THE INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF MANAGEMENT

Course Outline 2024

Introduction to Research Methods in Education

IRE60US

NQF Level 6 Credits 12 BHEPS & BHESE

Lecturer: Prof. H. Kapenda

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 Introduction to Research Methods in Education
IRE60US
NQF Level 6 Credits 12 BHEPS & BHESE

Pre-requisite: None

Course description: The purpose of the Introduction to Research Methods in Education course
is to introduce new researchers to the process and methods of doing scientifically sound research
in the field of education. As a result, students will gain the knowledge and skills necessary to
identify research problems, critically interpret and understand educational research. Similarly, it
introduces students to epistemological and theoretical views on a research subject in education.
It also raises student understanding of tools such as track changes, referencing styles, grammar
check, and a number of others that aid in the creation of high quality, publishable Educational
Research that is ethically conscious.
This course serves as a prerequisite for the Educational Research Methodology course.

Outcomes of learning

Upon completing this course, students should be able to:

 Explain the processes and methods involved in systematic inquiry of educationally

relevant research questions.
 Demonstrate the understanding of various educational research language and concepts
and identify, explain, and compare the key elements of a research proposal/report.
 Demonstrate the understanding of various supporting tools in conducting a research and
the need of ethics in research and the strategies to conduct an ethical study.
 Identify an educational research problem and formulate good research questions,
objectives and hypothesis.
 Distinguish between Post positivism, Interpretivist and Critical research paradigm and
critique, select and apply understanding of epistemological and theoretical perspectives
to a research problem.

Course outline

1. Introduction to the Concept of Research

1.1 Differentiate between research and the educational research
1.2 Understanding the significance of educational research
1.3 Key qualities of a good research
1.4 Research process stages
1.5 The role of a research and researcher
1.6 Differentiate a research proposal and research project
1.7 Ethics in research: The rationale and the strategies to ensure ethics

2. Research supporting resources

2.1 Library usage online and offline resources
2.2 Referencing in research: APA
2.3 Supervision: The role of a student and a supervisor
2.4 ICT in research: Track changes, Automatic table of contents, grammar / proof
reading online tools.
2.5 Research publication

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 3. Research problems & Questions
3.1 Sources of research problems
3.2 Formulating research problems
3.3 Types of variables: independent and depended
3.4 Formulating research questions, objectives and criteria for good research
questions/ objectives.
3.5 Definition of Hypothesis and Types of hypothesis: Null hypothesis, alternative
4. Research paradigms and philosophical underpinnings.
4.1 Definition of ontology (truth /reality): Epistemology (how can we know)
4.2 Types of paradigms:
4.21 Post positivism,
4.22 Interpretivist and;
4. 23 Critical theory paradigm
4.24 Pragmatism

Recommended texts
American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication Manual of the American Psychological
Association (7th ed.). Washington, DC.
Bertram, C., & Christiansen, I. (2015). Understanding research: An introduction to reading
research. Pretoria: Van Schaik Publishers.
Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2018). Research methods in Education (8th ed.) New
York: Routledge.
Leedy, D.P.& Omrod, O.J (2010) Practical Research- Planning and Design. (9th Ed). Pearson
Education International.
Shikalepo, E. E. (2021). Basics of Educational Research: A Qualitative Perspective. Windhoek:
Microwide Publishing Press.

Very important General information on the course

1. Attendance

 Course attendance is compulsory and is a requirement of examination, In the event of

unavoidable absence from compulsory sessions, students may inform the lecturer via
the class representative in advance, and this is very important terms of late submission
of assignments or tasks
 In order for a student to be examined, they must have attended at least 80% of all
compulsory course sessions, such as lectures, group work activities, work
presentations, and seminars

2. Ethical Issues

 Academic honesty and integrity must be respected. A reference list and proper citation of
any academic work including page numbers, and other sources, is a requirement for all
assignments.

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 The marks to be provided/ allocated for any tasks in this course such as assignments test
and examination is based on the quality and relevancy of your work, including the
references and citations in terms of assignments

3. Assignment:

 There will be three compulsory assessment tasks that constitutes of the following,
 For every written task such like assignment, IUM cover page assignment sheet must be
used.
 In terms of group work assignment strictly only students who have contributed to the
assignment tasks whose name will appear on the cover page.
 Group leaders must ensure that all names of the students contributed to the assignment
appear on the cover page. No student claiming to be part of group members will be
accepted and given marks after the due date of the assignment
 Those students who are unethical and whose names will appear on two groups
assignments will automatically forfeit their marks for such assessment task.
 Students who miss any tasks will be required to provide valid reason such as (doctor’s
medical certificate in terms sickness and death certificate in terms death cases and such
dates should correlate with the period for the submission dates of the missed assignment.

4. Typing Criteria for written assignment and Format required:

 Font size: 12
 Font type: Arial / Times and New Roman
 Alignment: Justified
 The assignment question or topic must always appear on the cover page and in case the
assignment have sub questions, all the question should be presented be outline in the
content of the assignment

5. Plagiarism

Any act of plagiarism is taken seriously. Plagiarism is an act of fraud that involves: Stealing
someone else´s work, for example: copying texts from other sources without giving proper
citation; failing to put quotation marks in for direct quotations; incorrect information about
the source; and paraphrasing without proper citation

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Introduction to Research Methods in
Education
(IRE60US)
Session 1a
Lecturer: Prof. H.M. Kapenda
(2nd Yr)
At the end of this session, we should be able to:

• Differentiate between research and the

educational research;
• Understanding the significance of educational
research;
• Key qualities of a good research;
• The role of a research and researcher;
 Differentiate between research and the
educational research
• The word research is used to cover a wide range of
meaning in everyday speech.
• According to Fox and Bayat (2014, p.5), “Research is a
study or investigation in order to discover facts or
gain information. It is a universal activity by which a
specific phenomenon in reality is studied objectively
in order to create a valid concept of that occurrence.”
 What is research?
• Research is a systematic process of collecting,
analyzing and interpreting information or data in
order to increase our understanding of the
phenomenon which we are interested in (Leedy &
Ormrod, 2005).
• It is not an overnight event, but a progressive practice
carried through a series of logical and coherent stages
that re executed in a specified sequence (Chiromo,
2009).
 What is educational research?
• Educational research is a more formal, focused
and an intensive process of carrying out a
scientific method of analysis (Kapur, 2021).
• Hence, the main purpose of educational
research is focused upon scientific investigation
and provide solutions to the problems in the
field of education.
 Research involves the following actions:
• It serves to solve problems (where applicable);
• It involves the development of new knowledge;
• Research involves the collection of data or
information;
• It comprises analyzing & interpretation of data;
• Research also involves drawing conclusions.
 Misconceptions towards research
• Research is not simply gathering of information
e.g., going to the library to gather information
about your assignment is not doing research.
• It is not mere transportation of facts from one
location to another e.g., compiling different
papers or articles together with a list of
references.
 Misconceptions…
• Research is not mere hunting or searching for
information e.g., scanning through a book to
look for certain information.
• Research is not just a catchword used to get
attention e.g., “Years of research have produced
a new car wash. Give your car a miracle shine.”
• NB: These adverts are just meant get customers’
attention!
 Significance of educational research
(Shikalepo, 2021)
• Educational research serves to fulfil different
purposes, namely:
• Extending knowledge: research produces new
knowledge to broaden current knowledge context;
enabling people to acquire better understanding of
events, etc.
• Validating prior research findings: by repeating
research processes & determining the degree of its
replicability and generalization.
 Significance of ed. Research…
• Verifying existing knowledge: research is carried to verify
existing facts and theories and suggest improvements to
facts.
• Solving problems: research may also be carried to find
practical solutions to existing problems in different
settings.
• Academic requirement: in most universities, doing
research and producing a thesis or dissertation is a
mandatory curriculum requirement for the award of a
degree/qualification.
 Significance of ed. Research…
• Intellectual satisfaction: some researchers conduct
research to achieve intellectual joy for doing some
creative work!
• Sources of livelihood: some people are employed as
researchers by agencies and organizations.
• Critical appraisal of data: some people conduct
research and compile thesis or dissertations to
develop the art of collecting, recording and critically
analyzing data.
 Significance of ed. Research…
• Publications: Most good research outcomes get
published as research papers or articles in scientific
journals.
• Research grants & research career: research findings
can be presented at regional, national & international
conferences to attracts research grants and promote
research careers.
 Key qualities of a good research
• Good research is associated with the following
characteristics:
• Research originates with a research problem.
• It is guided by specific research questions or
hypothesis.
• Research requires clear articulation of goals.
• It requires a specific plan for proceedings.
 Key qualities…
• Research requires a collection and
interpretation of data.
• Research is carefully recorded and reported.
• It emphasizes on the development of theories
for prediction future occurrences.
• Research is cyclic; does not have a definite
ending.
 Research Process Steps
• Step 1: Identify a research problem & topic.
• Step 2: Formulating & developing a research
questions and research objectives.
• Step 3: Create Hypotheses (where applicable).
• Step 4: Evaluate the Literature.
• Step 5: Formulate Research Methodology
(including approaches, designs, methods, etc.)
 Research Process Steps…
• Step 6: Describe Population, sample &
procedures.
• Step 7: Data Collection.
• Step 8: Data Analysis.
• Step 9: The Report-writing.
• NB: Follow the IUM Research guidelines!
 What is a problem statement?

