Chapter 1

Use of Basic Mathematics and

Calculus in Physics
‘‘The great book of nature can be read only by those who know the language in which it was written. And this
language is mathematics”.
— Galileo

1. Introduction The above three methods convey the same information,

however, in different ways. In physics, we are often asked
Laws in physics are often written in mathematical forms to present the relation between two quantities in the form
which make them more useful towards predicting solutions of a graph. Graphs are an easier and faster way of under-
to complex problems. Problem solving in physics is just standing the relation between two quantities. Besides this,
impossible without the extensive use of mathematics. graphs have many other information embedded in them. The
Fact of the matter is that there is no limit to the extent steepness of a graph and the area enclosed under it are two
to which mathematics can be used in physics. However, we key informations which will help us in analysing physical
will try to cover the bare minimum mathematical concepts situations. Here, we will discuss straight line graphs and
and theorems (mostly without any proof) which can get us some standard geometrical curves. We will also learn the
started in physics. Our main target in this chapter will be meaning of slope.
to learn the use of calculus in physics at a very basic level
besides few other important concepts and formulae. 2.1 Straight line graphs and slope
If two quantities x and y are related to each other by an equa-
2. Presenting Data in Form of tion of the form ax + by + c = 0 (a and b are constants and
both are not zero), then graph of y versus x is a straight line.
Graph Such equation is known as a linear equation in x and y.
Consider a young physicist studying the motion of a moving To plot the graph of a linear equation, we just need to
object. She records the distance travelled (S) by the object as know the coordinates of two points lying on it. Such two
time (t) changes. She records her findings in a tabular form. points can be easily located.
The table is given below. Her friend tells her that the same c
data can be presented in a nicer way by plotting a graph when x = 0, y = – ​ __​
b
between S and t. Their professor tells them that there is an c
even better way; they can write variation of S with t in the and when y = 0, x = – ​ __ a​
form of a mathematical equation. Therefore, graph of ax + by + c = 0 is a straight line passing
through points.
( ) c
( ) c
​ 0, – ​ __​  ​ and ​ – ​ __
b a ​, 0 ​

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1.2 Mechanics – I

4
Example 1 Plot the y vs x graph for the following of the line is ​ __ ​. Similarly, y-intercept of the other two lines
equations 3
in the above example are 1 and 0.
(i) 2x – 3y + 4 = 0, (ii) x + y – 1 = 0, (iii) y = 2x
x-intercept is the distance from origin where the line
Solution intersects with x-axis. In the above example, the x-intercept
of the three lines are – 2, 1 and 0, respectively.
Concepts
(i) A linear equation of form ax + by + c = 0 represents 2.1.1 Slope (m)
a straight line.
Slope of a line is a mathematical term which measures its
c
The line passes through points ​ 0, – ​ __ ​  ​ and​
c
b ( ) steepness. The line shown in the figure makes an angle q

a (
– ​ __ ,
​ 0).
​ with positive x direction, and its slope is defined as
m = tan q.
(ii) If c = 0, i.e., the equation of line is ax + by = 0,
y
then the line passes through the origin (0, 0).

4
(i) when, x = 0, y = __
​   ​
3
when, y = 0, x = – 2 q
x
y

A higher value of q represents a steeper line. You must

0, 4
3 note that value of tan q increases as angle q is increased
from 0° to 90°.
(–2, 0) y
x
O 2

4
Line passes through ​ 0, __ ( )
​   ​  ​ and (– 2, 0).
3 y q2 q1
1

x
(ii) when x = 0, y = 1 q 2 > q1
(0, 1) Line 2 is having higher
when y = 0, x = 1
slope than line 1.
Line passes through (0, 1)
and (1, 0). When q = 0°, it implies that the line is parallel to x-axis.
(iii) y = 2x (1, 0)
x
Such (apparently flat) line has zero slope (tan 0° = 0).
O
Here c = 0, and the line When q = 90°, the line is parallel to y-axis, and it has
passes through origin (0, 0). You can take one more largest possible steepness. Slope of the line is tan  90° = •
point, say y 2
x = 1, y = 2.
y
1

2 x
1 has zero slope
slope of 2 is infinite.
x
O 1
We differentiate between lines where y is increasing with
Note: The distance from origin where the line intersects x and where y is decreasing with x. Slope of a line of latter
with y-axis is known as y-intercept of the line. Look at the type is taken to be negative. Slope of line l shown in the
graph of equation 2x – 3y + 4 = 0 given above. y-intercept figure is

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 Use of Basic Mathematics and Calculus in Physics 1.3

m = tan q 2.1.2 Slope Form of Equation of a Straight Line

= tan (180° – a)
Equation of a straight line can be put into a form
= – tan a
y = mx + c
y y
where m and c are constants. These two constants are
important information regarding the line.
m = slope of the line

and c = y–intercept of the line.
q
a   Example 4 Write the equation of straight line 2y – 2x – 3 = 0
x x
Line with positive slope
in slope form. Plot the line and write its slope as well as
Line with negative slope
y increases with x y decreases with x y–intercept.
Solution
Concepts
Example 2 Write the slope of the lines shown in the figure.
Write the given equation in y = mx + c form.

