggestion, not taking action.

Apologies Excuses given in advance for inability to attend a meeting.

Bye-laws Rules regulating an organisation’s activities.

Casting vote When two sides are deadlocked, a chairperson may record a second
or casting vote to ensure a decision is made.

Consensus Agreement by general consent, no formal vote being taken.

Co-opt When a member is appointed to a committee and not elected, as is

the usual method.

Ex officio Given powers or rights by reason of office.

Honorary post A duty performed without payment.

Lobbying A practice of seeking member’s support for a motion before a

meeting.

Motion The name given to a proposal when it is being discussing at a

meeting.

Mover One who speaks on behalf of a motion.

Nem. Con From Latin, literally no-one speaking against.

Opposer One who speaks against a motion.

Point of information The drawing of attention in a meeting to a relevant item of fact.

Point of order The drawing of attention to a breach of rules or procedures.

Postpone To change the day of a meeting before the meeting starts

Proposal The name given to a submitted item for discussion before a meeting
takes place.

Proxy Literally, on behalf of another person- a proxy vote, therefore it

means a member attending a meeting or doing something in the
meeting for instance voting on behalf of another.

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Resolution The name given to a motion which has been passed or carried; used
after the decision has been reached.

Sine die From Latin, literally, meaning without a day, that is to say
indefinitely, e.g. adjourned sine die

Standing committee A committee has an indefinite term of office.

Seconder One who supports a motion presented by the proposer

Exercise

1. What is a meeting?
2. Outline any four purposes of meetings
3. Give any four benefits of meetings
4. Explain the documents associated with meetings.
5. Describe the roles of the following in relation to meetings:
i. Chairperson
ii. Secretary
iii. Participant

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UNIT 8: ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION
Overview
This unit provides you with information on:
• Electronic communication;
• Forms of electronic communication; and
• The effectiveness of electronic messages.

Leaning Outcomes:
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
a) Demonstrate understanding of computerised systems of communication;
b) Explain usage of different forms of electronic communication;
c) Set up relevant electronic communication according to different situations; and
d) Analyse the effectiveness of messages transferred by electronic means.

What is Electronic Communication?

Electronic communication refers to the use computerised systems to send or receive
messages. One needs to know how computers work in order to communicate electronicallyA
computer is a device that can receive, process and store data. They are used as tools in every
part of society. There are different forms of computers like mainframe computers, mini
computers, desktop computers, laptop computers, tablet computers and palmtop computers.
All these computerised systems have the same basic parts in their hardware which enable
them to perform these four functions:

1. Receive input
2. Process information
3. Store into memory
4. Give output

Using computers or computerised systems, electronic communication can take different

forms like internet, websites, e-mails, telephones, teleconference, video conference, data
conference, and fax.

INTERNET
Computers nowadays are complex; there are a lot of different components inside them, and
they all serve different purposes. When computers work together, they are said to be in a
network. When the networks are also lined up they establish the internet.Anintranet is a mini
version of the Internet belonging to a particular organisation. It includes the company’s own
Local Area Network (LAN) or Wide Area Network (WAN). On the other hand, an extranet
is a private intranet that is accessible to authorized outsiders.

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 Figure 1: People around the world connected by computers and internet

To access the Internet, an individual or an organisation needs the following:

• A computer
• Telecommunication link
• A modem
• Subscription to an Internet Service Provider (ISP) – ISPs are organisations that connect
people to the Internet upon subscription. The ISP has a computer permanently
connected to the Internet. When one [subscriber] wants to use the Internet, they access
it via the ISP’s permanently internet-connected computer).
• Internet Browsing Software, such as Ms Explorer and Mozilla Firefox, installed on the
computer is used for Internet access.

Website
A website is a set of documents on the Internet belonging to an individual or an organisation,
which contains information relating to the individual or the organisation. All information on
the Internet is on websites. An individual or organisation wishing to do business by using the
Internet will need to make its information systems available on the Internet. This can only be
possible by creating a website.

When a website has been created, it has its own unique address called its Uniform Resource
Locator (URL). The structure of a URL is as follows:

http://www.imis.org.uk

http:// Stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol, the protocol used on the
World-Wide Web for exchange of documents.

.www This stands for World Wide Web.

.imis The domain name of the organisation or individual whose site (a website is
also commonly referred to as a site) is located at this URL. In this case this is
the site for IMIS.

.org The type of the organisation concerned.

.com or .co for commercial organisation
.ac or .edu would indicate an education institution such as a University.

.uk This indicates the organisation’s country of location

Finding Information on the Internet

To browse the Internet, one needs web-browsing software (Web Browsers) such as Microsoft
Internet Explorer and Mozilla Firefox. Using a Web Browser, the user needs to supply the
software with a URL, although most web browsers can make life much easier by supplying
the most recently visited sites. If you do not know the site’s URL, it is also possible to find
information by using search engines like Yahoo!, Google and Excite. With a search engine,

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the user may simply type a word and institute a search. The search engine would then give a
list of website links containing information relating to the typed word.