• A problem statement is an explanation in research that

describes the issue that is in need of study.
• What problem is the research attempting to address?
• Having a Problem Statement allows the reader to quickly
understand the purpose and intent of the research.
• The importance of writing your research proposal cannot be
stressed enough.
• From the problem , one could formulate a topic!
 Problem statement…
• It is expected to be brief and concise, and should not
include the findings of the research or detailed data.

• Its purpose is to summarize the current information and

where a lack of knowledge may
be presenting a problem that needs to be investigated.

• NB: To be discussed more in detail later!

Retrieved from: https://www.questionpro.com/blog/research-process-steps/
 As a researcher take note:
• Self-guidance: be able to guide yourself in the
conduct of research process by knowing the dos’ and
don’ts.
• Sensitization & awareness: be aware of the range of
research methods that you can use to collect data,
different approaches to analyze & interpret your data.
• Holistic viewpoint: be aware of how research is done
across different academic disciplines.
 As a researcher…
• Critical thought: have intellectual awareness of what
constitutes good and poor research.
• Knowledge transfer: having good skills in research
methods provide opportunities to impart skills that
transferable to others.
• Model for scholarly work: try to model scholarly work
by exposing yourself to multitudes of examples from
real-life research projects done by other scholars.
Introduction to Research Methods in Education
(IRE60US)
Session: Difference between research proposal
& project
Lecturer: Prof. H.M. Kapenda
(2nd Yr)
 At the end of this session;
we should be able to:
• Differentiate between a research proposal and
research project;
 Difference between a Research proposal &
research project
• The research proposal is the blueprint/plan or outline
of the research project and is usually written when
funding is involved and/or approval is necessary for
conducting research with human subjects.
• The research project or research report is written
after the research has been conducted and accurately
documents the completed project.
 IUM Guidelines on Research Proposals &
Projects
• The next slides will be based on the IUM
guidelines on research proposals and research
projects.
 Outline of the Research Proposal
• CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
• This chapter provides general explanations of what the
researcher will you discuss in this chapter.
1.2 Background to the study
• Provide a general overview of the study guided by the
literature. You are required to state research concerns,
disagreements, controversies, unanswered questions and
gaps in knowledge that give rise to research problems.
 Research Proposal …
1.3 Statement of the problem
• Write one paragraph summarising the identified
problem which you need to research.
• You need to come up with your own research
problem.
 • 1.4 Research Objectives
• Your objectives should be based on the statement of
the problem. The objectives must be specific. Follow
the S.M.A.R.T rule.
• 1.5 Research questions
• You must identify the questions your project/research
is intended to answer. Make them as specific as
possible.
 1.6 Significance of the study
• State the importance of the study. Ask yourself
what the study is going to contribute to the
knowledge of education, the company, and to
socio-economic progress.
 1.7 Delimitation of the study
• Indicate the scope or boundary of the project and the resources
available to carry out the project. Ask yourself questions like; are you
going to study the whole company or just a department? Etc.
1.8 Definitions of terms
• Outline and define the keys terms that are in the title/topic of the
study as to how they should be understood to mean in the
• 1.9 Chapter Summary
• The summary should be very brief, highlighting the main ideas
discussed in the chapter.
 CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
• 2.1 Introduction
• This chapter provides general explanations of what the
researcher will discuss in this chapter.
• 2.2 Sub-themes
• Subthemes for this chapter should be generated from the
study Research Objectives/Questions.
• Chapter Summary
• Provide the highlights of the main points discussed in this
chapter. Example; Chapter 2 discussed the related literature
reviewed, covering ----,----- ,----,----, etc.
 Chapter 2: Some Examples
• Assume your topic is: Investigating challenges faced by novice
school principals in Endola circuit, Ohangwena region.
• If these are your research objectives/questions:
• To find out how novice school principals in Endola circuit
embrace their new roles;
• To investigate the challenges being faced by novice school
principals in Endola circuit; &
• To find out strategies that novice school principals in Endola
circuit employ to effectively overcome shortcomings they
encounter in their schools.
 How to come up with sub-themes in Chapt. 2
• NB: Sub-themes for chapter 2 should be generated from the
study Research Objectives/Questions, namely:
• 1. Ways novice school principals can embrace new roles
• Seeking mentorship, Building relationships, Setting clear goals, etc.
• 2. Challenges that novice school principals face
• Managing schools; Learners’ academic achievement, Teacher
motivation, etc.
• 3. Strategies that can be implemented to support novice
school principals.
 CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
• 3.1 Introduction
• Provide an introduction to this chapter.
• The major issues or aspects in Chapter 3 include:-
• 3.2 Research approach;
• 3.3 Research design;
• 3.4 Population;
• 3.5 Sample and sampling procedures/techniques,
• 3.6 Research Instruments,
• 3.7 Data Collection Procedures.
 Chapter 3…
• 3.8 Data Analysis Procedures
• 3.9 Ethical considerations
• Ethical issues need to be taken into consideration especially when the
research uses human subjects.
• 3.10 Chapter Summary
• Summarise the main ideas of the topics discussed in this chapter.
• References
• Use recent sources, preferably from the last 5 years up to current
year.
• NB: List only the sources that you have cited in your work.
 Research proposal Appendices
• The common appendices include:
• Clearance/introductory letter from IUM to carry out the
study.
• Letter of permission to carry out the study from the
school/s or organization/s where the study is to be carried
out.
• Informed consent forms
• Samples of data collection tools or research instruments.
 Outline of the Research Project
• Preliminaries Pages
• The preliminary pages consist of the following pages:
• Title page/Cover page:
• The Abstract (end the section with a list of keywords)
• The abstract is the very last thing you write. It should be
between 150 - 200 words
• Acknowledgements
• Dedication
 Preliminaries Pages…
• Declaration
• The Table of Contents
• List of tables
• List of figures
• List Acronyms
• List Abbreviations
 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

