LAB MANUAL FM-1

SUBMITTED TO:
ENGR. INTEZAR HUSSAIN
SUBMITTED BY:
SYED MUHAMMAD TAUSEEF HAIDER
2020-CIV-306

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND

TECHNOLOGY LAHORE, NAROWAL
CAMPUS
 Experiment 1:

To Study the Layout of Fluid Mechanics Lab and Study of various Equipment
of Lab
LIST OF EQUIPMENTS:
TABLE 1:
1. Loss in pipe system
2. Losses in the pipe system
3. Pipe friction apparatus
4. Bernoulli's principle apparatus
5. Multiple pump test bench
6. Hydraulic bench
7. A computer control wind tunnel
TABLE 2:
8. Osborne Reynold's Apparatus
9. Flow visualization apparatus
10. Centrifugal pump characteristics
11. Series/parallel pump system
12. Orifice discharge Apparatus
TABLE 3:
13. Hydraulic ram apparatus
14. Propeller turbine unit
15. Multiple turbine service unit
16. Impulse action turbine
17. Centrifugal fan demo
18. Interface unit
19. Axial fam demo
20. Centrifugal compress demo
DETAIL OF EQUIPMENTS:
1. Hydraulic bench: It is the base module for supplying experimental units in fluid
mechanics. It has closed water circuit with storage tank, submersible pump and
measuring tank. The measuring tank is divided in two for volumetric flow rate
measurements. It has measuring beaker with scale for very small volumetric flow rates. It
takes measurement of volumetric flow rates by using a stopwatch. It has work surface
with integrated flume for experiments with weirs. The work surface with inside edge is
for safe placement of the accessory and for collecting the dripping water. The storage
tank, measuring tank and work surface made of GRP.
 Figure 1 (Hydraulic bench)

2. Energy Loss in pipe system / Bends: It is used for investigation of the pressure loss in
flow through pipe fittings and in the ball valve. It uses sudden contraction and sudden
enlargement, pipe bend, segment bend, pipe angle and ball valve as measurement objects.
The annular chambers allow precise measurement of pressure. 6 tube manometers are
used for displaying the pressures. Bourdon tube pressure gauge is for pressure
measurement.
 Figure 2 (Energy losses in pipe system / Bends)

3. Losses in the pipe system: It is used for investigation of pressure losses in piping
elements and shut-off devices. Different measuring objects are used for determining flow
rate according to the differential pressure method. Six pipe sections are capable of being
individually shut off, with different piping elements: sudden contraction, sudden
enlargement, Y-pieces, T-pieces, corners and bends. One pipe section is used to hold
interchangeable shut-off/measuring objects. Measuring objects are made of transparent
material: Venturi nozzle, orifice plate flow meter and measuring nozzle. The shut-off
devices: angle seat valve, gate valve. The annular chambers allow measurement of
pressure without interaction. 2 twin tube manometers are used for measuring the pressure
difference.
 Figure 3 (Losses in the pipe system)

4. Bernoulli's principle apparatus: It familiarizes with Bernoulli’s principle. Venturi

nozzle with transparent front panel and measuring points for measuring the static
pressures. It is axially movable Pitot tube for determining the total pressure at various
points within the Venturi nozzle. It has 6 tube manometers for displaying the static
pressures. Only single tube manometer is used for displaying the total pressure.
 Figure 4 (Bernoulli's principle apparatus)

5. Osborne Reynold's Apparatus: It is used for visualization of laminar and turbulent flow
in the Osborne Reynolds experiment. Water is used as flowing medium and ink as
contrast medium. It has vertical glass pipe section. Water tank with glass beads is used to
stabilize the flow. The flow rate in the pipe section can be adjusted via a valve.

Figure 5 (Osborne Reynold's Apparatus)

6. Orifice discharge Apparatus: It is used for study of pressure losses in vertical flows
from tanks It determines the contraction coefficient for different contours and diameters.
It has a tank with adjustable overflow. 5 interchangeable inserts with different contours.
 It has measuring device for determining the jet diameter. Pitot tube is used for
determining the total pressure. The pressure displays on twin tube manometers.

