What are the different causes of over voltages in Power System?

An overvoltage is a temporary increase in voltage in a power system, also called a voltage surge
or voltage transient. Overvoltage can damage power lines and connected equipment. They can
occur due to external or internal causes.

External Causes:

1. Overvoltage caused by lightning or atmospheric disturbances.

a. Direct lightning stroke: Lightning directly hits power lines.

b. Side stroke: Overvoltage induced by lightning striking near the line.
c. Induced voltages: Nearby charged clouds, or effects of friction from dust or
snow can generate overvoltage.

2. Internal Causes:

Overvoltage caused by changes in the power system's operation:

a. Switching overvoltage: Occur during normal switching operations or faults.

b. Ferranti Effect: When an unloaded long transmission line is charged, the voltage
at the receiving end increases, causing overvoltage.
c. Transformer switching: Energizing transformers or reactors can create transient
over voltages.

Frequency Range of Overvoltage

• High frequency: Caused by lightning or load switching.

• Medium frequency: Caused by capacitor energizing.
• Low frequency: Caused by system faults or load variations
Explain Townsend’s theory of breakdown in gases & derive the expression for current growth
equation

Townsend’s theory explains the mechanism of electrical breakdown in gases due to ionization
under the influence of an electric field. It describes how free electrons, initially present in the
gas, collide with neutral gas molecules, leading to further ionization. This results in exponential
growth of electrons, ultimately causing gas breakdown.

This theory is applicable for low-pressure gases and for pd (pressure × gap distance) values
below 1000 torr-cm.

Explain Streamer theory of breakdown in gases.

The Streamer Theory was proposed to address the limitations of the Townsend theory, particularly
at high pressures and larger gaps. This theory explains how a gas breakdown occurs when a single
electron avalanche develops into a spark discharge.

An initial free electron starts moving toward the anode (positive electrode) under the influence of
the applied electric field.
As the electron moves, it collides with gas molecules, causing ionization (producing additional
electrons and positive ions).
This process creates an avalanche of electrons.
Electrons in the avalanche move quickly and reach the anode.
Positive ions, being much heavier, remain near their original position and form a positive space
charge near the anode.
• The positive space charge increases the local electric field around it.
• This enhanced electric field causes the ionization of nearby gas molecules, creating
secondary avalanches close to the space charge region.
• The secondary avalanches grow rapidly, forming a narrow, luminous channel of ionized
gas called a streamer.
• The streamer propagates toward the cathode (negative electrode) at a very high speed.
• When the streamer tip reaches the cathode, it establishes a conducting path for current
flow.

State and explain Paschen’s Law and mention its significance

Paschen’s Law states that the breakdown voltage (VbV_bVb ) in a gas depends on the product
of pressure (p) and gap distance (d) between two electrodes. Mathematically,

𝑉𝑏 = f(p.d)

Where,f is a function that describes the relationship.

 • Breakdown Mechanism:
• When a high voltage is applied, free electrons gain energy and ionize gas molecules
through collisions.
• The number of collisions depends on pressure (p) and the distance (d) between the
electrodes.
• Minimum Breakdown Voltage:
• Paschen's curve shows that breakdown voltage is not linear. It has a minimum value at
an optimal p.d

Significance

1. Predicts Breakdown Voltage:

2. Paschen’s law helps calculate the minimum voltage needed for gas breakdown.

3. Design of Insulating Systems:

Useful for designing high-voltage equipment like transformers and circuit breakers, especially
gas-insulated systems.

4. Altitude Considerations:

At high altitudes (lower pressure), breakdown voltage increases, which is important for aviation
and space applications.

Explain the method of generating high AC voltages

• Single Transformer Method:

• This method is suitable for generating voltages up to 300 kV.
• A single transformer can be used to step up the voltage to the required level.
• The transformer should have low impedance (less than 5%) to handle short-circuit
conditions for at least one minute.
• For practical use in laboratories and testing, the transformer needs to be robust and capable
of handling high currents.
• Cascade Transformer Method:
• For higher voltages (above 300 kV), a single transformer becomes difficult due to
insulation problems and the size of the unit.
• The solution is the cascade connection of multiple transformers.
• In this method, multiple identical transformers are connected in series, where the high-
voltage winding of one transformer is connected to the low-voltage winding of the next
transformer in the series.
 • This setup helps overcome the insulation issues and makes it easier to generate very high
voltages, such as 1 MV or higher.
•

What is an Impulse wave? Define rise time & fall time of an

Impulse wave.

