EM 1110-2-1701

31 Dec 1985

CHAPTER 4

HYDROLOGIC DATA PREPARATION

4-1. Introduction.

a. This chapter identifies and briefly discusses the types and

sources of hydrologic data required for hydropower studies. However,
the details of hydrologic evaluation procedures used for developing
this data are not described because they are already well documented
in other EM’s and standard hydrologic engineering references.

b. The most important type of hydrologic data required for a

hydropower feasibility study is the long term streamflow record that
represents the flow available for power production. Other important
hydrologic data includes tailwater rating curves, reservoir storage-
elevation tables, evaporation losses and other types of losses,
sedimentation and water quality data, downstream flow requirements,
streamflow routing criteria, and downstream channel constraints. The
procedures used to develop this information are determined by the
level of the study and the quality and quantity of data available.
Detailed studies are not always necessary to develop reasonable
estimates of this data, and sometimes, due to limitations in the type
and amount of available information, detailed studies cannot be
performed. Extrapolations of available data and simplified
assumptions are sometimes necessary to compensate for lack of
information.

4-2. Streamflow
———Records.

a. General. Streamflow records are the backbone of the hydro-

power study. Mean monthly discharges are sometimes adequate, but in
other cases, weekly or daily values are necessary.

b. Data Collection. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) is the

principal source of streamflow records. Currently, the USGS collects
and disseminates the majority of the water data collected in the
United States. Most data collected by the USGS is summarized in the
Water Resources Data, an annual series of reports for each state or
hydrologic r~g~the United States (75). Figure 4-1 is an example
of data supplied by the USGS. Surface water records are also some-
times available from Federal, state, and local water management
agencies and utilities.

4-1
EM 111O-2-17O1
31 Dec 1985

c. WATSTORE, Surface water records collected by the USGS and

others are stored in WATSTORE, the USGS’s National Water Data Stor-
age and Retrieval System. Access to the WATSTORE system is available
to all Corps offices through an interagency agreement between the
Corps of Engineers and the USGS. The WATSTORE data storage and
retrieval system contains water resources data which includes surface
runoff, ground water conditions, and water quality data for all 50
states, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and Canada. WATSTORE files
contain daily, monthly, and yearly peak and mean flow data for gaging
stations in the Systm. WATSTORE data can be displayed as standard-

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4-2
 EM 1110-2-1701
31 Dec 1985

ized tables or graphs. An example of WATSTORE output used in

hydropower studies are shown in Figure 4-2. This data can be analyzed
and plotted. WATSTORE is also capable of producing a magnetic tape of
selected data.

d. Data Accuracy and Reliability. Users of WATSTORE should

review individual station records carefully. Retrieved data should be
verified for its reliability because the USGS may have made subsequent
revisions to this data as a result of a reanalysis. These revisions
are most commonly made to correct errors found during historic high
and low streamflow conditions or when ice is present, but may include
the entire period of record if the accuracy of the gaging station is
questionable.

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streamflow data for a surface water gage

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EM 1110-2-1701
31 Dec 1985

c. WATSTORE. Surface water records collected by the USGS and

others are stored in WATSTORE, the USGS’s National Water Data Stor-
age and Retrieval System. Access to the WATSTORE system is available
to all Corps offices through an interagency agreement between the
Corps of Engineers and the USGS. The WATSTORE data storage and
retrieval system contains water resources data which includes surface
runoff, ground water conditions, and water quality data for all 50
states, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and Canada. WATSTORE files
contain daily, monthly, and yearly peak and mean flow data for gaging
stations in the system. WATSTORE data can be displayed as standard-
ized tables or graphs. An example of WATSTORE output used in hydro-
power studies is shown in Figure 4-2. This data can be analyzed and
plotted. WATSTORE is also capable of producing a magnetic tape of
selected data.

d. Data Accuracy and Reliability. Users of WATSTORE should

review individual station records carefully. Retrieved data should be
verified for its reliability because the USGS may have made subsequent
revisions to this data as a result of a reanalysis. These revisions
are most commonly made to correct errors found during historic high
and low streamflow conditions or when ice is present, but may include
the entire period of record if the accuracy of the gaging station is
questionable.

e. Data From Other Sources. There are some areas within the
country where USGS streamtlow Information is not available or is
insufficient. Local irrigation districts, public utility districts,
private utility companies, state water resources agencies and Federal
agencies, such as the Corps of Engineers, Bureau of Reclamation, and
Tennessee Va ley Authority may possess streamflow or reservoir storage
data that is not in the USGS files. These potential sources should be
investigated when adequate data is pot available from the USGS.