Figure 6 (Orifice discharge Apparatus)

7. Hydrostatic Pressure: It is used for investigation of the hydrostatic pressure in fluids at
rest. It has a tiltable water tank with fill level scale. It has lever arm with different
weights.
 Figure 7 (Hydrostatic Pressure)
8. Floating Bodies / Metacentric Height: It is used for investigating the stability of a
floating body and determining the metacenter. It is transparent floating body with
rectangular frame cross-section. It has one horizontally movable clamped weight for
adjusting the heel. Other vertically movable clamped weight for adjusting the center of
gravity. It has clinometer with scale for displaying the heel.
 Figure 8 (Floating Bodies / Metacentric Height)
9. Hydraulic Ram: Used for formation and effect of water hammer. It pumps using water
hammer. The fixed overflow tank is used as a water source, e.g. river, pool. The elevated
tank has variable pump head. The waste valve with adjustable lift, closes cyclically due to
flow force of the water. The tank with non-return butterfly valve and air volume is used
as an air vessel and the air volume in the air vessel is varied by vent valve.
 Figure 9 (Hydraulic Ram)
10. Flow over weirs / Notches: The discharge measurement has been taken in open channels
using 2 measuring weirs. It has Thomson weir with V-profile. It has Rehbock weir with
rectangular profile. It has level gauge with scale for determining the head. Level gauge
can be positioned anywhere along the experimental flume.
 Figure 10 (Flow over weirs / Notches)
11. Impact of Jet: It is used for investigation of jet forces and demonstration of the principle
of linear momentum. The tank is made of transparent material for observing the
experiments. The nozzle is for generating the water jet. Jet force can be adjusted via flow
rate. It has four different shaped deflectors: flat surface, oblique surface, semi-circular
surface, conical surface. It measures jet forces via the weight-loaded scale.
Figure 11 (Impact of Jet)
 Experiment 2:

To Determine the metacentric height of floating body

Objective: The main objective of the for the experiment is to determine the metacentric height
of the of floating body. It helps us design the ships.
Apparatus Required:
 Tank full of water
 Adjustable weight
  Plumb bob
 Model of ship
 Thread
Theory:
Metacenter: Whenever a body, floating in a liquid, is given a small angular displacement it
starts oscillating about some point. This point, about which the body starts oscillating is called
metacenter.
Metacenter: The distance between center of gravity of a floating body and the metacenter (i.e.
distance between cg and m) is called metacentric height. Metacentric height of a floating body is
a direct measure of its stability. More the metacentric height of a floating body, more it will
stable and vice versa.
Some values of metacentric height:
 Merchant Ships = up to 1.0m
 Sailing Ships = up to 1.5m
 Battle Ships = up to 2.0m
 River Craft = up to 3.5m
Conditions of equilibrium of a floating body:
A body is said to be in equilibrium, when it remains in steady state while floating in a liquid
following are the three conditions of an equilibrium of floating body:
 Stable Equilibrium
 Unstable Equilibrium
 Neutral Equilibrium
Stable Equilibrium: A body is said to be in stable equilibrium, if it returns back to its original
position when given a small angular displacement. This happens when metacenter (M) is high
then center of gravity(G) of floating body.
Unstable Equilibrium: A body is said to be in unstable equilibrium, if it does not return back to
its original position, when given a small angular displacement. This happens when metacenter
(M) is lower than center of gravity (G) of a floating body.
Neutral Equilibrium: A body is said to be in neutral equilibrium, if it occupies a new position
and remains at rest in this new position, when given a small and new angular displacement. This
happens when metacenter (M) coincides with center of gravity (G) of floating body.
Utilizations: Some utilization is listed below:
 To check stability of any floating
 To check stability in ship
 In design of ship
 Design of unique structure (recreational floating spots) in water
Procedure:
  First of all, we take a tank of water and place a small ship in it.
 After adjusting the operators, we give a small angular displacement to the ship model.
 Model starts oscillations about a point, is called metacenter.
 We note the angle α from meter on ship model.
 Weight of the ship is already known to us which is 2636g.
 Now we find cot α.
 Finally calculate the metacentric height by formula.
GM = wdcot α / W

(Apparatus for Metacentric Height) (Apparatus in the tub during experiment)