2y – 2x – 3 = 0
3
fi  y = x + __
​   ​
2
Comparing with y = mx + c gives
y

0, 3
2
Solution
– 3, 0
2 q
Concepts x
O
m = tan q m = tan q = 1
q = 45°
For a line with a negative slope,
m = – tan a. Slope m=1
3
For l1 : m1 = tan 45° = 1 and y-intercept c = __
​   ​
2
For l2 : m2 = – tan 45° = – 1
Graph is as shown.
1
For l3 : m3 = tan 30° = ___
​  __ ​ In Short
÷
​ 3 ​
(i) A linear equation ax + by + c = 0 represents a straight
  Example 3 Draw three lines having equal slope of 1 and line.
y-intercepts as 1, 0 and – 1.
(ii) For plotting a straight line, we need to find coordinates
Solution of two points lying on it.
Concepts (iii) When equation of a straight line is written as
y = mx + c, it is known as the slope form of the
All lines with equal slopes will be parallel to each other. equation of the line.
Three lines are shown as l1, l2 and l3. m = slope of line = tan q
where q is the angle made by the line with positive
y
1 direction of x-axis.
2
(0, 1) 3 c = y-intercept = distance from origin where the line
intercepts the y-axis.
45° 45° 45° x
O (1, 0) (iv) A line has a positive slope (as if you are climbing a
hill) when y increases with increasing x. A line has
(0, –1)
a negative slope (as if you are climbing down a hill)
when y decreases with increasing x.
(v) Parallel lines have equal slope.
Slope = tan 45° = 1

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1.4 Mechanics – I

Your Turn
Q.1 Plot the following straight lines: Q.3 Plot a straight line with slope ​ __3 ​ and y intercept 6.
4
(i) 2y + 2x = 1 (ii) y – x = 3
Also write the equation of the line.
(iii) y = x (iv) y = x + 2
Q.2 Write the slope of all lines in the last question.

2.2 Parabola If x happens to be a quadratic function of y, then the

When the relation between two quantities y and x is not curve is a parabola as shown in the figure.
linear, the graph of y vs x is not a straight line. It is a curve.
Parabola, circle, ellipse, hyperbola, spiral, etc. are different x = ay2 + by + c
types of curves – each represented by a different form of
mathematical equation. In this section, we will discuss a y y
curve called parabola.
When y is a quadratic function of y
x (i.e., y = ax2 + bx + c), the graph
between y and x appears as a curve
shown in the figure. This curve is
called a parabola. When coefficient of x x
x
x2 (i.e., ‘a’) is a positive number, the ‘a’ positive ‘a’ positive
‘a’ negative
y
curve is upward opening, and when
‘a’ is a negative number, it is down-
ward opening.
  Example 5 Distance travelled by a particle changes with
By solving the quadratic equa- time as s = t2. Plot a graph showing variation of s with t.
tion ax2 + bx + c = 0, we get the x
points where the parabola intersects ‘a ’ negative Solution
with the x-axis. If the equation has Concepts
no real roots, then the parabola will not intersect the x-axis
(as shown in the first figure). (i) s = at2 + bt + c where b = c = 0 and a = 1.
If the parabola intersects the x-axis at x1 and x2 then its Graph is a parabola.
x1 + x2 (ii) While plotting graphs in physics, we must be
vertex has x co-ordinate equal to ______
​   ​. aware of the physical situations and should not
2
follow mathematics blindly. Here, we must take
into account that in the given context, time cannot
y
Vertex be negative therefore, we should plot the graph
only for positive values of t.
line of
symmetry
s = t2
x1 x2
x The graph will pass through origin as s = 0, when
x1 + x2
2
t = 0.
Vertex of the parabola is at origin with y-axis (i.e., s axis)
Parabola is a symmetric curve about a line parallel to being its line of symmetry. It is easy to see that s cannot be
y-axis and passing through its vertex. negative.

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 Use of Basic Mathematics and Calculus in Physics 1.5

fi  t = 0, t = 4 s

graph intersects time axis at t = 0 and t = 4 s.

symmetry axis is a line passing through t = 2 and parallel
to y-axis.
vertex is at t = 2.

y (m)
  Example 6 Height (y) attained by a particle projected from
the surface of the Earth changes with time (t) as 20
2
y = 20t – 5t
Draw a graph representing variation of y (in m) with t (in s).
t (s)
Solution O 2 4

Concepts
Note: We can find maximum value of y by putting t = 2
(i) y is a quadratic function of time. in the given equation.
Hence, y vs t graph is a parabola.
ymax = 20 × 2 – 5 × 22 = 20 m.
(ii) coefficient of t2 is negative (= – 5); hence, the
graph is a downward opening parabola.
In short:
(iii) By solving 20t – 5t2 = 0, we get points where the
(i) y = ax2 + bx + c (a π 0) represents a parabola.
graph intersects time axis.
(ii) Parabola is upward opening if ‘a’ is positive, and it
(iv) Physically y cannot be negative.
is downward opening when ‘a’ is negative.
(iii) Roots of quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 give the
y = 20t – 5t2
point of intersection of the parabola with x-axis.
y = 0 when, If the roots are equal, then x-axis is tangent to the
parabola at its vertex. If there are no real roots, the
20t – 5t2 = 0 parabola is either completely above the x-axis or
fi  t (20 – 5t) = 0 completely below it.

Your Turn
Q.4 Plot the graph for
(v) y = x2 – 2x + 1 (vi) y = – x2 – 2x – 1
(i) y = 2x2 (ii) y = – x2
Q.5 Find the minimum value of y if y = x2 + 2x – 3.
(iii) y = x2 – x (iv) y = 2x2 – x

2.3 Other Important Graphs 2.3.1 Circle

Here, we present few other commonly occruing graphs in x2 + y2 = R2 represents a circle with radius R and centre at
our course. the origin.
(x – a)2 + (y – b )2 = R2 represents a circle with radius
R and centre at (a, b ).

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1.6 Mechanics – I

y y y y

R R x x
x (a, b)
O
C>o C<o
x
2 2 2
2
x +y =R
2 2 (x – a) + (y – b) = R

2.3.4 Exponential function

y = ax, a > 0 is an exponential function. When a > 1, y
2.3.2 Ellipse
increases with increase in x. when 0 < a < 1, y decreases
2 with increase in x. Note that when x = 0, we have y = 1.
x2
__ y
​  2 ​ + ​ __2 ​ = 1 represents an ellipse with geometrical centre
a b y y
at the origin.

y (0, 1) (0, 1)

(0, b) x x
O O
a>1 o<a<1
x
(– a, 0) O (a, 0)

(0, – b) 2.3.5 Logarithmic Function

y = loge x = lnx
This ellipse intersects with x-axis at (a, 0) and (– a, 0)
and with y-axis at (0, b) and (0, – b). y
‘a’ is known as semimajor axis and ‘b’ is called semiminor
axis of the ellipse if a > b.