4-3. Histor cal Records Adjustment.

a. General. Streamflow data obtained from the USGS or another

agency may not= immediately usable for hydropower site analysis.
Historical streamflow records, especially if they span a long period
of time, may have to be adjusted to account for diversions, reservoir
regulation, and upstream land use changes. This is done so that the
streamflow record is consistent throughout the period of record and
properly reflects conditions at some base level. This base level
could represent present conditions or expected streamflow conditions
at some future date. When analyzing a hydropower project on a stream
where diversions or factors influencing streamflow are expected to
change substantially with time, it may be necessary to develop
modified flows for one or more future levels to insure that accurate

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long-term estimates of energy potential are developed. Adjustments

may also be necessary to account for the differences in runoff between
the gaging station and the study site.

b. Natural and Modified Streamflow Conditions.

(1) Natural Streamflows. When regional streamflow studies are

performed, It 1s often necessary to modify observed streamflow data to
represent an unregulated or “natural” basin condition. Streamflow
data is developed to generate a set of hydrologically consistent data
that reflects a base condition where the effects of diversions and
withdrawals that have occurred at different times during the period of
record are removed. This discharge data is obtained by adding back
flow diversions or withdrawals of water that bypassed the gaging
station. Reservoir storage-release records are also corrected for
evaporation and percolation losses. It is also necessary in some
cases to adjust discharge data for changes in long-term watershed
conditions due to changes in land use.

(2) Modified Streamflows. It is not necessary to develop a set

of natural streamflows lf ~ing uses of water, such as irrigation
withdrawals, are expected to continue in the future. In the latter
case, a uniform basin condition is established for a specific point in
time, where the effects of upstream regulation are accounted for
during the entire period of record. In order to obtain uniform flow
data, streamflows prior to the date that any diversion was initiated
must be adjusted to reflect the selected base condition. The
discharge record that is developed for this situation is called a
modified flow record, which represents a basin condition at some point
in time.

c. Estimating Flow at a Damsite. Correction to streamflow data

is required lf a gaging stat=~ located in the immediate
vicinity of the study site. Standard hydrologic methods should be
used to adjust the streamflow information of the gage to represent
flow at each project site. Hydrologic characteristics of the
watershed such as drainage area, topography, soil, and precipitation
patterns should be considered. Streamflow evaluation at existing dams
is often easier than at undeveloped sites because existing streamflow
records and other hydrologic data can be used.

d. Extension of Historical Records.

(1) Although short-tern records may be considered acceptable for

reconnaissance studies, more detailed studies require longer periods
of record. The decision to extend a short historical rec;rd should be
based on the level of study and the type of analysis for which the
record is to be used. Generally, streamflow records should be

4-5
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31 Dec 1985

extended if the available record is less than 20 to 30 years. Corre-

lation and regression techniques can be used to extend a period of
record if one or more sites with similar flow variations can be found.
If good correlation does not exist, other techniques such aa examina-
tion of precipitation records should be used to test the existing
record to determine if it is representative of the long-term record.

(2) Streamflow extension can be accomplished by regression

analysis. ~is method finds regression coefficients for simultaneous
flows between a gage with a short term record and one or more gages
with a long period of record. These coefficients are applied to the
long record values to extend the short record. This technique
requires that the station records have sufficient concurrent record to
obtain satisfactory correlation.

(3) Stochastic techniques can also be used to generate a long

synthetic record as a substitute for a short length of actual record.
Stochastic techniques are also used to fill in missing periods of
record. The program HEC-4, “Monthly Streamflow Simulation,” is
capable of generating monthly flows.