Observation and Calculations:

Displacemen Angle of Measurable Metacentric
Sr No. Weight of Ship cot α
t Rotation Weight Gravity
(d) W w G.M
mm (g) (g) (mm)
 GM = wdcot α / W
Precautions:
 Don't fill water tank up to top
 Place the model of ship gently into the water tank
 There should be reasonable margin between ship model and wall of the water tank
 Take angle of rotation carefully from the scale along with the model
Comments:
By of the serving the displacement angle of rotation measuring the weight and the movable map
we can calculate the metacentric height by using the formula
GM = wdcot α / W
Also, we observed the dependence of metacentric height.
 Experiment 3:

To Determine the impact of jet

Objective: To investigate the reaction force produced by the change in momentum of a fluid
flow.
Apparatus required:
 Set of weights
 Hydraulic Bench
 Cylinder with the diameter of 180 mm
 Target plates of different shapes
Theory:
The jet impact force is given by the difference between the jet inlet mv 1 and outlet mv2.
In case of impact on the flat object that is when β=90°
Fx=ρθv1
In case of impact on hemispherical object i.e. β =180°
Fx=2ρθv1
In case of impact on conical object i.e. when β =45°
Fx=ρθv1(1 - cos45°)
Applying Bernoulli's equation
P1/ϒ + V12/2g + z1 = P2/ϒ + V22/2g + z2
The Apparatus enables us to measure top most developed by the jet of water impacting
on object. It consists of a transparent vessel inside which water is jet from button. The
water hits on object carried on the stem which extends pressure and its velocity is
v1=√vo2-2gs
So, it is possible to obtain the jet impact speed on object from nozzle.
Procedure:
 A system for balancing the impact of jet is mounted on the upper end of the stem. A
height indicator of weight carries with the cover on the cylinder enables to adjust the
equilibrium position of the forces. When there is the water jet the force exerted by the jet
load to a stem exertion and it is counter balanced by the weights.
 The total force exerted by water jet on the object can be determined by measuring the
force exerted by water jet on object can be determined and comparing the results
predicted the momentum.
 (Impact of jet apparatus installed on H.B) (Applying Load and Taking Readings)

Observation and calculations:

Conical Shape
Mass Force Volume Time Flow rate Speed Forceth Error
m F V T Q V1 Fth
(g) (N) (L) (sec) (m3/s) (m/s) (N)
 Flat Shape
Mass Force Volume Time Flow rate Speed Forceth Error
m F V T Q V1 Fth
3
(g) (N) (L) (sec) (m /s) (m/s) (N)

Hemispherical Shape
Mass Force Volume Time Flow rate Speed Forceth Error
m F V T Q V1 Fth
(g) (N) (L) (sec) (m3/s) (m/s) (N)

Precautions:
 Don't fill water tank of Hydraulic Bench up to top
 Save your clothes from water
 Touch the apparatus after confirming that there is no short circuit

Comments: By formula we can calculate the velocity and then the flow rate by which we can
find the force applied.
v1=√vo2-2gs
 Experiment 4:

To Determine the Laminar and Turbulent Flow

Objective: To demonstrate the laminar and turbulent Reynold's number
Apparatus Required:
 Metering Cap
 Hydraulic Bench
 Pipe with a diameter of 10 mm
 Test pipe of length 100 mm and supply tank 3.5 L
Theory:
Blue ink is used to visualize the flow. A fine blue thread of steam indicating the laminar
flow can be produced using the metering cap. At low flow rate laminar flow occurs to
produce a flow, open to drain cork slightly. At high flow open late turbulent flow occurs
open the drain cork.
The thread of stream is broken up in turbulent the flow changes from laminar to turbulent
when
Re ≤ 2300 Laminar
Re ≥ 2300 Turbulent
This experiment concerning the nature of the laminar and turbulent flow. It consists of
head tank where water coming from the hydraulic bench is made to pass through the
glass tube to reduce the turbulent flow in water.
Using the volumetric tank of the hydraulic bench enables us to measure the flow rate of
the water. This experiment was hard die injection system from easier observation of flow
conditions inside the transparent pipe.
Procedure:
 Closing the drain valve switch on the supply when using the hydraulic bench HM-150
 Adjust the valve to produce a constant for water level in the reservoir.
 After a time, the test pipe section is completely filled experiment can begin now.
 Opening the drain cork slightly be produced low rate of low. The experiment can be in
such a manner that the colored waste water directed down to drain.
 Using the volumetric tank of the hydraulic bench enables to measure the flow rate of
water crossing the pipe.
 Thus, the velocity of the water crossing can be determined.
 (Water-Ink Mixture for visualizing flow) (Reynold’s Number Apparatus during experiment)