O x
y (1, 0)
a

Natural logarithm with base ‘e’ is denoted by ln.

b (a, b)

2.3.6 Sine Function

x
O
y = sin x and y = cos x both are periodic functions with
period 2p.
y – b )2
(x – a)2 (_______
General equation of an ellipse is ​ _______
 ​ + ​   ​ = 1 – 1 £ sin x £ 1 and – 1 £ cos x £ 1
a2 b2
y = sin x
(a, b ) is the geometric centre of the ellipse. 1

– p /2 p
x
2.3.3 Rectangular Hyperbola –2p –p O p 3p 2p
2 2
xy = C (= a constant) represents a rectangle hyperbola. Graph –1
of y vs x is as shown. Note that as x gets very close to
y = cos x
( )C
zero, value of y ​ = __
​ x ​  ​ becomes very large in magnitude.
– p /2 2p
Similarly, when x is extremely large, value of y will become p x
– 2p – 3p –p O p 3p 3p
very small. 2 2 2

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 Use of Basic Mathematics and Calculus in Physics 1.7

Graph is a rectangular hyperbola.

  Example 7 Plot graph of y = e–x for positive values of x.
y
Solution
Concepts
(i) ‘e’ is base of natural logarithm
It’s value is > 1 (e  2.72)
(ii) At x = 0 ; y = e–0 = 1
1 x
(iii) As x increases, y = __
​  x ​ decreases.
e
Graph is as shown in the figure   Example 10 Plot y = 2 sin x for 0 £ x £ 2p
y Solution
Concepts
1
maximum and minimum value of sin x is + 1 and – 1,
respectively. Hence, maximum and minimum value of y
is + 2 and – 2, respectively.

x y
O

2
–x
  Example 8 Plot y = 1 – e , for x > 0. O
p 3p /2 2p x
p
2
Solution –2
Concepts
(i) At x = 0 , y = 1 – 1 = 0
(ii) when x becomes large, e–x becomes very small and 2.4 Slope of a curve
y gets close to 1. A straight line has a fixed slope and a curve is something
which has a variable slope. Just by visual observation, it is
possible to tell that steepness (i.e., slope) of the first curve
y shown in the figure is increasing and the slope of second
curve is decreasing.
1

O x

  Example 9 A quantity y is inversely proportional to x.

Plot graph of y vs x for x > 0, assuming the proportionality Mathematically, slope of a curve at a point is taken as
constant to be positive. slope of the tangent of the curve at that point. In the figure
shown, APB is tangent to the curve at point P. Slope of the
Solution curve at P = slope of line APB = tan q
Concepts
1
y µ __​ x ​
c
fi  y = __
​ x ​.

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1.8 Mechanics – I

Your Turn
Q.6 Plot the graph of y vs x for x > 0, if y2 = 42 – x2 y

C
Q.7 Potential energy (U ) of a two particle system depends
on distance (r) between them as B
k
U = – ​ __r ​ where k is a positive constant. A

x
Plot a graph of U vs r. consider r > 0. O

Q.8 Plot a graph for Q.10 The figure shows a curve and a straight line OB.
(i) y = 2 cos x for 0 £ x £ p Which is greater — slope of the curve at A or slope of the
(ii) y = 2 e–x for x > 0 line OB?
(iii) y = 2(1 – e–x) for x > 0. y

Q.9 Slope of the curve shown in figure at points A, B

and C is m1, m2 and m3, respectively. Rank m1, m2 and
m3 — largest first. A

x
O

3. MEASUREMENT OF ANGLE IN RADIAN 2p r

Solution Arc length = ____
​   ​
3
Consider an arc xy of length l on a circle of radius r. Angle
arc 2p r
subtended by the arc at the centre of the circle is angle = q = ______
​   ​ = ____
​  ​
radius 3◊r
l
q = _​ r ​ in radian. 2p 2
q = ___
​   ​ radian = __
​   ​ × 180° = 120°
One radian is the angle subtended at the centre of a circle 3 3
by an arc of length equal to the radius of the circle.
i.e. if arc xy = r, q = 1 radian y 4. IMPORTANT TRIGONOMETRIC
Considering complete circle as
r
RELATIONS
an arc l
0 q 1. sin2 q + cos2q = 1
l = 2p r
x
sec2 q – tan2 q = 1
Angle subtended by this arc at the
centre is cosec2 q – cot2 q = 1
l 2p r
\ q = _​ r ​ = ____
​  r ​ = 2p 2. sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B

Hence, 2p radian = 360° sin(A – B) = sin A cos B – cos A sin B

fi p radian = 180° cos(A + B) = cos A cos B – sin A sin B

180° cos(A – B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B

fi 1 radian = ____
​  p ​ = 57.29°
C+D C– D
3. sin C + sin D = 2 sin ​ ______
 ​ cos ​ _____
 ​
2 2
  Example 11 A particle moving with constant velocity on a
circular path traverses one-third part of circumference. Find C+ D C– D
sin C – sin D = 2 cos ​ ______
 ​ sin ​ _____
the angle (in degree) traced by the particle at the centre 2 2
 ​
during its motion.

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 Use of Basic Mathematics and Calculus in Physics 1.9

C+D C–D Find the value of sin–1 1.

cos C + cos D = 2 cos ​ ______
 ​ cos ​ _____
 ​   Example 15
2 2
Solution We are to write the angle, sine to which is 1.
C+D D–C
cosC – cos D = 2 sin ​ ______
 ​ sin ​ _____
 ​ p
2 2 \  Answer is __
​   ​
2
4. 2sin A cos B = sin(A + B) + sin(A – B)
2cos A sin B = sin(A + B) – sin(A – B)   Example 16 Find value of sin 1°.