(4) Basin rainfall-runoff models are used when streamflow

records are either too short, unreliable, or unavailable. These
models use precipitation information and basin characteristics to
generate additional streamflow information. A continuous simulation
model, such as North Pacific Division’s SSARR Model (Streamflow
Synthesis and Reservoir Regulation), generates hourly or daily flows
and is suitable for more detailed studies (56).

e. Future Flow Depletions. Future levels of consumptive uses

must be e-ted when studying total water availability during the
life of a project. Future demands for irrigation, municipal and
industrial consumptive use, and population levels are quantities that
should be determined and incorporated in the streamflow data used for
making the power studies.

4-4. Types of Streamflow Data Used in Power Studies.

a. General. Streamflow data is used to develop estimates of

water ava~~or power generation. The most common types of
streamflow data used for this process are mean daily, mean weekly and
mean monthly flows. This data is often summarized in flow duration
curves.

b. Mean Daily Data. This is the basic increment of hydrologic

data available from the streamflow records. Daily flow data can be
used directly to develop flow duration curves for estimating the power

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potential of small hydro projects. It is also used to help evaluate

projects where little or no seasonal storage is available for power
generation either at-site or upstream. Daily flows may also be
required as supplemental information in studies based on monthly
flows. An example would be a flood control project where flood flows
are flashy and of short duration. Monthly average flows may be
suitable for evaluating most of the year, but they could mask out the
wide variations of discharge and reservoir elevation that would occur
during the flood season. This type of operation may occur during only
a small portion of the year, and monthly average flows may be suitable
for evaluating the remainder of the year.

c* Mean Weekly and Monthly Data. Mean weekly and monthly data
are obtained from mean dally flow records. These values are sometimes
used in place of daily data in power calculations in order to reduce
computation time. Because the mean value represents a series of flow
values, care should be taken to verify that this value represents the
useable flows available to the powerplant units. Where flows vary
widely within the week or month, an average weekly or monthly value
may overestimate the amount of streamflow available for generation.
For example, a given monthly average flow may be well within a hydro
plant’s hydraulic capacity, but there may be many days during that
month when the flow exceeds the hydraulic capacity, and water is
spilled. On the other hand, where streamflows are relatively constant
within the week or month, as is sometimes the case when flows are
highly regulated, the use of weekly or monthly flows can save consid-
erable computation time. Section 5-6b discusses this topic in more
detail.

d. Flow-Duration Curves. Flow-duration curves are used to sum-

marize streamflow character~tics and can be constructed from daily,
weekly, or monthly streamflow data. Duration curves can be con-
structed with historical data from WATSTORE or with regulated flows
from HEC-5, SUPER, or one of the other sequential routing models
described in Appendix C. These curves show the percentage of time
that flow equals or exceeds various values during the period of
record. The disadvantages of the flow-duration curve is that it does
not present flow in chronological sequence, does not describe the
seasonal distribution of streamflow, and does not account for
variations of head independent of streamflow. However, these curves
are useful for evaluating the power output of run-of-river projects
and for other power projects where head varies directly with flow.
The procedures for constructing a flow-duration curve is presented in
most standard hydrology texts. An example of a flow duration curve is
shown as Figure 4-3.

e. Seasonal Flow Distribution. Regardless of the type of

streamflow data used In making the power study, information should be

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EM 1110-2-1701
31 Dec 1985

presented showing seasonal distribution of runoff. This information,

which could be presented in tabular or graphical form, is useful for
evaluating the usability of the power from the project. Figure 4-4
shows an example of a graph showing period-of-record average
streamflow by month.

4-5. Other Hydrologic Data.

a. Introduction. In addition to determining the annual and

seasonal dlstrlbutlon of water available for power generation,
hydrologic analysis can include “otherrelated studies. Common types
of data required are tailwater rating curves, reservoir elevation-
area-capacity tables, sedimentation data, water quality data,
downstream flow information, water surface fluctuation data, and
evaporation and seepage loss analyses.