Internet Uses
After connecting to the internet, you can use your computer to access information from
different websites. You can do the following:
• Research
• Get education and training
• Do commerce (buying and selling over the Internet is called e-commerce)
• Get entertainment
• Recruit or seek Jobs
• Seek messages and receive messages using e-mail
• Enhance your relationships
• Advertise

E‐MAIL
E-mail is the name given to systems for sending and receiving mail electronically. In a
company, communication can be faster, more efficient and effective if e-mail is used.
Externally, using the Internet as the backbone technology infrastructure, e-mail can facilitate
faster inter-organizational communication. On the Internet there are several free e-mail
services such as Yahoo! Mail and Gmail. However, you may need to pay for the subscription
for the service in most cases.

Using e-mail for inter-organizational communication offers the several benefits including:
• Faster than post.
• Cheaper than post.
• Efficient: can send message to thousands of recipients simultaneously.
• Electronic reach or read receipt can be obtained.
• More secure messages due to use of passwords.

However, using e-mail for inter-organizational communication offers the several drawbacks
including the following:
• It requires computer literacy.
• If telecommunication systems fail, there will be no communication.
• It can be a source of Viruses.
• Initial costs of setting up the system can be high.

Common E‐Mail Terminology

 E-mail Address

Upon subscription, a client is assigned an e-mail account which is identified

by the e-mail address. The e-mail address is of the form
[email protected]

Example

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 [email protected]

Note: The above means that miyovano is a client of Yahoo! mail service.

 Sign Up

To open an e-mail account.

 Sign In

To access one’s e-mail account so that you can read or send e-mail messages.
Every time you want to read or send messages you need to sign in. The
process involves supplying an e-mail address and the corresponding password.

 Sign Out

To get out of one’s e-mail account.

 Spam

Unimportant and unsolicited mail.

 Forward

Send a received message to another person.

 Reply

Send a message to the sender of a received message.

 Compose/New Message

Write a new e-mail message

 Attach

To attach a document (e.g. an Ms Word document) to an e-mail message. The

attached message is called an attachment.

TELECONFERENCING

Teleconferencing is a technology that allows people in different locations to participate in a

conference over a telephone line or using e-mail group communication software. Benefits of
this are quite obvious. They include time saving as the participants save on travel time and
also you save on travel on travel costs. When teleconferencing involves participants editing
and modifying data simultaneously, it is called a dataconference.

Videoconferencing

People in different locations can also participate in a conference electronically using

videoconferencing. Here the technology enables participants not only to hear each other but

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also see one another on the screen. Usually a videoconferencing room is required which
should among other things be equipped with a computer, a Screen, microphones, video
cameras and speakers.

Figure 2: A Video Conference

The Telephone
Telephones enable people from different geographical locations to communicate orally.
Telephones are controlled using a computerized system called a Private Automatic Branch
Exchange (PABX). The PABX is a switchboard that provides an organization with internal
telephony services and the interface with external telephone lines. PABXs often provide extra
features, not available on a standard telephone, connected directly to the public telephone
exchange.

Figure 3: A PABX system

Facilities in modern Telephone and PABX systems include:

 Automatic message switching
 Different ringing tones for different users in an office, for example.
 Different ringing tones for internal and external calls
 Call waiting
 Automatic dialling
 Call redialling if line is busy
 Conference calls
 Call Barring

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FACSIMILE TRANSMISSION
 The fax machine combines telephone, scanner and printer services into one gadget.
This enables it to scan documents, send them over a telephone network and print them
again at the other end. The document is converted to electronic form and reconverted
back at its destination to ordinary form.

Figure 4: A Fax Machine

Advantages of sending documents by fax include:

 Quick document transfer
 Fax allows documents to be sent in their original state thereby saving time of special
preparation
 Reduced cost of sending documents
 There is proof that the document was sent and received
 Fax messages can be received anytime even off duty hours

Disadvantages of sending documents by fax include:

Machines are prone to technology failure
 Documents you transmit via fax may not be as safe and secure as you would like.
 An important message may be placed below other fax messages which arrived later
and therefore cause a delay in dealing with the information.

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ELECTRONIC WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

Written communication can be more accurate, faster, clearer and effective by using different
application software. Some of the application software include: Word Processors, Publishers,
and Spreadsheets.

Word Processors
A word processor, such as Ms Word, is a ready-made program designed to enable users to
create and manipulate textual documents such as letters, memos, CVs, and reports. Word
processors are also sometimes referred to as Word Processing Software Packages.