2cos A cos B = cos(A + B) + cos(A – B) Solution

2sin A sin B = cos(A – B) – cos(A + B) Concepts

5. sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A If x is small, then sinx x

cos 2A = cos2 A – sin2 A = 1 – 2sin2 A p

1° = ____
​   ​ radian
180
= 2cos2 A – 1
p p
\
1 – cos 2A
sin A = _________
2
​ 
1 + cos 2 A
 ​ and cos2 A = ​ __________
 ​
  
( )
sin 1° = sin​ ____
​   ​  ​
180
____
180
3.14
​   ​ = ____
​   ​ = 0.017
180
2 2

​ 
2tan A
tan2 A = ________ ​ 5. OTHER IMPORTANT RESULTS AND
1 – tan2 A
FORMULAE
6. Inverse trigonometric functions
If sin q = x, we write 5.1 Binomial Theorem
q = sin–1 x [read as ‘sine inverse x’] If |x| < 1 and n is a fraction or a negative integer, then
Important: sin–1(sin x) = x and n(n – 1) n(n – 1)(n – 2) 3
sin(sin–1 x) = x (1 + x)n = 1 + n x + ​ _______ ​ x2 + ​  ____________
  
  
 ​ x ...
2×1 3×2×1
7. Small angle approximations: There are infinite number of terms in the expansion.
If x is small, then When n is a whole number, there are (n + 1) terms in
sin x tan x x [while using this always remember the expansion.
that x should be in radian] Binomial Approximation
cos x 1 If x is very small compared to 1 (x << 1), then each successive
term in the above expansion becomes smaller and smaller.
  Example 12
Depending on the accuracy required, we can keep first few
75 + 15 75 – 15 terms in the expansion and neglect all other terms containing
sin 75° + sin15° = 2 sin ​ _______
 ​ ◊ cos ​ _______
 ​
2 2 higher power of x. Most of the time it will be sufficient to
__ __
retain first two terms only, and we can write
÷
1 ÷
​ 3 ​ 3
= 2sin 45°  cos 30° = 2 × ___ ​  __ ​ × ___
​   ​ = ​ __
​   ​ ​
÷
​ 2 ​ 2 2 (1 + x)n 1 + nx for x << 1.
  Example 13
  Example 17 Find the value of (4 + 0.004)1/2
2 sin 60° cos 30° = sin(60° + 30°) + sin(60° – 30°)
Solution
1 3
= sin 90° + sin 30° = 1 + __
​   ​ = ​ __ ​ Concepts
2 2
  Example 14 Use binomial approximation (1 + x)n 1 + nx

(i) sin 120° = sin(2 × 60°) = 2 sin 60° ◊ cos60° (4 + 0.004)1/2 = 2(1 + 0.001)0.5
__ __
​ 3 ​ 1 ÷
÷ ​ 3 ​
= 2 × ___
​   ​ × ​ __ ​ = ___
​   ​ = 2(1 + 0.5 × 0.001) = 2(1.0005)
2 2 2
= 2.001
(ii) cos 120° = cos(2 × 60°) = cos2 60° – sin2 60°
__

() ( )
12 ​ 3 ​ 2
÷ 1 3 1   Example 18According to Einstein’s theory of relativity,
= ​​ __
​   ​  ​​ ​ – ​​ ___
​   ​  ​​ ​ = __
​   ​ – __
​   ​ = – ​ __ ​ mass m of a body moving with a velocity v is given by
2 2 4 4 2

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1.10 Mechanics – I

m0 1
m = ​ _______
______  ​, where m0 is rest mass of the body and c is a = 1, r = __
​   ​

÷
v2 2
​ 1 – ​ __2 ​ ​
a 1
c S• = ____
​  ​ = _____
​   ​ = 2
1–r 1
speed of light = 3 × 108 ms–1. Find value of m, if m0 = 10 kg 1 – __
​   ​
2
and v = 3 × 107 ms–1.
6. Rate of Change
( ) [ ( )]
–1/2
v2 –1/2 3 × 107 2
Solution m = m0 ​​ 1 – __
​  2 ​  ​​ ​ = 10 ​​ 1 – ​​ ​ _______8 ​  ​​ ​  ​​ ​
c 3 × 10 You were nearly 40 inches tall at an age of 4 years. Now
you are 16 years old and your height is 70 inches. We say
[ ] 1 –1/2
= 10 ​​ 1 – ____
​   ​  ​​ ​
100
that your height has changed by
D h = h2 – h1 = 70 – 40 = 30 inches
ª 10 ​[ 1 – ​( – ​ __ ​ )​ ​( ____
2 100 ) ]
1 1 10
​   ​  ​  ​ = 10 + ____
​   ​ D (read as ‘Delta’) is a symbol used to denote change.
200
This change in height took place when time changed by
ª 10.05 kg
D t = t2 – t1 = 16 – 4 = 12 years.

5.2 Arithmetic Progression (AP) We say that rate of change of your height is
General form: a, a + d, a + 2d, …, a + (n – 1)d Dh 30 inches
​ ___​ = ​ ________ ​ = 2.5 inches year–1.
Here, a = first term, d = common difference Dt 12 years
n But is does not mean that every year your height grew
Sum of n terms Sn = __
​   ​ [a + a + (n – 1)d] by 2.5 in. Fact is that you were growing much rapidly
2
when you were younger. We can say that the average rate
n
= __
​   ​ [1st term + nth term] of change of your height during the interval of 12 years is
2 2.5 in/year. It may not be equal to the rate at which your
height is changing right now.
  Example 19 Find sum of first n natural numbers.
Take another example. Suppose you ride from your house
Solution Sn = 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n
(
1
)
to your school in Dt = 15 min ​ = ​ __ ​ h ​. Distance between
4