• Introduction (Introduces Chapter 1 and its

structure)
• Background to the study
• Statement of the problem
• Objectives of the study
• Research questions
• Significance of the study
 Chapter 1…

•Limitations of the study

•Delimitations of the study
•Definitions of key concepts/terms
•Summary
CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

• 2.1 Introduction (Introduce Chapter 2 and the

structure of this chapter)
• Structure your content under this chapter into
relevant headings, under which you make your
discussions.
• Chapter Summary
 CHAPTER 3 – RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
• 3.1 Introduction (Introduce chapter 3 and the structure of
this chapter)
• 3.2The research Approach (Outline and justify your preferred
research approach)
• Research design
• The population
• The sample and sampling procedure
• Data collection methods and procedures
• Data analysis procedure
• Validity and reliability/Trustworthiness of Findings
 Chapter 3…
• Ethical considerations:
• In this section; explain the ethical principles that
you will consider in ensuring that your research is
conducted in an ethical manner.
• Common principles includes; informed consent,
voluntary participation, confidentiality,
beneficence, etc.)
• Chapter Summary
CHAPTER 4: DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS INTERPRETION AND
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

• 4.1 Introduction (Introduces Chapter 4 and its

structure)
• 4.2 Overview of the research
sites/participants/research setting (provide an
overview of the research sites and participants or
any description that is of value to the research
questions or discussion).
• Presentation of data (Present themes and
subthemes guided by the research questions).
 Chapter 4…
• Interpretation and discussion of findings
(interpret and discuss the findings you have
presented …
• Discuss in relation to the literature you cited in
chapter 2 of your research proposal.
• Chapter Summary
 CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
• 5.1 Introduction (Introduces Chapter 5 and its structure)
• 5.2 Summary of the findings (provide a summary of the
findings you have established)
• 5.3 Conclusions (explain the implications of the
findings/their relevance/applicability).
• 5.4 Recommendations (provide recommendations in
relation to the conclusions and findings).
• 5.5 Chapter Summary : Give highlights of this chapter.
 Research project Appendices
• The common appendices include:
• Clearance/introductory letter from IUM to carry out
the study
• Letter of permission to carry out the study from the
school/s or organization/s where the study is/was
carried out.
• Informed consent forms
• Blank (not filled) samples of data collection tools.
 Samples
• Sample of a Declaration Statement
• Research Project Marking Rubric – ELMP, PGDEs,
BHESE, BHEPS & BHEPJ.
Introduction to Research Methods in
Education
(IRE60US)
Session 2: Research Ethics
Lecturer: Prof. H.M. Kapenda
(2nd Yr)
At the end of this session, we should be able
to:
• Describe the ethics in research:
• The rationale and the strategies to ensure
ethics.
 Ethics in research
• According to Shikalepo (2021, p. 259), one of the
philosophical dispositions (or characters) in research is
axiology, which deals with value systems and acceptable
standards applicable to a group that researchers consider
in the conduct of their research projects.
• That is, researchers should conduct research in an ethical
manner, hence the subject of:
• ethics in research or research ethics or ethical
considerations in research.
 Aims of research ethics
• Research ethics aims at ensuring that
researchers collect the required information
without harming anyone, prior, during, or after
the research process.
• This implies that the consideration of ethics cuts
across the different stages of the research
process.
 Rationale for ethics in research
• Ethical research conduct is necessitated by the
following factors:
• 1. Respect and protection of participants:
• As a researcher, you need to show value, appreciation
and respect to the participants who are going to
provide you with data for your research.
• Hence, no harm of whatever type should be inflicted
on the participants or animals taking part in the study!
 Respect and protection…
• When dealing with animals, avoid conducting poorly
designed experiments.
• Hence, the necessity to obtain the data in an approved
manner is very crucial!
• 2. Programme requirement:
• Most educational institutions whose academic
programmes offer a research component, require students
to obtain ethical clearance before can be allowed to carry
out an empirical (first-hand) investigation (thru RECs).
 Rationale for ethics…
• 3. Sponsorship: Most organizations and agencies that
provide funding DO NOT want to sponsor research
activities that cause harm to society, animals or
environment.
• No sponsor is willing to fund research projects where
participants are exposed to:
• Discomfort;
• Anxiety;
• Harassment;
• Invasion of privacy, etc.
 Rationale for ethics…
• 4. Accountability: It is very important for researchers to
account for their research process and subsequent
outcomes.
• Hence, complying with ethical conduct helps to ensure that
researchers conduct themselves in an ethical responsible
manner!
• 5.Cooperation: Research involves different role players in
different institutions doing different tasks at different
stages. As such, good coordination & cooperation is
needed.
Researchers are bound by a code of ethics/ethical
principles that includes protections for subjects:
• 1. Human Subjects Protection-
• Protected from physical or psychological harm
(including loss of dignity, loss of autonomy, and loss of
self-esteem).
• When conducting research on human subjects,
minimize harms and risks and maximize benefits;
respect human dignity, privacy, and autonomy.
2.Protection of privacy and confidentiality
• Confidentiality - Protect confidential
communications, such as papers or grants
submitted for publication, personnel records,
any other confidential information.
• 3.Protection against unjustifiable deception
• 4.The subject must give voluntary informed consent to
participate in research.
• Guardians must give consent for minors to participate.
• In addition to guardian consent read more info on this site
below;
• Refer to:
https://researchbasics.education.uconn.edu/ethics-and-
informed-consent/
 More ethical principles:
• 5.Honesty:
• Honestly report of data, results, methods and procedures,
and publication status.
• Do not fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent data.
• 6.Objectivity:
• Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis,
data interpretation, peer review, personnel decisions, grant
writing, expert testimony, and other aspects of research.
• 7. Integrity:
• Keep your promises and agreements; act with
sincerity; strive for consistency of thought and action.
• 8.Carefulness:
• Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and
critically examine your own work and the work of your
peers. Keep good records of research activities.
• 9. Openness:
• Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to
criticism and new ideas.
• 10. Respect for Intellectual Property:
• Honour patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual
property.
• Do not use unpublished data, methods, or results without
permission.
• Give credit where credit is due. Never plagiarize.
• 11. Animal Care:
• Show proper respect and care for animals when using
them in research. Do not conduct unnecessary or
poorly designed animal experiments.

Ref/source:
https://libguides.library.cityu.edu.hk/researchmethods/ethics
 (IRE60US)
Topic 2: Research Supporting resources
APA format
Lecturer: Prof. H.M. Kapenda
(2nd, Secondary)
At the end of this session, we should be able
to:
•Referencing in research: APA
• ICT in research: Track changes, Automatic
table of contents, grammar / proof reading
online tools.
 What is APA?
• APA referencing style is an author-date referencing
system published by the American Psychological
Association.
• There are two components in the APA referencing
style:
• In-text citations and
• Their corresponding reference list entries.
 Where did APA Style come from?
• APA Style originated in 1929, when a group
of psychologists, anthropologists, and
business managers convened and sought to
establish a simple set of procedures, or
style guidelines, that would codify the
many components of scientific writing to
increase the ease of reading
comprehension.
 APA…
• Hence, with anything that you have read,
used and referred to in your academic writing, you
must:
• Acknowledge in text (i.e. in the work / assignment/
essay you are writing).
• To include in your reference list (i.e. the list at the end
of your work of all the sources you refer to).
 Referencing in research: APA