I 1 I I I I I 1 I
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
PERCENTOFTIME EQUALEDOREXCEEDED

Figure 4-3. Flow-duration curve

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31 Dec 1985

b. Tailwater Rating Curves.

(1) General. Tailwater rating studies are made to define the

variation ~water elevation with project flow discharge. This
data is used to compute the generating head available at each
discharge level. Tailwater elevation is a function of downstream
channel geometry, project discharge, and downstream backwater effects.
Tailwater restrictions can also limit the gross hydraulic capacity of
the proposed powerhouse. Figure 4-5 is a typical example of a
tailwater rating curve. For new projects, tailwater curves can
be developed using the standard step method, with computer models such
as HEC-2, “Water Surface Profiles”.

(2) Run-of-River Projects. For pure run-of-river projects, such

as lock and dam structures, the tailwater rating curve and the forebay
elevation can often be used to develop a head vs. discharge curve.

80

MONTH

Figure 4-4. Monthly flow distribution

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EM 1110-2-1701
31 Dec 1985

Data from this curve and the flow-duration curve can be combined to
develop a generation-duration curve. Figure 4-6 shows an example of a
head vs. discharge curve. For pure run-of-river projects, the forebay
elevation can usually be assumed to be constant over a substantial
flow range, but in many cases it begins to increase at high inflows.

(3) Peakin~ Proiects. A peaking plant may typically operate at

or near full output for part of the day and at zero or some minimum
output during the remainder of the day. In these cases, the tailwater
elevation during generation may be virtually independent of the aver-
age streamflow for the day, except perhaps during periods of high
runoff. For projects of this type, a single tailwater elevation based
upon the peaking discharge could be specified. This value could be a
weighted average tailwater elevation, developed from hourly operation

245-

240-

235-

231 I I I I 1
0 50 100 150 200 250
DISCHARGE(1OOO CFS)

Figure 4-5. Tailwater rating curve

4-1o
 EM 1110-2-1701
31 Dec 1985

studies and weighted proportionally to the amount of generation pro-

duced in each hour of the period examined. Alternatively, it could be
a “block-loaded” tailwater elevation, based on an assumed typical
output level. The specific output level used for a “block-loaded”
tailwater elevation could be based on (a) operation at full rated
output, (b) output at best efficiency (typically 75 to 80 percent of
full rated output for Francis turbines, for example), or (c) an output
value developed in coordination with the agency which will be

207

18-

16-

14-

12-

lo-

8-

6-

4-

2-

0 1 1 I I
0 50 100 150 200 250
DISCHARGE(1OOO CFS)

Figure 4-6. Head-discharge curve

4-11
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31 Dec 1985

marketing the project’s power output. Figure 4-7 shows a tailwater

curve modified to reflect “block-loading” in the low flow range. The
loading would be generally similar to the loading shown on shown on
Figure 5-23, except that it is assumed that the minimum discharge is
zero instead of 150 cfs and the minimum number of hours on peak is
five instead of eight).

(4) Existing Projects. A record of tailwater discharge-

elevation relationships may be available to aid analysis of the
addition of power to existing projects. A tailwater rating curve can
be developed directly from this data.

/
TAILGATER ELEVATION
AT HYDRAULIC CAPACITY

/
BLOCK- ‘
ADED “
cTj~\~ATE~z~NORMAL TAILWA’TER
/ CURVE

/“
/
I I I
50 100 140 200
DISCHARGE (1000 CFS)

Figure 4-7. Block-loaded tailwater curve

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 EM 1110-2-1701
31 Dec 1985

(5) Hourlv Studies. When evaluating peaking hydro projects,

hourly streamflow routing studies are often made to estimate peaking
capability and pondage requirements and to evaluate the impact of
discharge fluctuation downstream from the project. In this type of
study, it may be necessary to incorporate an hourly routing subroutine
in the power generation model in order to accurately measure tailwater
elevation and head. The actual tailwater elevation during hourly
operation tends to “lag” the tailwater elevation obtained from the
usual steady-state tailwater rating curve.

c. Reservoir StoraRe-Elevation and Area-Elevation Data.