n
[
n(n + 1)
Sn = ​ __ ​ [1 + n] = ​ ​ _______
2 2
 ​  ​ ] your house and school is D s = 4 km. We say that your aver-
age speed (defined as average rate of change of distance with
respect to time) is
5.3 Geometric Progression (GP)
Ds 4 km
vav = ​ ___​ = ____
​   ​ = 16 km h–1.
General form: a, ar, ar2, ..., arn – 1
; here a = first term, Dt 1/4 h
r = common ratio However, the speed of your bike varies randomly during
a(1 – rn) the 15-minute interval depending on traffic conditions. At a
Sum of n terms Sn = ​ _______ ​
1–r certain point of time your bike might have been travelling at
40 km h–1 and at some other time your speed was 5 km h–1.
The sum of an infinite geometric progression whose first The reading of the speedometer tells you the speed of bike
term is ‘a’ and common ratio is ‘r’ (–1 < r < 1, i.e., |r| at a particular moment. What the speedometer tells you is
< 1) is known as instantaneous speed (i.e, rate of change of distance
a
S• = ​ ____ ​ with respect to time at an instant). How can we mathemati-
1–r cally express this instantaneous rate of change of distance?
Let’s discuss this.
  Example 20 Find 1 + 1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8 + ...upto •. Suppose you are riding your bike on a straight road and
you are at point A at time t. In interval of time Dt, you move
Solution to point B. Your distance travelled in time Dt is AB = Ds.
Concepts
t t + Dt
1
This is infinite GP with common ratio = __
​   ​ (< 1)
2
A B
DS

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 Use of Basic Mathematics and Calculus in Physics 1.11

Your average speed (rate of change of distance) in interval Differentiation of y with respect to x is defined as
Dt is

Ds
vav = ___
​  ​
Dt

dy
​ ___​ = ​   
dx D x Æ 0 D x ( )
Dy
lim ​ ​ ___
​  ​  ​

Now think of a very small interval of time say D t = 0.01 s.

We can assume that speed of the bike would remain practically
( )
dy
​ ___
​  ​  ​ is also called as differential coefficient of y with
dx
unchanged in such a small interval and may agree to call respect to x or derivative of y with respect to x.
the above speed as instantaneous speed at time t. But what dy
if technology improves and a bike is made which can speed ​ ___​gives the instantaneous rate of change of y with respect
dx
Ds
up from 0 to 100 km h–1 in 0.01 s! In that case, ​ ___​ cannot be to x.
Dt
termed as speed at an instant; it is average speed in interval Below, we give some rules and formulae for finding
Dt = 0.01s. differentiation.
Well, think of a time interval that is small Some basic formulae
beyond imagination (i.e, infinitesimally small). Take
D t = 0.00000000000 ...1s. We say that D t is tending to dc
zero (written as D t Æ 0). (i) ​ ___​ = 0, where c is a constant
dx
In such a small interval, speed of no bike can change
d(xn)
and it will travel through an infinitesimally small distance (ii) ​ _____​ = nxn – 1
Ds dx
D s Æ 0. In this case, the ratio ​ ___​ is the speed at the instant
Dt d
(iii) ​ ___​ (sin x) = cos x
the bike is at A. Though D t and D s are infinitesimally small, dx
their ratio is finite. In mathematical language, we write the d
(iv) ​ ___​ (cos x) = – sin x
speed as dx
v =    ( )
DtÆ0 D t
Ds
​ limit ​ ​ ___
​  ​  ​ d
(v) ​ ___​ (tan x) = sec2 x
dx
The mathematical process of finding the above limit is d
(vi) ​ ___​ (cot x) = – cosec2 x
termed as differentiation. We write the above expression as dx

v =   
DtÆ0 D t ( )
Ds
​ limit ​ ​ ___
ds
​  ​  ​ = __
​  ​
dt
d
(vii) ​ ___​ (sec x) = sec x ◊ tan x
dx
ds
and ​ __ ​ is read as differentiation of s with respect to d
(viii) ​ ___​(cosec x) = – cosec x ◊ cot x
dt dx
(wrt) t.
d 1
It is interesting to note that ‘dt’ is a symbol which stands (ix) ​ ___​(log x) = __
​ x ​
dx
for infinitesimally small change in time (i.e., Dt is written
d
as ‘dt’ when D t Æ 0) and ‘ds’ is a symbol indicating (x) ​ ___​ (ex) = ex
infinitesimally small change in distance travelled. The pro- dx
cess of evaluating the ratio of these two infinitesimally small
quantities, ds and dt, is known as differentiation of s wrt t. Some other formulae
You will learn about the fundamental method of (May skip in first reading)
differentiation in your course of calculus. Here, we will d 1
just give few basic rules and formulae for differentiation. (i) ​ ___​(sin–1 x) = ______
​  _____  ​
dx ÷​ 1 – x2 ​
All you need to remember from the above discussion is
that differentiation is needed whenever we want to find d 1
(ii) ​ ___​ (cos–1 x) = – ______
​  _____  ​
instantaneous rate of change. dx ​÷1 – x2 ​
d 1
(iii) ​ ___​ (tan–1 x) = ______
​   ​
7. DIFFERENTIATION dx 1 + x2
Let y be a quantity that depends on x. We say that y is a d 1
(iv) ​ ___​ (cot–1 x) = – ​ _____2 ​
function of x. It is written as y = f (x). dx 1+x
When x changes, y may also changes. Let D y be a change d 1
in y corresponding to a change D x in x. (v) ​ ___​ (sec–1 x) = _______
​  _____  ​
dx x​÷x – 1 ​
2

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1.12 Mechanics – I

d 1 –3
(vi) ​ ___​ (cosec–1 x) = – _______
​  _____  ​ = – 3x– 4 = ___
​  4 ​
dx x​÷x2 – 1 ​ x
Rules
​   ​ dy
1
__ __ 1 __​ 1 ​– 1 1 – ​ __12 ​ ____1
(iii) y = ​÷x ​ = x​ ​2 ​; ___
​  ​ = __
​   ​ ​x​2 ​ = __
​   ​​x​ ​ = ​  __ ​
d d dx 2 2 2​÷x ​
(i) ___
​  ​ [k ◊ f (x)] = k ◊ ​ ___​ f (x) , where k is a constant.
dx dx
dy
(iv) y = x1; ​ ___​ = 1◊x1–1 = l ◊ x0 = 1
(ii) Differential coefficient of sum of two functions dx

d d d
​ ___​{f1(x) ± f2(x)} = ___
​  ​ {f1(x)} ± ​ ___​ {f2 (x)} dy
dx dx dx   Example 22 Find ___
​  ​ in the following cases
dx
(iii) Differential coefficient of product of two functions
(i) y = 2x (ii) y = 4 sinx (iii) y = 3x2
d d d
​ ___​ {f1(x) ◊ f2(x)} = f1(x) ◊​___​{f2(x)} + f2(x) ◊ ​ ___​{f1(x)} Solution
dx dx dx
Concepts
(iv) Differential coefficient of quotient of two functions d
___ d
​  ​ [ k f(x)] = k ​ ___​ f (x)
d d dx dx
f2(x) ◊ ​ ___​{f1(x)} – f1(x) ◊ ​ ___​{f2(x)}
d
​ ___​ ​
dx { }
f1(x)
____
​ 
f2(x)
 ​  ​ = ​ 
dx
___________________________
    