• Proper acknowledgment of others’ information used

in research writing is essential, hence;
• The International University of Management (IUM)
follows the 7th Edition of APA style.
• All authors cited in-text must be listed in the
references section.
• Information utilized should not be older than 5 years
to ensure relevance.
• All sources must be referenced according to APA 7th
Edition guidelines.
• Use Mendeley referencing app to cite automatically.
• Arrange the references in alphabetical order
automatically.
 What is Mendeley Cite?
• Mendeley Cite add-in for Microsoft®
Word allows you to easily insert references from
your Mendeley library into your Word
document;
• It will change your citation style and generate a
bibliography - all without leaving your
document.
• Mendeley is a reference management tool that
can be used to manage citations to articles,
books, government documents, book chapters,
or websites.
• You can insert citations to articles that you find
using multiple library databases.
• NB: For more info, please consult our librarians!
 Two styles of APA citations
• In-text citation: These are the citations used
inside the document when you write and give
evidences or sources.
• End referencing on your “Reference list”. Here
you are expected to compile a list of ALL the
citations you indicated/used inside the
document!
 In-text citation: Examples
• Narrative In-text citation:
• According to Angula (2021), there are many issues
affecting children in Namibia…
• Or, There are many issues affecting children’s
development in Namibia (Angula, 2021).
• For a direct quote: According to Kapenda (2022), “the
shortage of textbooks affects the learning
environment of most children…”(p.34).
 In-text…
• Citing two authors:
• Use and between the authors’ last names within the
text and
• Use the & (ampersand); when names of two authors
are in the parentheses or brackets.
• Examples:
• Kapenda and Kasanda (2018) state that….
• Students are normally stressed during examination
time (Ipinge & Shikongo, 2020).
 In-text…
• Three or more authors:

• Shipanga et al. (1990) mentioned that….. OR

• It is believed that learners using English as a 2nd
language…(Shipanga et al.,1990) OR
• You can write like this (see below) if you use direct quote:
• “It is believed that learners using English as a 2nd language
have problems in writing and reading “(Shipanga et al.,
1990, p.10).

• NB: Pls google “APA referencing 7th edition, examples.”

 Authors names in the References (list)
• Basic Scholarly Journal Article:
• Example:
• Auala, R.K., Haipinge, E., Uahengo, F.B., Chaka, J., &
Kaita, J. (2015). Democratic and participative
approaches in managing change in education.
Namibia Journal of Managerial Sciences, 1 (1),74 -82.
 References (list)…

• Reference from a Book with (1 author):

• Mvula, D. (1990). Namibia at Independence. A
historical perspective. Juta publishers.
• NB: remember to always indicate the Publishers of
the document/info.
• Example (above) Juta publishers is the publication
company.
 References (list)…
• Reference from a Book with Editors (Usually a Book with chapters
from several authors).
• Example:
• Kapenda, H.M., Torkildsen, O. E., Mtetwa, D. & Julie, C. (2008).
Developing a research instrument for learner-centred classroom
observations: A Namibian experience. In L. Holtman, C. Julie, Ø.
Mikalsen, D. Mtetwa and M. Ogunniyi (Eds.). Some Developments in
Research in Science and Mathematics in Sub-Sahara Africa: Access,
Relevance, Learning, Curriculum Research. African Minds, pp.3-18.
ISBN 978-1-920299-29-3.
 References (list)…
• Reference from a Book with (2 authors or more):
• Rossouw, D., & Van Vuuren L. (2013). Business Ethics. Fifth edition.
Oxford University Press.

• Referencing a conference paper:

• Kanyimba, A.T., Kapenda, H.M., & Matengu, K.K. (2017).
Transitioning and Implementing University-wide Research
Management at the University of Namibia. A paper presented at
the Southern African Research & Innovation Management
Association (SARIMA) Conference at Safari Hotel, Windhoek on 22-
25 May 2017.
Difference between a bibliography and reference list

• A reference list is the detailed list of references

that are cited in your work.
• A bibliography is a detailed list of references
cited in your work, plus the background
readings or other material that you may have
read, but not actually cited.
 Use of Track changes, Automatic table of contents,
grammar / proof reading online tools.
• Automatic table of contents
• Use heading styles (e.g., Heading 1, Heading 2) to format your
document sections.
• Highlight the headings that need to appear in the table of contents.
• In Microsoft Word, go to the 'References' tab.
• Look on the left corner of the computer and click on table of
contents
• Choose a style from the options provided (e.g., Automatic Table 1,
Automatic Table 2) etc.
 Grammar / proof reading online tools
• Download grammarly app in your computer.
• How to install Grammarly on a desktop computer?
• NB: Grammarly for Windows and Grammarly for
Mac integrate with popular applications and
websites to bring your writing suggestions to
wherever you are.
• Download Grammarly
at https://www.grammarly.com/desktop
 Grammar / proof reading…
• Click on the downloaded file and follow the prompts
to complete the installation.
• Once the application is installed, open your preferred
application, such as Pages or Microsoft Word, and
start typing. You should then see the floating
Grammarly widget:
• NB: You can also proof read your work manually or
by using editors.
 Introduction to Research Methods in
Education
(IRE60US)
Session 4a: Research problems & Questions
Lecturer: Prof. H.M. Kapenda
(2nd, Secondary)
At the end of this session, we should be able to:
• Define what is a research problem;
• Describe sources of research problems;
• Formulate research problems;
 What is a problem statement?

• A problem statement is an explanation in research that

describes the issue that is in need of study.
• What problem is the research attempting to address?
• Having a Problem Statement allows the reader to quickly
understand the purpose and intent of the research.
• The importance of writing your research proposal cannot be
stressed enough.
 Problem statements

• Problem statements often have three elements:

• The problem itself, stated clearly and with enough
contextual detail to establish why it is important;
• The method of solving the problem, often stated as a claim
or a working thesis;
• The purpose, statement of objective and scope of the
document the writer is preparing.
 Formulating research problems
• How to Write a Problem Statement: some guideline
• Contextualize the problem. What do we already know?
• Describe the exact issue your research will address. What do
we still need to know?
• Show the relevance of the problem. Why do we need to
know more about this?
• Set the objectives of the research.
 Formulating a problem statement
• Begin with a clear indication that the problem statement
is going to be discussed next.
• You can start with a generic sentence like, “The problem that
this study addresses is…” This will inform your readers of
what to expect next.
• Next, mention the consequences of not solving the
problem. You can touch upon who is or will be affected if the
problem continues, and how.
 Problem statement …
• Conclude by indicating the type of
research/information that is needed to solve the
problem.
• Be sure to reference authors who may have suggested
the necessity of such research.
• This will then directly lead to your proposed research
objective and work-plan and how that is expected to
solve the problem i.e., close the research gap.
 Formulating research questions & objectives