Observations and Calculations:

Sr. No Time Volume Velocity Reynold Number
(sec) (liter) (m/s)

Precautions:
 Don't fill water tank of Hydraulic Bench up to top
 Save your clothes from water
 Touch the apparatus after confirming that there is no short circuit
Comments: The laminar and turbulent flow of the water can be determined by the formula but
by the help of flow of the ink we can also visualize the flow i-e laminar and turbulent.
 Experiment 5:

To Demonstrate Bernoulli`s Principle

Objective: To demonstrate the Bernoulli’s Principle

Apparatus Required:
 Bernoulli’s Principle Apparatus
 Hydraulic Bench
 Stop Watch
Theory:
The measured values are to be compared to Bernoulli's equation. Bernoulli’s equation for
constant head h:
p1/ρ + w12/2 = p2/ρ + w22/2 = constant
Allowance for friction losses and conversion of the pressures p 1 and p2 into static pressure heads
h1 and h2 yields:
h1 + w12/2g = h2 + w22/2g + hv
p1: Pressure at cross-section A1
h1: Pressure head at cross-section A1
w1: Flow velocity at cross-section A1
p2: Pressure at cross-section A2
h2: Pressure head at cross-section A2
w2: Flow velocity at cross-section A2
ρ: Density of medium = constant for incompressible fluids such as water
hv: Pressure loss head
The mass flow is constant in closed systems.
m1 = m2
Given
m = V∙ ρ
V1∙ ρ = V2∙ ρ
V1 = V2
Given
V = A∙ w
A1∙w1 = A2∙w2 = V = constant

Procedure:
  Arrange the experimentation set-up on the Hydraulic Bench such that the discharge
routes the water into the channel
 Make hose connection b/w Hydraulic Bench and Bernoulli's Principle Apparatus
 Open discharge of Hydraulic Bench
 Set cap nut of probe compression gland such that slight resistance is felt on moving probe
 Open inlet and outlet valves
 Switch on pump and slowly open main cock of Hydraulic Bench
 Open vent valves on water pressure gauges
 Carefully close outlet valve until pressure gauges are flushed
 By simultaneously setting inlet and outlet valve, regulate water level in pressure gauges
such that neither upper nor lower range limit (UL, LL) is overshot or undershot
 Record pressures at all measurement points. Then move overall pressure probe to
corresponding measurement level and note down overall pressure
 Determine volumetric flow rate. To do so, use stopwatch to establish time t required for
raising the level in the tank of the Hydraulic Bench from 20 l to 30 liters

(Bernoulli’s Principle Apparatus set on H.B) (Info about the perimeters of Venturi Nozzle)

Observations & Calculations:

 Bernoulli's Principle
Tim Volum Flow
h1 h2 h3 h4 h5 h5
e e rate
i
(mm (mm (mm (mm (mm (mm (sec
m3 m3/sec
) ) ) ) ) ) )
hstat (mm)
htotal (mm)
hdyn (mm)
velocitymean (m/s)
velocitycal (m/s)

Precautions:
 Don't fill water tank of Hydraulic Bench up to top
 Save your clothes from water
 Touch the apparatus after confirming that there is no short circuit

Comments: By this experiment, we have visualized Bernoulli’s principle practically that where
the pressure is low the velocity becomes higher.
 Experiment 6 (a):