{f2(x)}2
 ​
dx
   (i) y = 2x

dy dx
(v) chain rule: ​ ___​ = 2 ◊ ​ ___​
dy dy dt dx dx
​ ___​ = ​ ___​ × ___
​  ​
dx dt dx [place constant 2 outside differentiation]
(vi) If y is a function of t while x too is a function of t,
= 2 × 1
dy
then we can find out ___
​  ​
dx = 2
y = f(t) and x = f (t), then we can easily find (ii) y = 4 sinx
dy dx
out ___
​  ​ & ___
​  ​. dy
dt dt ___ d
​  ​ = 4 ___
​  ​ (sin x) = 4cos x
Thereafter, we can use the following formula to determine dx dx
dy
the value of ___
​  ​. (iii) y = 3x2
dx
dy
___ d
dy dy/dt ​  ​ = 3 ​ ___​ (x2) = 3 (2x2 – 1) = 6x.
​ ___​ = _____ ​  ​ dx dx
dx dx/dt
dy
  Example 21 Differentiate the following with respect to x   Example 23 Find ___
​  ​ in the following cases
dx
1 __
(i) x6 (ii) __
​  3 ​  (iii) ÷
​ x ​  (iv) x
x (i) y = sin x + x2 (ii) y = 2x3 – lnx
Solution
Concepts Solution

d(xn) Concepts
​ _____​ = nxn–1
dx d
___ d d
​  ​ [ f1 (x) ± f2(x)] = ___
​  ​ f1 (x) ± ___
​  ​ f2(x)
dx dx dx
dy
(i) y = x6; ​ ___​ = 6x6 – 1 = 6x5 All terms separated by ± sign should be differentiated
dx
separately.
1 dy
(ii) y = ​ __3 ​ = x–3; ​ ___​ = (– 3)x– 3 –1
x dx

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 Use of Basic Mathematics and Calculus in Physics 1.13

(i) y = sin x + x2 Solution

dy d d Concepts
___
​  ​ = ___
​  ​ (sin x) + ___
​  ​ (x2) d d
f2(x)​ ___​ f1(x) – f1(x) ◊ ​ ___​ f2(x)
[ ]
dx dx dx f 1(x)
d _____
___ dx
________________________ dx
​  ​ ​ ​   ​  ​ = ​       ​   
= cos x + 2x dx f  2(x) [  f2(x)]2
(ii) y = 2x3 – lnx
x2
(i) y = _____
​   ​
dy d d x+4
___
​  ​ = 2 ___
​  ​ (x3) – ___
​  ​ (lnx)
dx dx dx Here, f1(x) = x2 and f2(x) = x + 4
1 d d
= 2 (3x2) – __
​ x ​ + 4) ___
​  ​ (x2) – x2 ​ ___​ (x + 4)
dy (x
___ dx dx
__________________________
\ ​  ​ = ​       ​   
1 dx (x + 4)2
= 6x2 – __
​ x ​
(x + 4) (2x) – x2 (1 + 0)
dy = ______________________
​       ​  
  Example 24 Find ___
​  ​ in following cases (x + 4)2
dx
2x2 + 8x – x2 x2 + 8x
2 2 = ____________
​      ​ = _______
​   ​
(i) y = x sin x (ii) y = (x + 4)(sin x) (x + 4)2
(x + 4)2
Solution sin x
(ii) y = tan x = ____
​ cos x ​
Concepts
Here, f1(x) = sin x; f2(x) = cos x
d
___ d d
​  ​ f1(x) ◊ f2(x) = f1(x) ◊ ​ ___​ (  f2 x) + f 2(x) ◊ ​ ___​ f1(x)
dx dx dx d d
dy (cos x) ___
​  ​ (sin x) – sin x ___
​  ​ (cos x)
___ dx dx
_____________________________
​  ​ = ​         ​
(i) y = x2 sin x dx cos2 x
Here f1(x) = x2 (cos x) (cos x) – (sin x) (– sin x)
= ​ _________________________
      ​
cos2 x
and f2(x) = sin x
cos2 x + sin2 x _____ 1
= ____________
​     ​ = ​  2 ​ = sec2 x.
dy d d 2
cos x cos x
\ ​ ___​ = x2 ◊ ​ ___​ (sin x) + sin x ◊ ​ ___​ (x2)
dx dx dx
dy
= x2 ◊ cos x + (sin x)(2x)   Example 26 Find ___
​  ​ in following cases
dx
= x2 cos x + 2x sin x (i) y = (2x + 1)10 (ii) y = sin (ax + b)
_________
__
(ii) 2
y = (x + 4)sin x (iii) y = sin​÷x ​ (iv) y = ÷
​ x2 + 2x +
  5 ​