(1) For storage projects, it is necessary to determine the

storage-elevation and area-elevation characteristics of the reservoir.
This information is used in reservoir regulation and evaporation
studies. Figure 4-8 is an example of a typical reservoir elevation-
area-capacity curve. This data can also be developed in tabular form
for direct input to sequential streamflow routing progras.
SURFACEAREA(1OOO ACRES)

17.5 15 12.5 10 7.5 5.0 2.5 0

620

600 ~<c — — —

580

/
560

540

520
0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 17 50

STORAGE(1OOO AF)

Figure 4-8. Storage-elevation and area-elevation curves

4-13
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(2) Storage-elevation and area-elevation curves are generally

developed from topographic maps by planimetering elevation contours
upstream from the damsite. The “average end area” method is used to
compute the volume between elevation curves. Increased accuracy is
obtained by using large-scale, high resolution mapping and small
elevation increments. HEC’S computer program #723-Gl-L233A,
“Reservoir Area Capacity Tables by Conic Method”, is a useful tool for
developing this type of data.

d. Sedimentation Data. Sedimentation studies may be conducted

for an existing or proposed reservoir in order to determine the rate
reservoir storage capacity is being lost to deposited,sediment.
Sediment studies can also identify sediment source areas and may be
used to develop sediment management progrmns. The results of these
studies can also be used for updating storage-elevation curves and
projecting future capacity losses at older reservoirs situated in
high-sediment river basins. In addition to examining impacts within
reservoirs, studies may also be made to investigate downstream channel
capacity and other characteristics. Studies at project sites usually
involve the laboratory analysis of suspended sediment samples and
computer simulation to predict future sediment deposition in the
reservoir. Three HEC computer progams may be of value in preliminary
sedimentation studies: “Suspended Sediment Yield” (HEC #723-G2-L2240),
“Deposition of Suspended Sediment” (HEC #723-G2-L2250), and “Scour and
Deposition in Rivers and Reservoirs” (HEC-6).

e. Water Quality Data. Studies may be required to define the

current status of water quality conditions at and below the hydropower
site and to predict how these conditions would be altered by project
operation. Requirements for water quality studies are established in
ER 1110-2-1402, HYdrolo~ic Investigation Requirements for Water Oual-
itv Control. Information on the downstream water quality effects of
hydropower development is contained in the technical report, Effects
of Reservoir Releaaes on Water Quality, Macroinvertebrates, and Fish
In Tailgaters: Field Study Results (80). Availability of water
quality data is often critical to the completion of the required
studies. Water quality data needs must be defined early in the
feasibility study in order to provide enough time to collect the
needed data so that water quality problems can be assessed adequately.

f. Downstream Flow Requirements.

(1) Downstream flow requirements are sometimes established to

ensure that the range of project discharges produced by power
operations does not adversely impact the utilization of the stream.
Streamflow uses which might be considered when establishing flow
requirements include the following:

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● navigation
✎ water quality
✎ municipal and industrial water supply
✎ irrigation
✎ fish and wildlife habitat
✎ migratory fish passage
✎ instream fishing
● recreational uses (boating and beaches)
✎ flood control discharge limitations

(2) Flow requirements can be expressed either as instantaneous

or average flow values either at-site or at some downstream point.
Limits may also be placed on the daily minimum or maximum discharge
permitted and on daily or hourly rates of change in discharge. Flow
requirements may originate in different ways. They may be based on
an international treaty, an interstate river basin management compact,
or on downstream water rights. Others may arise from court decisions
or enabling legislation aimed at preventing a project from adversely
impacting non-power uses of streamflow. In most cases, flow require-
ments result directly from project environmental and operations
studies, which are often made in conjunction with other agencies and
river use interests.