• STEPS THAT HELP YOU WRITE GOOD RESEARCH

QUESTIONS:
• Select a relevant Topic;
• When selecting a topic to form a good research
question, it helps to start broad.
• What topics interest you most? It helps when you
care about the topic you're researching!
 Steps that help you write good research
questions…
• Also, before settling on a research topic, make
sure it's relevant to your subject area or to
society as a whole.
• This is an important aspect of developing your
research question, because, in general, your
research should add value to existing
knowledge.
STEPS THAT HELP YOU WRITE…
• 2. Thoroughly Research the Topic:
• Now that you've chosen a broad but relevant topic for your
paper, research it thoroughly to see which avenues you
might want to explore further.
• For example, let's say you decide on the broad topic of
search engines.
• During this research phase, try skimming through sources
that are unbiased, current, and relevant, such as academic
journals or sources in your university library.
3. Narrow Your Topic to a Single Point
• Now that you've spent some time researching your broad
topic, it's time to narrow it down to one specific subject.
• A topic like search engines is much too broad to develop
a research paper around.
• What specifically about search engines could you
explore?
• When refining your topic, be careful not to be either too
narrow or too broad.
You can ask yourself the following questions
during this phase:
• Can I cover this topic within the scope of my paper, or would
it require longer, heavier research? (In this case, you'd need
to be more specific.)
• Conversely, is there not enough research about my topic to
write a paper? (In this case, you'd need to be broader.)
• Keep these things in mind as you narrow down your topic.
• You can always expand your topic later if you have the time
and research materials.
• Identify a Problem Related to Your Topic
• When narrowing down your topic, it helps to identify a
single issue or problem on which to base your research.
• Ask open-ended questions, such as why is this topic
important to you or others? Essentially, have you identified
the answer to "so what"?
• Asking these "so what" questions will help us brainstorm
examples of research questions we can ask in our field of
study.
 5. Turn Your Problem into a Question
• Now that you have your main issue or problem, it's time to
write your research question.
• Do this by reviewing your topic's big problem and
formulating a question that your research will answer.
• For example, ask, "so what?" about your search engine
topic.
• You might realize that the bigger issue is that you, as a
researcher, aren't getting the relevant information you need
from search engines.
 How can we use this information to develop a
research question?
• We might phrase the research question as follows:
• Why do teachers leave the profession after school visits
inspection?
• What effect does daily use of Twitter have on the attention
span of 12-16 year-olds?
• How do Gr 0-11 principals' beliefs about disabilities affect
their leadership of learners with disabilities?
• To what extent do teachers use Online teaching in their
classrooms?
 Sources of research problems
• Research problems are usually derived from a wide
variety of sources.
• Typically, research problems are regarded as being
derived from practice, from previous research (e.g.,
study recommendations for further researches) and
from theories.
 Practical problems
• In education, there are sources of problems that have, for
examples been caused by past or present educational policies
and legislations.
• These problems range from matters such as lack of qualified
teachers in certain subjects, training deficiencies e.g., teaching
AS level subjects, etc.
• These are wide-ranging problems that requires major research
efforts.
• However, one could also narrow these problems, to be more
specific about a certain issue.
 Previous research
• Quite a number of research has been done in educational
context and much of these research outputs have been
published in books, journals and conference proceedings.
• A body of unpublished research findings is also available
especially on data bases of university libraries and the
internet.
• Therefore, one could always look for contradictory study
findings as sources of research problem.
 Theories
• Research could preferably be associated with a particular theory.
• Two terms that are important in theory are: concepts and
definitions.
• Conceptual definitions are definitions that define concepts using
other concepts.
• For example, a concept public administration is defined as a
system of structures and processed operating within a specific
society…etc.
 Theories…
• Many concepts are used in the above definition e.g.,
processes, system, society, and so on.
• Definitions are statements that aim to convey the act
meaning of terms, but they should not be more difficult to
understand than the term they define.
• A theory is a set of interrelated propositions, concepts and
definitions that present a systematic point of view of
specifying relationships between variables, with a view to
predict and explain phenomena.
 More sources of research problems
• Interviews
• Personal Experiences
• Interdisciplinary Perspective
• Conferences
• Published articles
• Relevant Literature, etc.
 Interviews
• Interviews sessions can be significant sources of research problems.
• The method gives you an opportunity to have formal discussions and
informal interactions with individuals who can provide useful
insights into research and make findings more relevant to future
research.
• Consider having discussions with experts in the field you wish to
investigate.
• These professionals may be policy-makers, business leaders, teachers,
social workers, attorneys, and accountants to mention but a few
examples.
• By interacting with these experts, you’re able to identify
real-world problems that researchers have either ignored or
understudied in the academic space.
• Moreover, interview sessions give you the opportunity to get
some practical knowledge that can help you to design and
conduct your studies.
 Personal Experiences
• Your everyday experiences are a good source of research
problem.
• You have to think critically about your personal experiences
with an issue that affects your family, your personal life, or
your community.
• A research problem derived from personal experience can
spring from any issue and from anywhere.
• For example, you can construct a research problem from
events that appear to be out of the ordinary or from
community relationships that don’t have clear explanations.
 Interdisciplinary Perspective
• If you consider interdisciplinary perspective to identify a
problem for a research study, you’ll have to look at
scholarship and academic movements from outside your
main area of investigation.
• It’s an intellectually involving process, one that requires
reviewing pertinent literature to discover unique avenues of
exploration an analysis.
• The benefit of using this approach to identify a research
problem for your research paper assignment is that it
presents an opportunity for you to understand complex
issues with ease.
 Relevant Literature
• To generate a research problem from relevant literature, you
first have to review research related to your area of interest.
• Doing so allows you to find gaps on the topic, making it easy
for you to understand just how much understudied your area
of interest is.
• Data collected from relevant literature is relevant because it
helps to:
• Fill existing gaps in knowledge based on a specific research
• Determine if current studies can have implications on
further research on the same issue.
Introduction to Research Methods in
Education
(IRE60US)
Session 4b: Variables, hypotheses, etc.
Lecturer: Prof. H.M. Kapenda
(2nd, Secondary)
At the end of this session, we should be able to:

• Describe types of variables: independent and

depended
• Give definition of Hypothesis and the types of
hypothesis: e.g., Null hypothesis, alternative
hypothesis.
 Variables in research
• The concept variable is central to quantitative
research.
• Measurements or observations that are made on the
units in the sample are called variables; since the
values will potentially vary from unit to unit.
• Examples of variables include: gender, age, number of
people in a household, number of employees in a
company, etc.
 Types of variables in research
• Hence, a variable is any characteristic, number,
or quantity that can be measured or counted.
• A variable may also be called a data item.
• Age, sex, business income and expenses, country
of birth, capital expenditure, class grades, eye
colour and vehicle type are more examples of
variables.
 Two types of variables
• Dependent and independent variables.
• A dependent variable is a variable whose outcome is
hypothesized as depending on one or more independent
variables.
• For example, a student’s grade (dependent variable) is
dependent on his or her IQ and the time he or she spends
studying (independent variables).
• The independent variable is the cause.
• NB: There is also another variable called controlled
variable.
 Dependent variable & independent variable
• Researchers often manipulate or measure
independent and dependent variables in studies to
test cause-and-effect relationships.
• The independent variable is the cause. Its value
is independent of other variables in your study.
• The dependent variable is the effect. Its
value depends on changes in the independent
variable.
 Experimental (true) research designs
• Experimental designs are used to establish the causative
effects among a group of variables in a study, through
controlled experiments.
• The controlling nature of the research made the design to be
characterized as an experiment.
• The variables are placed in a controlled setting, where an
independent variable is empowered to exert its effects on
the dependent variable.
 Examples
• You design a study to test whether changes in room
temperature have an effect on math test scores.
• Your independent variable is the temperature of the room.
You vary the room temperature by making it cooler for half
the participants, and warmer for the other half.
• Your dependent variable is math test scores. You measure
the math skills of all participants using a standardized test
and check whether they differ based on room temperature.
 Another example
• For example, say you have ten sunflower seedlings,
and you decide to give each a different amount of
water each day to see if that affects their growth.
• The independent variable [IV] (cause) here would be
the amount of water you give the plants, and the
dependent variable [DV] is how tall the sunflowers
grow.
 How to identify the IV and DV
• The easiest way to identify which variable in your
experiment is the Independent Variable (IV) and
which one is the Dependent Variable (DV) is
by putting both variables in the sentence below in a
way that makes sense.
• “The IV causes a change in the DV. It is not possible
that DV could cause any change in IV.
ID vs DV
 Another example
• RQ: To what extent does traffic affect a person's
mood?
• Independent V: Traffic (cause)
• Dependent V: Mood (effect)
 In mathematical context.
• The dependent variable is usually graphed on the y-
axis, and the independent variable is usually graphed
on the x-axis.
• In addition, the value of the independent variable
determines the value of the dependent variable and
is used in experiments to test the value of the
dependent variable.
• Y = 2x + 3
 What is a hypothesis?
• A hypothesis (plural: hypotheses), in a scientific context, is a
testable statement about the relationship between two or
more variables or a proposed explanation for some
observed phenomenon.
• A hypothesis is a supposition or proposed explanation made
on the basis of limited evidence as a starting point for
further investigation.
• It is a proposition made as a basis for reasoning, without any
assumption of its truth.
 Null hypothesis
• A null hypothesis is a type of statistical hypothesis
that proposes that no statistical significance exists in
a set of given observations.
• It is a type of conjecture in statistics that proposes
that there is no difference between certain
characteristics of a population or data-generating
process.
 Example
• Question?
• Does the risk of a heart attack reduce by daily intake
of aspirin?
• Null hypothesis
• A heart attack is not affected by the daily dose of
aspirin.
 Null hypothesis
• In scientific research, the null hypothesis (often
denoted H0) is the claim that no relationship
exists between two sets of data or variables
being analyzed.
• E.g., There is no relationship between height and
shoe size.
 Alternative hypothesis
• An alternative hypothesis in statistics refers to a proposed
statement or argument in the hypothesis test.
• It indicates the existence of the statistical relationship
between variables and usually aligns with the research
hypothesis.
• Null Hypothesis: H0: There is no relationship between height
and shoe size.
• Alternative Hypothesis: Ha: There is a positive relationship
between height and shoe size.
 Other examples of hypotheses
• Null hypothesis: Rewards has no effects on students‘
participation during lessons.
• Alternative hypothesis: Rewards has an effect on
students‘ participation during lessons.
• Hence, by the end of the study (research), the teacher
would either accept or reject a hypothesis!
 Class activity
• There is a difference in the throughput rate of first-
year students who attend group discussion classes
and those who do not.
• Which hypothesis is this one (Null or Alternate?)
• There is no difference in the throughput rate of first-
year students who attend group discussion classes
and those who do not.
• Answer: Null hypothesis (H0).
Introduction to Research Methods
17/09/2024

Academician Balasius Shikongo

Learning Outcomes

 Define the term hypothesis

 Identifyand describe different types of
hypothesis.
 Provide example of each type of hypothesis

Academician Balasius Shikongo

Definition of the term hypothesis
 A hypothesis is a testable statement or educated guess that
proposes a potential explanation for a phenomenon or a
relationship between variables.
 It provides a basis for experimentation and observation, guiding
research by predicting outcomes that can be confirmed or refuted
through data collection and analysis.
Types of hypothesis and examples
 Null Hypothesis (H₀):
 A null hypothesis states that there is no effect or no difference between
groups or variables. It serves as a default or baseline assumption that
any observed effect is due to chance.
 Example: There is no difference in crop yield between genetically
modified (GM) corn and non-GM corn under identical growing conditions.
 Alternative Hypothesis (H₁ or Ha):
 An alternative hypothesis suggests that there is an effect or a difference
between groups or variables. It is what researchers typically aim to
support through their study.
 Example: Genetically modified (GM) corn has a higher yield compared to
non-GM corn under identical growing conditions.
Types of hypothesis and examples cont…
 Directional Hypothesis:
 A directional hypothesis specifies the direction of the expected
effect or relationship between variables.
 Example: Applying organic fertilizer increases the growth rate of
tomato plants compared to using synthetic fertilizers.
 Non-Directional Hypothesis:
 A non-directional hypothesis predicts that there will be a
difference or effect, but it does not specify the direction of the
difference.
 Example: There is a difference in the growth rate of tomato
plants when grown with organic fertilizers compared to
synthetic fertilizers.
Types of hypothesis and examples cont…

 Simple Hypothesis:
 A simple hypothesis proposes a relationship between two
variables.
 Example: Increased water supply leads to higher wheat yields.
 Complex Hypothesis:
 A complex hypothesis involves more than two variables or
multiple relationships.
 Example: Increasing water supply and applying organic fertilizer
together will result in significantly higher wheat yields compared
to just increasing water supply or applying fertilizer alone.
Types of hypothesis and examples cont…

 . Correlation Hypothesis:
 A correlation hypothesis predicts a relationship or association
between two variables, but does not imply causation.
 There is a positive correlation between the amount of nitrogen
applied and the growth height of barley plants.
 Comparative Hypothesis:
 A comparative hypothesis involves comparing two or more groups
to determine differences or similarities.
 The growth rate of organic corn is significantly higher than that of
conventional corn.
Additional information on Hypothesis
 THE END

Ahypothesis in research is not a mere

guess but a starting point for
discovery, guiding inquiry with the
promise of deeper understanding
through evidence and investigation.
 Academician B.Shikongo
Introduction to Research Methods in Education
(IRE60US)
Session 5:Research paradigms & philosophical
underpinnings
Lecturer: Prof. H.M. Kapenda
(2nd, Secondary)
 We should be able to:
• Define the term ontology & epistemology
• Describe the following concepts:
• Post positivism
• Interpretivist/ Interpretivism
• Critical theory paradigm &
• Pragmatism
Philosophical underpinnings/assumptions
• Philosophical assumptions are beliefs about the
nature of reality (ontology), epistemology or
what counts as knowledge and how knowledge
claims are justified, the role of values in
research (axiology) and the process of research
(methodology).
• That is, there are four philosophical
assumptions:
• Ontology
• Epistemology
• Axiology &
• Methodology
 Research paradigms
• A paradigm is a shared worldview consisting of
thinking patterns, imagination, beliefs and values
shared in a discipline, which guide how problems are
solved within a specific area of study (Shikalepo,
2021).
• Hence, the purpose of research and how the research
will be conducted are all influenced by the
researcher’s paradigmatic beliefs or assumptions.
 Definition of Epistemology
• Epistemological assumptions refer to
expectations, norms or ways of knowing the
reality or truth.
• Epistemology deals with the capacity of
thoughts, presenting basic convictions
underlying established TRUTH.
• It concerns the methods of acquiring knowledge.
 Epistemology …
• Epistemology revolves around the central inquisitive
question:
• How do you know the truth that you claim to know?
• Epistemology is concerned with how you know what
you know.
• Do you know it through senses, reading, experiences
or by what?
Questions that can help us understand what we
know:
• Questions that can help us understand how we came
to know what we know:
• How do we acquire the truth?
• How do we claim to know what we know?
• What makes us believe in the specific truth?
• What does the truth look like?
• How do people validate the truth?
 Ontology
• Ontological assumptions refer to the belief systems about
what constitutes reality.
• Each researcher believes in a certain absolute truth or fact
about the world, phenomenon or subject of study.
• Ontology revolves around existential questions such as:
• What is the absolute truth about the world?
• Is the truth a reality or is it simply an imagination?
• The answer to these questions above become our
fundamental worldviews of the world we live in.
 Ontology…
• NB: How we live, believe and act in the world, is a
results of what we constitute as the truth.
• Consider the following questions:
• Does God exists?
• Is there a life after death?
• Is heaven existing up there in the sky, or under the
ground or non-existent at all?
 Positivism
• Positivism is a research paradigm underpinned by a
strictly empirical approach in which claims about
knowledge are based directly on experience, facts
and observable causes of behaviors in a social
environment.
• It is used in natural science fields to discover
knowledge using evidence derived from scientific
measurements and observations, independent of
human influence.
 Post positivism