Figure 5: Ms Word

When used for producing documents, word processors offer the following facilities
 Capability to store (the usual term for store is save) a document on backing storage
for later retrieval. (An ordinary typewriter is void of this)
 Capability to type a document once and print as many times as desired. (with an
ordinary typewriter to produce multiple ‘original copies’ you have to retype many
times)
 WYSIWYG facility. (What You See Is What You Get – a facility that enables users
to view a document on screen in exactly the same format as its printed copy. In Ms
Word, it is normally called the Print Preview facility)
 Formatting (changing the appearance of text). (this allows users to change the
appearance of text as desired. Text can be made to be bold, in italics,
underlined, big or small, among many other formatting options. With an a typewriter
such formatting options are not there.)
 Editing facility (you can easily, erase, copy , move or insert text on screen, with a
great deal of tidiness )
 Spell Checking Facility (allowing users to check their documents for spelling and
some grammatical mistakes-enabling users to produce English spelling mistake-free
documents. You can’t do this with a typewriter!)
 Graphics facility (This allows users to insert drawings, diagrams or pictures into
their document so as to add clarity of the text)

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  Mail Merging (This facility allows the user to type one standard letter, for example,
and merge it with names and addresses of customers stored somewhere else in the
computer to produce multiple personalised letters.)
 Templates(a template is an already designed document ready for the user to simply
edit to create their document as desired. There could be in a word processor, for
example, a template CV, a template Memo or a template Report. These would enable
users to create high quality documents quickly.)

Benefits of Using Word Processors

 Easy production of personalized letters by use mail merging
 On-screen amendment, correction and updating of text
 Low production costs
 Easy editing and formatting
 Improved text quality
 High speed printing is possible
 Faster document preparation
 Retyping is minimised by use of editing facilities
 Data storage is more compact and convenient
 Graphical presentation is easy
 Communication with other word processors is possible if e-mail is used in conjunction
with word processing
 Faster access to information
 Faster processing of information
 Faster distribution of information
 Direct access to information, rather than via a secretary is possible.

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Desktop Publishing (DTP) Packages
A desktop publishing (DTP) package, such as Ms Publisher and Adobe PageMaker, is
a program that is designed to allow users to create publications such as Company
Newsletters, Calendars, Greeting Cards, Invitation cards and Business Cards using
their desktop (or laptop) computers.

Figure 6: Ms Publisher

Web Publishing

Most companies today have a website that they use for one or more business
purposes. A company’s website can be a communication tool to its suppliers or
customers. The essentials of written communication discussed earlier in this manual
are all applicable to website design. For example, simplicity, intuitiveness, accuracy
and clarity of the website content are very crucial if the website is to be a useful
business tool.

Good websites will use a balance between the use of graphics and ensuring the ease of
downloading by the users since graphics may take a lot of time to be
downloaded.While the use of colour can make web content clear, it must be born in
mind that some people are colour blind and also that too many colours can be a little
irritating to the eye. A FAQs (Frequently Asked Questions) section on the website
makes life easy for many users.

Spreadsheets
As a program basically consisting of, and operating from intersected rows and
columns. A single intersection point is called a cell while a collection of cells forms a
range. As a package it is essentially a modelling tool. It is software for carrying out
calculation-oriented tasks.

One of the facilities of a spreadsheet (see details below) is production of graphs.

Using a spreadsheet package high quality graphs can be produced that will make
written communication clearer.

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COMMUNICATION (TC2)
 Figure 7: Ms Excel

Typical Uses of Spreadsheets include:

 Cash flow analysis
 Forecasting
 Balance sheets
 Stock Control (Inventory Control)
 Ledgers
 Profit projections
 Profit budgeting
 Sales Analysis
 Sales Forecasting

Facilities in spreadsheet package

 Storage of spreadsheet files on backing storage
 Printing
 Presenting data graphically (producing graphs from the spreadsheet data)
 Easy editing
 Formatting cell contents
 Filtering (enables users to view only those data items meeting certain criteria)
 Sorting
 Sensitivity Analysis: It is also called What-if analysis.A spreadsheet can assist a manager
to ask “what-if? Questions” when a forecast or budget is made. By using a
spreadsheet model to answer such questions quickly, the editing facility in the
spreadsheet can be used. The manager is thus able to see the effect on changes on
original values quickly.

Exercise
1. What is internet?
2. Why was the development of the telephone so important for current information
technology?
3. Explain briefly how facsimile transmission works.
4. List any three benefits and three drawbacks of ‘electronic mail’
5. What are teleconferences used for?
6. Explain the importance of IT in today’s communication activities.

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‘January 2014 COMMUNICATION
(TC2)
TECHNICIAN DIPLOMA IN ACCOUNTING

INSTITUTE OF CHARTERED ACCOUNTANTS

IN MALAWI (ICAM)

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COMMUNICATION (TC2)
 COMMUNICATION (TC2)
TECHNICIAN DIPLOMA IN ACCOUNTING

THE INSTITUTE OF
CHARTERED ACCOUNTANTS
IN MALAWI

Institute of Chartered Accountants in Malawi

Stansfield House
Haile Selassie Road
P.O. Box 1
Blantyre

Tel: 01 820 301/318/423 Fax: 01 822 354

Email: [email protected] Website: www.icam.mw
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