(3) The impact of proposed downstream flow requirements on power

operation should be carefully evaluated. Maximum discharge limits may
restrict the use of a project for peaking operations. Similarly, the
imposition of high discharge requirements for downstream uses may
limit the use of reservoir storage for power generation. The
objective of the downstream flow requirement study should be to
achieve a reasonable balance to insure that downstream river uses are
protected without unnecessarily limiting the site’s power potential.

g. Water Surface Fluctuation Studies. Advanced feasibility and

GDM studies may require evaluation of the effect of power operations
on the shoreline of the reservoir and riparian land downstream from
the project site. Areas of concern may include safety of and access
to shoreline areas for commercial and recreational activities; damage
to waterfowl nesting areas; fish migration and spawning; and habitat
areas of rare or endangered species. Fluctuation studies may be
conducted using either conventional hydrologic routing techniques or
more advanced hydraulic modeling techniques based on unsteady flow
theory. Computer programs such as HEC-5 (40) and SSARR (56) are
capable of performing hydrologic routings for these purposes.

h. Losses.

(1) General. Not all of the streamflow entering a reservoir may

be available for power generation. Some flow may be lost due to

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reservoir evaporation, transpiration, and to diversions from the

reservoir for irrigation and water supply. Water may also be required
at the dam for operation of a navigation lock, fish passage facil-
ities~ powerplant coolinga or other project operating purposes. There
also may be losses due to leakage through or around the dam or other
embankment structures and around gates. If these losses are not
accounted for, a hydro project’s power output may be substantially
overestimated. Following are discussions of some of the major
categories of losses.

(2) Evaporation. The purpose of the evaporation loss

computation is to determine the net loss to evaporation resulting from
the larger surface area of the reservoir compared to the river, prior
to construction of the project. A rigorous analysis of this type
would also account for the effects of infiltration, transpiration, and
precipitation. Section 3.02 of Reservoir Yield (44c) describes
several techniques for analyzing evaporation and related losses.
Although accounting for net evaporation is very important for large
reservoir projects, it can sometimes be neglected at small reservoirs
and run-of-river projects.

(3) Irrigation and Water Supply Diversions. Reservoirs often

serve as the source of water for adjacent irrigation projects or
communities. Water may be pumped directly from the reservoir or
diverted through a pipeline at the dam. Because irrigation or water
supply is often included as a project purpose, data on these diver-
sions is usually developed in the planning process, and this data can
be used in the hydropower analysis. At existing projects, historical
data may be available, although consideration should be given to the
possibility of future increases in the level of diversion.

(4) Seepage and Leakage. There is usually some seepage under or

around dams and other embankment structures, and there is sometimes
leakage through the dam structure itself. In a few cases there may
even be seepage losses to underground aquifers or other strata
adjacent to the reservoir. As a rule, seepage or leakage is
relatively small, and in most cases it is difficult to estimate before
a Project is actually constructed. However, this type of loss should
be considered where significant leakage is a possibility. The amount
of leakage is a function of the type and size of dam, the geologic
conditions, and the pressure caused by water in the reservoir. The
measured leakage at a similar type of dam in a similar geologic area
may be used as a basis for estimating losses at a proposed project.
The best source of data in this area would be the District foundation
and materials branch.

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(5) Gate Leakage. Leakage from spillway gates is a function of

gate perimeter, type of seal, and the head on the gate. Leakage may be
measured at existing projects with similar seals, and a leakage rate
may then be computed per foot of perimeter for a given head. This
leakage rate may then be used to compute estimated leakage for a
proposed project.

(6) Navigation Lock Operation. The inclusion of a navigation

lock at a dam requires that locking operations and leakage through
the lock be considered. The leakage is dependent upon the lift, the
type and size of lock, and the type of gates and seals. Again,
estimates can be made from observed leakage at similar structures.
Water required for locking operations should also be deducted from
water available at the dam site. These demands can be computed by
multiplying the volume of water required for a single locking
operation times the number of operations anticipated in a given time
period and converting the product to a flow rate over the given
period.