• Similar to positivism, post- positivism holds the same

philosophical view that knowledge is discovered
through the use of scientific methods to generate
objective facts and experiences.
• Post- positivism holds the view that objects being
studies exist independently and free of human
rationality.
• It contends that scientific methods used during
empirical investigations can be influenced individual
philosophical assumptions, theories, etc.
 Post positivism…
• Hence, the ultimate aim of Post positivism is a
critical analysis of the empirical processes in
order to verify the accuracy of the scientific
methods used and detect any human influence
and bias for correction.
 Interpretivism
• Interpretivism is a build –up paradigm of
constructivism.
• It is the philosophy of making meanings from the
knowledge constructed in constructivism;
• So that the knowledge constructed is well
understood and contextualized to the subject being
studies.
 Interpretivism…
• As constructivism believes that knowledge is discovered from
human experiences of the phenomenon in their social
settings;
• Interpretivism is based on the fact that knowledge is further
developed as a result of people’s subjective interpretations
of their experiences about a phenomenon.
• Opposing positivists who believe in a single reality,
Interpretive researchers believe that there is no single
correct method to knowledge.
 Critical theory paradigm
• Critical theory is a philosophy underpinned by analyzing,
critiquing and examining the existing state of affairs (status
quo), in practices, theories and literature, to establish
relevance and irrelevance to a given context.
• E.g., Thinking models as such positivism and constructivism
cannot be accepted without being questioned.
• That is, these models have to be questioned to establish
their relevance and the extent to which they can be applied
in addressing contextual issues.
 Critical theory…
• Critical theory is suited for studies that attempt to
critique the current body of literature and practices
due to established biasness, subjectivity or
imbalances inherent in the literature, theories or
practices.
 Pragmatism
• Pragmatism is a worldview predicated on the
application of multiple philosophies to establish the
philosophies that are most practical, relevant and
effective in producing the desired results.
• Pragmatism strikes the balance between subjectivity
and objectivity throughout the research process.
 Features that define Pragmatism
• Pragmatism is not committed to any one system of
philosophy and reality.
• Individual researchers have freedom of choice. That is,
researchers are free to choose approaches, methods,
techniques and procedures that best suit their needs &
purpose.
• Pragmatism do not see the world as an absolute unity.
• Hence, mixed-methods researchers look to many
approached for collecting & analyzing data.
 Features that define Pragmatism…
• Truth is, what works at that time.
• Pragmatist researchers look at the ‘what’ and the
‘how’ aspects of research, based on the intended
results.
• Pragmatism asserts that research always occurs in
social, historical, political and other context.
• Thus, it opens doors to different worldviews and
multiple methods of inquiry.
Introduction to Research Methods in
Education
(IRE60US)
Session 6: Research publications
Lecturer: Prof. H.M. Kapenda
(2nd, Secondary)

Reference: Shikalepo, E. E. (2021). Basics of Educational

Research. A qualitative prespective. Windhoek: Sta Creations.
 What is publication?
• We already covered what is research in previous
presentations; hence here we want to explore
the concept publication.
• To publish means to share the content by
making it available in the public domain for the
attention of other scholars.

Reference: Shikalepo, E. E. (2021). Basics of Educational

Research. A qualitative prespective. Windhoek: Sta Creations.
 Necessity for publications in research

• In most cases practice of research is necessitated

mainly by some of the following questions:
• How do people know that the research has existed if
it is not made known?
• How can the research findings be made available to
other researchers?

Reference: Shikalepo, E. E. (2021). Basics of Educational

Research. A qualitative prespective. Windhoek: Sta Creations.
 Necessity for publications…
• How can a researcher get input on the research
findings?
• How can the findings stimulate debate in the field of
research?

Reference: Shikalepo, E. E. (2021). Basics of Educational

Research. A qualitative prespective. Windhoek: Sta Creations.
• Publications is the process of producing printed or
electronic content and sharing it with the public.
• Hence, research findings are not meant to gather dust
on shelves, but one needs dissemination to
complement existing literature in the public domain.
• Findings need to get published for critical inquiry,
scholarly input and for the recommendations made in
the research report to reach intended recipients.

Reference: Shikalepo, E. E. (2021). Basics of Educational

Research. A qualitative prespective. Windhoek: Sta Creations.
 Some challenges in publication
• The challenges facing researchers is how to get their
research findings published.
• Hence lots of research findings have been shelved for
the longest time, occupying dust in the shelves until
they become obsolete (outdated).
• Therefore, publishing does not have to wait for the
whole research process to come to an end;
• Publication can be done at any stage of the research
process.
Reference: Shikalepo, E. E. (2021). Basics of Educational
Research. A qualitative prespective. Windhoek: Sta Creations.
 Methods of publication
• Research findings can be disseminated to the
broader audience, mainly through the following
common methods:
• Conference presentation
• Journal articles
• Writing books (preferably peer reviewed)

Reference: Shikalepo, E. E. (2021). Basics of Educational

Research. A qualitative prespective. Windhoek: Sta Creations.
 Conference presentation
• Conferences are consortiums of academics from
different disciplines offering different new ideas and
concepts, within a limited time frame.
• Therefore, conference papers should be very brief
(short).
• This will allow audiences to ask questions and provide
useful comments to the presenter.

Reference: Shikalepo, E. E. (2021). Basics of Educational

Research. A qualitative prespective. Windhoek: Sta Creations.
 Benefits from conferences
• Increased publicity of findings and the researcher:
the researcher shares findings with the audiences in
real-time and convey findings with clarity.
• Provision of immediate feedback: conferences are
attended by experts from different research areas for
which papers are presented.
• Opportunity for networking.
• Prospects for career growth especially to young up-
coming researchers.
Reference: Shikalepo, E. E. (2021). Basics of Educational
Research. A qualitative prespective. Windhoek: Sta Creations.
 Journal articles
• A journal is a collection of articles that reports on
research findings in a specific area.
• While conference are limited with time, journals are
limited with space.
• Hence, researchers should structure their articles as
briefly as possible, focusing on main ideas without
loosing focus of the study.

Reference: Shikalepo, E. E. (2021). Basics of Educational

Research. A qualitative prespective. Windhoek: Sta Creations.
 Stages of publishing an article
• 1. Submission of an article: A researcher responds to
a call for articles by submitting the article to the
journal.
• 2. Review process: Once the article is received, the
journal editor notifies the author of receipt of the
article. The editor then forward the article to the
reviewers.
• 3. Getting feedback: The researcher receives feedback
on the reviewed article.
Reference: Shikalepo, E. E. (2021). Basics of Educational
Research. A qualitative prespective. Windhoek: Sta Creations.
 Stages of publishing…
• 4. Re-submission of the article: Once the researcher
attended to the comments correctly and satisfactory
as required, the article is re-submitted to the journal
editor.
• 5. Acceptance: Once the editorial board is satisfied
with the improvements made in the article, the editor
notifies the author of the acceptance of the article.

Reference: Shikalepo, E. E. (2021). Basics of Educational

Research. A qualitative prespective. Windhoek: Sta Creations.
 Stages of publishing…
• 6. Payment of publication charges: The researcher is
informed to pay the required amount in respect of
publishing the article and send proof of payment to
the journal editor.
• 7. Published article: Once the researcher has satisfied
all logistical and financial obligations as required, the
article is considered for publications!