To Determine the Co-efficient of Discharge for Rectangular Notch

Objective: To determine the coefficient of discharge for rectangular notch

Apparatus Required:
 Volume measuring tank
 Hook gauge
 Stop Watch
 Meter rod
 Constant supply of water
Theory:
Notch: A notch or not maybe like an orifice with water surface below its upper edge.
Crest: The bottom edge over which the liquid flows is known as crest or sill
Napple: The sheet of flowing fluid over a nauseous known as Snapple or vein
End Contraction: When breadth of a rectangular notch is less than width of the channel there
will be the lateral contraction of napple. This contraction is called end contraction.
Sharp crested rectangular notch weirs:
Q = Cd LH3/2
Q = discharge (cfs)
Cd = coefficient of discharge
L = Width of notch feet
H = Depth of flow feet
Utilization:
 Used in calculating pollutant loading (lake water quality studies)
 Determining basin water yield (for watershed and lake modelling studies)
 Calibrate runoff and water quality models (for permit limits urban stormwater
characterization)
 Believable way to quantify complex highly variable systems
 An initial flow estimate is required to ensure the notch in an appropriate size. The weir
must be perfectly sealed. Permanent weirs are costly. Even a temporary where can be
problematic and time-consuming to construct.
 Measurement of discharge for experimental purposes
 In hydraulic model construction
 In study of hydraulic models
 Used as flow gauging

Procedure:
Determine the volumetric capacity of the measuring tank. Allow the contact discharge to flow
through the channel. Note the time to fill the measuring tank and record the reading of the hook
gauge. Repeat the experiment for different discharge.
Theoretical discharge is given by the formula
Qth =2/3 b√2g h3/2
where
b = breadth of the rectangular notch
h = height of the water above crest

Experimental discharge is calculated as

Qexp = vol/time
Coefficient of discharge is given by
Cd = Qexp/Qth

(Rectangular Wier Installed on H.B) (Taking Readings on Rectangular Wier’s Scale)

Observations and Calculations:

 Head b h Volume Time Qact Qth
Sr.No Cd
(m) (m) (m) (m3) (sec) (m3/s) (m3/s)

Precautions:
 No leakage should be there in the water tank
 The volume measuring tank (bucket) should be also watertight
 Time reading should be taken very carefully
Comments:
By this experiment I came to know how to find actual and theoretical discharge and difference
between them. I also realized that triangular notch system is easier to use than rectangular notch.
 Experiment 6 (b):

To Determine the Co-efficient of Discharge for Triangular Notch

Objective: To determine the coefficient of discharge for triangular notch

Apparatus Required:
 Volume measuring tank
 Hook gauge
 Stop Watch
 Meter rod
 Constant supply of water
Theory:
Notch: A notch or not maybe like an orifice with water surface below its upper edge.
Crest: The bottom edge over which the liquid flows is known as crest or sill.
Napple: The sheet of flowing fluid over a notch is known as napple or vein.
End Contraction: When breadth of a rectangular notch is less than width of the channel there
will be the lateral contraction of napple. This contraction is called end contraction.
Advantages of Triangular Notch over Rectangular Notch:
 In case of triangular notch only one reading that is h is required for computation of
discharge
 Ventilation of a triangular notch is not necessary
 The expression for discharge for right angled V notch is very simple
 For measuring low discharge triangular notch gives more accurate results than the
triangular notch
 Same triangular notch can measure a wide range of flow accurately

Procedure:
Determine the volumetric capacity of the measuring tank. Allow the contact discharge to flow
through the channel. Note the time to fill the measuring tank and record the reading of the hook
gauge. Repeat the experiment for different discharge.
Theoretical discharge is given by the formula
Qth =8/15 tan θ/2√2g h5/2
where
θ = Angle of notch
h = head of water above apex of notch

Experimental discharge is calculated as

Qexp = vol/time
Coefficient of discharge is given by
Cd = Qexp/Qth

(Triangular Wier Installed on H.B) (Taking Readings on Triangular Wier’s Scale)

Observations and Calculations:

Head h Volume Time Qact Qth

Sr. No θ 3 3
Cd
(m) (m) (m ) (sec) (m /s) (m3/s)

Precautions:
 No leakage should be there in the water tank
 The volume measuring tank (bucket) should be also watertight
 Time reading should be taken very carefully

Comments:
I came to know that there is a small difference between the value of the discharge calculated by
the two methods actual and theoretical discharge respectively. The coefficient of discharge less
than one but near to 1.
 Experiment 7:

To Determine the Co-efficient of Contraction, Velocity & Co-efficient of

Discharge for an orifice

Objective:
  Studying the flow through small orifice or studying of opening with the different inlet
and outlet contours
 Calculating the coefficient of discharge
 Calculating the coefficient of velocity
 Calculating the coefficient of contraction
 Calculating the diameter of jet
Apparatus Required:
 Orifice and jet apparatus
 Hydraulic bench
 Meter rod
 Stopwatch
 Constant supply of water
Theory:
Orifice: An orifice is a small opening in the site or base of the tag coronavirus through
which a fluid is flowing in the form of a jet. The discharge will depend upon the head of
the fluid above the level of the orifice. The term small opening means that the diameter of
the orifice is small compared with the head producing flow.
Types of orifice:
 Small orifice
 Large orifice
According to shape:
 Circular orifice
 Rectangular orifice
 Triangular orifice
 Square orifice
Vena Contracta: Section of jet where streamlines are straight and parallel to each other
and perpendicular to the plane of orifice. This section is called vena contracta. Beyond
this section, the jet is diverse and is attracted in the downward direction by gravity.
Area of vena contracta is remain always less than area of orifice
Ajet < Aorifice
Ajet = Cc * Aorifice
Cc is coefficient of contraction and remain always >1
Velocity of fluid at vena contracta is less than theoretical velocity
Vjet <Vtheoretical
Vjet = Cv * Vtheoretical
 Cv is the coefficient of velocity and remain always >1
Hydraulic Coefficient:
The hydraulic coefficients are:
 Coefficient of contraction
 Coefficient of velocity
 Coefficient of discharge
Coefficient of contraction: It is the ratio between the area of the jet at vena contracta to
the area of orifice. It is denoted by Cc
Cc = Ajet /Aorifice
The values of Cc vary from 0.61 to 0.69 depending on shape and size of the orifice and
the head of the liquid under which flow takes place. In general, the value of C c may be
taken 0.64. Range of Cc for sharpest aperture is 0.61 to 0.64. For well-rounded aperture is
1.
Coefficient of velocity: It is the ratio between the actual velocity of jet at vena contracta
and the theoretical velocity. It is denoted by Cv.
Cv = Vjet / Vtheoretical
The value of Cv varies from 0.95 to 0.99 for different orifice, depending on the shape size
of the orifice and the head under which flow takes place. Generally, the value of C v is
0.98 is taken for sharp edged orifices.
Coefficient of discharge: It is the ratio between the actual discharge of the orifice and
the theoretical discharge of the orifice. It is denoted by Cd
Cd = Qactual / Qtheoretical
C d = Cv * C c
The value of Cd varies from 0.61 to 0.65. For general purpose the value of C d is taken as
0.62. Range for Cd for well-rounded aperture is 0.97 to 0.99

Procedure
 Screw the relevant nozzle and sealing ring into the base of the tank from underneath
  Open drain of instrument
 Close main cock of instrument
 Switch on the pump of instrument
 Slowly open main cock and adjust discharge height. Water level should be below the
overflow
 Adjust the height of the inlet basket so that it is not immersed in the water
 Read off static head of water
 Rotate pitot tube in the center of jet and read off total head of water
 Using the star screw, unscrew the spindle until the tip of the spindle just touching the
water jet and read off the value on the micrometer

(Orifice Used in Experiment) (Taking Reading on the Apparatus during

experiment)

Observations & Calculations:

 Measurement Number
Dia. Of Orifice (mm)
Micrometer Reading
Dia. Of Jet (mm)
Static Head (mm)
Total Head (mm)
Theoretical Velocity (m/s)
Rate Flow
Velocity of jet (m/s)
Coefficient of Contraction
Coefficient of Velocity
Coefficient of Discharge

Precautions:
 Avoid touching the tip of the spindle
 Do not turn the tip of the spindle against the adjusting aid
 It is recommended that measurement is carried out with the most possible precision
 Take measurements of jet as close to the outlet as possible
Comments:
 Coefficient of contractions remain same
 Flow rate of orifice increases
 Coefficient of velocity and discharge increases