(7) Fish Facilities. Some projects have facilities for passing

migratory fish upstream or downstream, and others have fish hatcheries
or spawning beds that are an integral part of project operation. Fish
ladders or locks may be required for upstream passage, and water is
often required for attracting fish to the fish passage facility
entrances as well as for operation of the facilities themselves. In
some case, streamflow may also be required for downstream migrant fish
facilities, and in other cases spill may be required during the
downstream migration season. Where fish hatcheries are constructed
adjacent to the dam, water may be diverted directly from the reservoir
to the hatchery and this must be accounted for also. Information on
fish passage facility and fish hatchery water requirements can be
obtained from fishery agencies, design personnel, or from operating
experience at similar projects.

(8) Turbine Leakage. If a proposed project is to include power,

and if the area demand is such that the turbines will sometimes be
idle, it is advisable to estimate leakage through the turbines when
closed. This leakage is a function of the type of penstock, type of
turbine wicket gate, number of turbines, and head on the turbine.
The measurement of turbine leakage at similar existing projects may be
used to estimate leakage for a proposed project. Hydraulic machinery
specialists at the Hydropower Design Centers would be another source
of information on estimated turbine leakage. An estimate of the per-
cent of time that a unit will be closed may be obtained from actual
operation records for similar units in the same demand area. The
measured or estimated leakage rate is then reduced by multiplying by
the proportion of time the unit will be closed. For example, if
leakage through a turbine has been measured at 1.0 cubic feet per

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second (cfs), and the operation records indicate that the unit is
closed 60% of the time. The average leakage rate for the turbine
would be (0.6 x 1.0 cfs) = 0.6 cfs.

(9) Station Water Requirements. The use of water for purposes

related to operation of a project is often treated as a loss. Station
use for sanitary and drinking purposes, cooling water for generators,
and water for condensing operations are typical station water require-
ments at hydro projects. Examination of operation records for
comparable projects in a given study area may be useful in estimating
these losses, and the Hydroelectric Design Centers would be additional
sources of information. If a station service unit is included in a
project to supply the project’s power needs, data should be obtained
from the designer in order to estimate water used by the house unit or
units.

(10) Other Considerations. Some of the losses described above

vary considerably by season, while others are relatively constant the
year around. Irrigation diversions and evaporation losses vary widely
with season, while seepage and leakage and station water requirements
may be essentially constant the year around. Others, such as naviga-
tion lock requirements and fish facility requirements, may or may not
vary, depending on the project. When the sum of the losses varies
substantially by season, the data should be developed by month. In
other cases, a single average annual value may be satisfactory. Where
the data is to be used in a model which routes streamflow to down-
stream projects or control points, the total losses should be divided
into consumptive and non-consumptive losses. Table 4-1 shows a
typical summary of monthly streamflow losses.

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TABLE 4-1.
Example Monthly Streamflow Loss Table

LOSS (cfs)
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC ~

Nonconsumptive

Fish facil-
ities ~ 50 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 .100 100 100 100
Closed
turbines ~ 30 30 25 16 12 10 10 10 12 15 25 30 19
Navigation
locks ~ 22 22 22 22 36 50 50 50 50 36 22 22 29
Seepage ~ 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15
Station use 8888888 888888
Leakage U 0000000 000000
—— . . —— —— —— —— .
Total 125 175 170 161 171 183 183 183 185 174 170 175 172

Consumptive

Net evapo-
ration ~ -44 -33 -20 -13 -30 -37 60 50 18 2 -23 -37 -3
lrrigation~ O 0 15 45 65 75 85 85 40 15 0 0 47
Water
SUpply ~ 18 18 18 22 25 28 31 31 28 25 20 18 23
—— —— —— —— —— —— —
Total -26 -15 13 55 60 140 176 166 86 42 -3 -19 56
1

Shut down two weeks for maintenance in January.

Average leakage through closed turbines is 40 cfs.
Includes 8 cfs continuous leakage.
Seepage through dam and reservoir (estimated).
Leakage through spillway gates and conduits (projected).
Net result of evaporation and precipitation on the surface of
the reservoir. A net gain in water is shown as a negative loss.
Water withdrawn from reservoir. Any water withdrawn below the
dam is a loss to downstream projects only.

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