Reference: Shikalepo, E. E. (2021). Basics of Educational

Research. A qualitative prespective. Windhoek: Sta Creations.
 Benefits of publishing journal articles
• Multiple publication platform: researchers have
multiple choice of where to publish at a particular
time.
• Manageable publication output.
• Useful feedback through review of articles.
• Broad audience base.
• Choice of preference where and how to publish (soft
or hard copies), etc.
Reference: Shikalepo, E. E. (2021). Basics of Educational
Research. A qualitative prespective. Windhoek: Sta Creations.
 Limitations of publishing journal articles
• Rejection of articles.
• Costly publications fees.
• Language barriers. Journals get published in different
languages.
• Time consuming. Most good journals take time to
publish an issue.
• Bogus (fake) or predatory journals, etc.

Reference: Shikalepo, E. E. (2021). Basics of Educational

Research. A qualitative prespective. Windhoek: Sta Creations.
 Factors influencing the choice of journal for
publication
• Impact factor: the frequency at which the articles in the
journal are cited by other researchers in their work.
• International Standard Serial Number (ISSN). This is the
number with which the journal is identified on the
international publication landscape. Usually it has 8 digits.
• Digital Object Identifier (DOI). Is a unique code that a
journal allocates to every article published.
• Indexing. Some journals are linked to major research data
base e.g., Scopus, Medline, etc.l

Reference: Shikalepo, E. E. (2021). Basics of Educational

Research. A qualitative prespective. Windhoek: Sta Creations.
 Factors influencing the choice…
• Peer-review process.
• Archives help in establishing credibility of the journal
whether to publish with it or not.
• Journal statistics. Some journals indicate the total number of
reviews made on the homepage as well as total number of
downloads.
• Editorial boards. Credible journals choose well-known
experts in the field in which publication is made.

Reference: Shikalepo, E. E. (2021). Basics of Educational

Research. A qualitative prespective. Windhoek: Sta Creations.
 Writing Books
• Publication can also be made by way of writing books.
However writing books is costly.
• But here are some benefits associated with writing
books:
• Long-lasting mark. Books last longer compared to findings
shared thru conferences.
• Academic promotions.
• Error corrections. Book templates can be used to correct
errors, etc.
Reference: Shikalepo, E. E. (2021). Basics of Educational
Research. A qualitative prespective. Windhoek: Sta Creations.
 Limitations with book publication
• Labour-intensive.
• High costs.
• Delayed publications.
• Market dynamics.
• Publisher preferences, etc.

Reference: Shikalepo, E. E. (2021). Basics of Educational

Research. A qualitative prespective. Windhoek: Sta Creations.
 (IRE60US)
Summary: Revision Notes
Lecturer: Prof. H.M. Kapenda
(2nd, Secondary)

These are summary notes. Please study the FULL notes first!!
 We covered the following Main topics:

•1. Introduction to the concept of Research;

•2. Research supporting resources;
•3.Research problems & research
questions/objectives;
•4. Research paradigms and philosophical
underpinnings;
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 Difference between research & ed. research

• Research is a study or investigation in order to

discover facts or gain information.
• Educational research is about doing research is
the context of education.
• Educational research is a more formal, focused
and an intensive process of carrying out a
scientific method of analysis (Kapur, 2021).
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 Importance /Significance of ed. research

•Validating prior research findings;

•Extending knowledge;
•Solving problems;
•Academic requirements, etc.

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 Qualities of good research
• Research originates with a research problem.
• It is guided by specific research questions or
hypothesis.
• Research requires clear articulation of goals.
• It requires a specific plan for proceedings, etc.

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 Role of research and role of researcher
• Research requires a researcher to have:
• Self-guidance: be able to guide yourself in the
conduct of research process by knowing the dos’ and
don’ts.
• Sensitization & awareness: be aware of the range of
research methods that you can use to collect data,
different approaches to analyze & interpret your data.
• Holistic viewpoint: be aware of how research is done
across different academic disciplines.
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 Difference between proposal and project

• A research proposal is an outline, plan of your

intention to carry out the research, while;
• A research project is a complete report of your
research.

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 Ethics in Research
• Get ethical clearance
• Get permission to access research sites
• Get permission from participants (Consent)
• Do not harm anyone or any object, etc.
(physical, psychological, emotional, etc.)
• Adhere to confidentiality, anonymity, etc.

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 Research supporting resources
Using of online resources:
• Use library catalogs to search for books, journals, theses,
and other materials available in the library’s physical and
electronic collections.
• Use specific keywords related to your research topic.
• Proper acknowledgment of others’ information used in
research writing is essential.
• The International University of Management (IUM) follows
the 7th Edition of APA style.
These are summary notes. Please study the FULL notes first!!
 Roles of a student in research supervision

• The student is typically the initiator of the

research project, bringing ideas and interests to
the table.
• They should be proactive in proposing research
topics and questions.
• They should be able to defend the topics of
their interests, etc.
These are summary notes. Please study the FULL notes first!!
 Roles of a supervisor in research supervision

• The supervisor provides guidance and mentorship

throughout the research project.
• Supervisors often provide access to resources such as
libraries, laboratories, and funding opportunities;
• Supervisors offer constructive feedback on the
student's progress, etc.

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 ICT in research
• By tracking changes means, by identifying errors in
research documents automatically.
• Changes can be made through using Microsoft Word
with Track changes.
• You can use Automatic table of contents.
• Download grammarly app or any Grammar / proof
reading online tools.

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 Research publication
• To publish means to share the content by making it
available in the public domain for the attention of other
scholars.
• Research findings can be disseminated mainly through the
following common methods:
• Conference presentations;
• Journal articles;
• Writing books & book chapters (preferably peer reviewed);
• Institutional repositories, etc.
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 Research problems & Questions
• A problem statement is an explanation in research
that describes the issue that is in need of study.
• In formulating research questions & objectives, select
a topic to form a good research question, this will help
to start broad and narrow down later to contextualize
the topic.

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 Some sources of research problems
• Typically, research problems are regarded as being
derived:
• from practice,
• from previous research (e.g., study recommendations
for further researches)
• from theories;
• Interviews;
• As well as other sources.
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 Dependent and independent variables.

• A dependent variable is a variable whose outcome is

hypothesized as depending on one or more
independent variables.
• The independent variable is the cause. Its value
is independent of other variables in your study.
• The dependent variable is the effect. Its
value depends on changes in the independent
variable.
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 Hypotheses
• A hypothesis (plural: hypotheses), in a scientific context, is a testable
statement about the relationship between two or more variables or
a proposed explanation for some observed phenomenon.
• A null hypothesis (H0 ) is a type of statistical hypothesis that proposes
that no statistical significance exists in a set of given observations.
• An alternative hypothesis (Ha) in statistics refers to a proposed
statement or argument in the hypothesis test.
• It indicates the existence of the statistical relationship between
variables and usually aligns with the research hypothesis.

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 Research paradigms
• Similar to positivism, post- positivism holds the same philosophical
view that knowledge is discovered through the use of scientific
methods to generate objective facts and experiences.
• Interpretivism is a build –up paradigm of constructivism.
• It is the philosophy of making meanings from the knowledge
constructed in constructivism; hence content is contextualized.
• Critical theory is a philosophy underpinned by analyzing, critiquing
and examining the existing state of affairs (status quo), in practices,
theories and literature, to establish relevance and irrelevance to a
given context.

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• Pragmatism is a worldview predicated on the
application of multiple philosophies to establish the
philosophies that are most practical, relevant and
effective in producing the desired results.
• Pragmatism strikes the balance between subjectivity
and objectivity throughout the research process.

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