Here f1(x) = x2 + 4 Solution

Concepts
f2(x) = sin x

dy d d
\ ​ ___​ = (x2 + 4) ​ ___​ (sin x) + (sin x) ​ ___​ (x2 + 4)
dy
dx ( )( )
dy dt
(i) ​ ___​ = ​ ___
​  ​  ​ ​ ___
dt dx
​  ​  ​
dx dx dx (ii) We know that differentiation of xn wrt x is n xn–1.
But we cannot write
= (x2 + 4) cos x + (sin x) (2x + 0)
d(ax + b)n
= (x + 4) cos x + 2x ◊ sin x.2 ​ _________​ = n ◊ (ax + b)n–1
dx

dy What we know is differentiation of (ax + b)n wrt

  Example 25 Find ___
​  ​ if (ax + b).
dx
d(ax + b)n
x 2 ​ _________
   ​ = n ◊ (ax + b)n–1
(i) y = _____
​   ​ (ii) y = tan x d(ax + b)
x+4

@iitjeehelps
1.14 Mechanics – I

(i) y = (2x + 1)10 dy d sin (ax + b)

​ ___​ = ​ ___________
   ​
Let t = 2x + 1 dx dx
dt dx
\ ​ ___​ = 2 ​ ___​ + 0 = 2. d sin (ax + b) d_________
(ax + b)
dx dx = ___________
​    
   ​ ◊ ​  ​
d (ax + b) dx
And y = t10
= [cos (ax + b)] [a] = a cos (ax + b).
dy
\ ​___​ = 10 t9 The trick is to mentally regard (ax + b) as t.
dt
__

( )( )
dy dy dt (iii) y = sin ​÷x ​
\ ​___​ = ​ ___
​  ​  ​ ​ ___
​  ​  ​ = 10 (2x + 1)10 ◊ 2 __ __
dx dt dx dy
___ d __ d sin ​÷x ​ ____
d ​÷x ​
​  ​ = ___
​  ​ sin ​÷x ​ = _______
​  __ ​ ◊ ​  ​
= 20 (2x + 1)10 dx dx d​÷x ​ dx

(ii)
let
y = sin (ax + b)
t = ax + b
__ 1 – ​ __1 ​
= (cos ​÷x ​) ​ __
​   ​ ​x​ 2 ​  ​
2 ( )
1
____ __
= ​  __ ​ cos ​÷x ​
dt 2​÷x ​
fi ​___​ = a __________
dx
(iv) y = ​÷x2 + 2x   
+ 5 ​
Aand y = sin t
dy d (x2 + 2x + 5)1/2
___
dy
fi ​ ___​ = cos t = cos(ax + b) ​  ​ = ​ ______________
   ​
dt dx dx
d(x2 + 2x + 5)1/2 d____________
(x2 + 2x + 5)
dy
\ ​ ___​ =
dx ( )( )
dy dt
​ ___
​  ​  ​ ​ ___
dt dx
​  ​  ​ = a ◊ cos(ax + b)
= ​  ______________
  
  
d (x2 + 2x + 5)
◊ ​ 
 ​ 

1
dx
   ​

1 –  ​ __ ​ 
Note: If you have understood the procedure, you can = __
​   ​ (x2 + 2x + 5​)​ 2 ​◊ (2x + 2 + 0)
simply write it as 2
x+1
= ​ ___________  
_________
÷​ x + 2x   
2
+ 5 ​

Your Turn
dy cos x
Q.11 Find ___
​  ​ in following cases. (xii) y = (x2 + 4) cos x (xiii) y = ____​  ​
dx sin x
lnx 1 – cos x
(i) y = 9 (ii) y = 9x (iii) y = x3/2 (xiv) y = ___
​  x ​  (xv) y = ​ ________ ​
1 + cos x
1
(iv) y = __
​ x ​  (v) y = 11x2 + 4x – 3 (xvi) y = sin2x (xvii) y = tan (x2)
__ _____ 1
(vi) y = sin x + cos x (vii) y = x3 – 3​÷x ​ (xviii) y = ​÷x + 4 ​  (xix) y = _______
​  _____  ​
÷​ x + 2 ​
2
1 4 9 1
(viii) y = – ​ __2 ​ + __
​  3 ​ – __
​  4 ​ + ___
​   ​  (ix) y = x4 lnx (xx) y = sin (3x – 9)
x x x 10
(x) y = sin x ◊ cos x (xi) y = (x2 + 4) (x3 + 11)

dy
8. Applications of ___
ds
​  ​ understand that mathematical expression for speed is v = ​ __.​
dt
dx
When you are told that acceleration is the rate of change of
8.1 Rate Measure
dv
dy velocity, you know that a = ___
​  .​
We have already discussed that ___
​  ​ is instantaneous rate of dt
dx
change of y wrt x. when we learn in physics that speed is Similarly, you will learn that force is rate of change of
defined as rate of change of distance (s), we immediately dp
momentum (p) and hence, F = ___​  ​.
dt

@iitjeehelps
 Use of Basic Mathematics and Calculus in Physics 1.15

The following examples will help you understand this dA

​ ___​ = 4p (20) = 80p m2/s.
concept better. dt
dy
When ___​  ​ > 0, it means y increases when x increases,   Example 29 A young scientist studied the variation of
dx temperature (q) during a day in the month of February in
dy
and ___
​  ​ < 0 implies that y decreases while x increases. his town. He modeled the temperature to vary with time (t)
dx as q = 20t – 0.83 t2, where q is in °C and t is time measured
in hour taking t = 0 at 6 AM.
  Example 27 Distance travelled by a particle changes with
(i) Find the time when rate of change of temperature is
time as s = t2 where t is in seconds and s is in meter.
zero.
Find the speed of the particle at t = 0, 1 and 2 s. Is its
speed increasing? (ii) Is the temperature increasing or decreasing at 8 pm?