An impulse wave is a unidirectional wave characterized by:

• A very short rise time and a longer fall time compared to the rise time, where the wave
returns to zero.

Impulse waves are typically used in high-voltage testing to simulate lightning surges or switching
surges. These waves are applied to assess the insulation strength of electrical equipment.

1. Rise Time (Front Time):

a. It is the time taken by the impulse wave to rise from 0% to 100% of its peak value.
2. Fall Time (Tail Time):
a. It is the time taken for the impulse wave to decrease from its peak value to a
specific percentage, often 50% of the peak value.

Explain the operation of multistage impulse generator with neat circuit

The multistage impulse generator, commonly known as the Marx generator, is used to
generate very high voltages by charging capacitors in parallel and discharging them in series.
This arrangement is ideal for generating standard impulse voltages for testing purposes.
All capacitors are charged simultaneously in parallel through the charging resistors (Rs ) from a
DC supply.

•
• The spark gaps (GGG) remain inactive during this phase, as their breakdown voltage is
higher than the applied charging voltage.
• Discharging Mode:
• When an impulse voltage is required, the first spark gap (G1G_1G1 ) is triggered by a
control pulse or external excitation.
• Once G1 breaks down, it triggers the other spark gaps (G2,G3...), causing all capacitors
to discharge in series.
 • This results in the addition of the individual capacitor voltages, producing a high-voltage
impulse across the test object.

Explain the method of measuring high voltage using sphere gap method.

Explain corona and its effects.

Corona is a phenomenon that occurs around sharp points or curved surfaces on high-voltage
conductors. When the air surrounding the conductor becomes ionized it results in a bluish glow,
with hissing noise and the generates ozone.

1. Positive Effects:
a. Voltage Equalization: Corona discharges can smooth out potential differences,
reducing the likelihood of sudden breakdowns in non-uniform fields.
b. Reduction in Transient Surges: Corona can dissipate excess energy during
voltage surges.
2. Negative Effects:
a. Power Loss: Corona discharges result in energy loss in the form of heat, light,
and sound.
b. Insulation Damage: Ion bombardment and chemical reactions, such as ozone
formation, degrade the insulation on conductors.
c. Ozone Generation: The oxygen surrounding the conductor is converted into
ozone, which can lead to material corrosion.

Explain breakdown in various liquid dielectrics

Explain the mechanism of breakdown in solid dielectric?

The various breakdown mechanisms can be classified as follows:

(a) intrinsic or ionic breakdown
This occurs in a perfectly homogeneous material under extremely high electric fields (around
10^7 V/cm).
Intrinsic breakdown is rare in practice because real materials have impurities and defects.
(b) electromechanical breakdown,
When high electric fields create strong electrostatic forces within the dielectric, mechanical
stresses are induced.
This is often seen in thin dielectric materials where mechanical stability is lower.
(c) failure due to treeing and tracking,
 • Treeing: Long-term exposure to high electric fields in the presence of impurities or voids
can cause the formation of tree-like paths in the dielectric. These conductive paths grow
over time, eventually causing a breakdown.
• Tracking: On the surface of solid dielectrics, conductive carbonized paths can form due
to partial discharges or contamination (like moisture or dirt). These tracks facilitate
current flow, leading to surface breakdown.

(d) thermal breakdown,

In this mechanism, the heat generated due to dielectric losses under high electric fields cannot be
dissipated effectively.
• It is a common breakdown mechanism, especially in materials with poor thermal
conductivity.

(e) electrochemical breakdown,

• Over time, environmental factors such as moisture, heat, and chemical reactions can
degrade the dielectric material.
• This reduces the dielectric strength, leading to eventual breakdown.

(J) breakdown due to internal discharges.

Solid dielectrics often contain microscopic voids or cavities. These voids have a lower dielectric
strength than the surrounding material.

Explain breakdown mechanism in composite dielectric?