Solution Solution
Concepts Concepts
dq
Speed = rate of change of distance with respect to time Rate of change of temperature = ___
​  ​
dt
ds
\ v = __
​  ​
dt q = 20t – 0.83 t2
s = t2 dq
___
​  ​ = 20 – (0.83)(2t) = 20 – 1.66t
dt
ds
fi v = __
​  ​ = 2t
dt
For finding speed at t = 0, 1 and 2, we need to substitute
( )
dq
(i) Rate of change of temperature ​ ___
​  ​  ​ is zero when
dt
the value of time in the above expression. 20 – 1.66t = 0 fi t = 12.04 h.  12 h.
Speed at t = 0 is v = 2 × 0 = 0
Time indicated in the clock at this time is 6 am
Speed at t = 1 is v = 2 × 1 = 2 ms–1 + 12 h. = 6 pm.
Speed at t = 2 is v = 2 × 2 = 4 ms–1.
(ii) At 8 pm, t = 14 h.
Obviously, speed is increasing with time. dq
\ ​ ___​ = 20 – 1.66 × 14 = – 3.24 °C/h.
  Example 28 Radius of a circle is increasing at a constant dt
rate of 2 ms–1. Find the rate of increase of its area when its Negative sign indicates that temperature is decreasing
radius is 20 m. with time.

Solution 8.2 Slope of a Curve

Concepts If y is a function of x and you draw a graph of y versus x,
–1
(i) Radius is increasing at a rate of 2 ms . mathemati- dy y
dr then ___
​  ​ is equal to slope of the curve
cally this means __​  ​ = 2 dx
dt at any point.
dA
(ii) Area A = pr2 and we are supposed to find ___ ​  ​. P
dt
dA dA __ dr In the figure, we have shown a
(iii) ​ ___​ = ___
​  ​ ◊ ​  ​ q
dt dr dt graph of y versus x which is a curve. O x
xo
dy
If we find the value of ​ ___​ at x = x0,
dA dx
A = pr2 fi ___
​  ​ = 2pr.
dr we get its value equal to tan q = slope of the curve at x =
x0.
dA
dt
dA dr
​ ___​ = ​ ___ ( )( )
​  ​  ​ ​ __
dr dt
​  ​  ​
In case of straight line graphs, it is easy to find slope and
dy
= (2pr)(2) = 4pr this slope will be equal to ___
​  ​.
dx
when, r = 20 m,

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1.16 Mechanics – I

  Example 30 Distance travelled by a particle changes with Solution

dH
time according to the graph shown in figure. Find the speed ​ ___​ = slope = Rate of growth of height
dt
of the particle at t = 2 s.
In graph A, the slope is increasing. It means height is
s (m) growing faster as the person becomes older. This cannot be
true.
In graph B, the slope is decreasing. It means rate of
8
growth goes on decreasing with age. Moreover, the rate
of change of height becomes zero after a certain age ( 18
years). This is the correct graph.
t (s)
O 4

Solution
Concepts
(i) Speed (v ) = rate of change of distance
ds
= __
​  ​
dt
(ii) If s was given as a function of time, we would have p
gone for differentiation. But, relation between s and   Example 32 Find slope of the curve y = sin x at x = __
​   ​.
4
ds
t is given in graphical form. Therefore, to find __
​  ​, Solution
dt
we can find the slope of s vs t graph. Concepts
dy
Slope = ___
​  ​
dx
ds
Speed v = __
​  ​ = slope of line
dt y
= tan q y = sin x

= 8 m/4 s = 2 ms–1.

s (m) q x
O p
4
8 1
tan q =
2

q y = sin x
t (s)
O 4 dy
Slope = ___
​  ​ = cos x
dx
A straight line has a constant slope. Hence, speed is
p
constant. It is same at all times. at x = __
​   ​
4
  Example 31 Which of the two graphs (A or B) shown in p 1
Slope = cos ​ __ ​ = ___
​  __ ​
the figure is correct representation of height (H ) of a person 4 ÷ ​ 2 ​
with his age (t)?
8.3 Maximum and Minimum of a Function
H H
Consider y to be a function of x y
and assume that the graph of y vs A
x is continuous (unbroken curve)
and has no abrupt (sharp) bends.
t t y will form a local maxima (see B
(A) (B) point A in figure) and/or local
minima (point B) at points where x
O x2 x1
slope of the curve is zero.

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 Use of Basic Mathematics and Calculus in Physics 1.17

dy
dy
​​ ___
​  ​  ​​ ​ =
dx A ( ) ( ) dy
​​ ___
​  ​  ​​ ​ = 0.
dx B
At maxima, ​ ___​ = 0

fi
dx
6x = 4
At x = x1, y is locally maximum, and at x = x2, y is locally
2
minimum. fi x = __
​   ​
3
To find where the value of y is maximum or minimum,
dy
we find ​ ___​ and equate it to zero. This gives us values of x

2 2
ymax = – 3​​ __
3 () () 2
​   ​  ​​ ​ + 4​ __
​   ​  ​
3
dx
4 8 __ 4
where y is maximum or minimum. = – ​ __ ​ + __
​   ​ = ​   ​
3 3 3
Most of the time, analysis of the physical situation can
give us enough hint to understand whether y is maximum Note: one can see that
or minimum for obtained value of x. However, if it is not d2y d
clear, then we need to notice that in the neighbourhood of ​ ___2 ​ = ___
​  ​ (– 6x + 4) = – 6
dx dx
maxima (at A), the slope of the curve changes from positive
to negative. In other words, slope of the curve is decreasing d2y
at A. ​ ___2 ​ < 0
dx
d
It implies that ​ ___​ (slope) < 0 2
This means that x = __
​   ​ is point of maxima.
dx 3
d dy
fi ​ ___​ ​ ___
dx dx
​  ​  ​ < 0 ( )   Example 34 Find maximum and minimum values of y if
y = x3 – 3x2 + 6.
d2y
fi ​ ___2 ​ < 0 Solution
dx
Concepts
( ) d 2y
( )
2
d dy d dy dy d2y
Note: ​ ___​ ​ ​ ___​  ​ is written as ​ ___2 ​. similarly, ​ ___​ ​ ​ ___2 ​  ​ is (i) At maxima, ___
​  ​ = 0 and ___
​  2 ​ < 0
dx dx dx dx dx dx dx
d3y dy d2y
written as ___
​  3 ​ and so on. (ii) At minima, ___
​  ​ = 0 and ___
​  2 ​ > 0.
dx dx dx
d2y
Similarly, you can convince yourself that ___
​  2 ​ > 0 at B.
dx y = x3 – 3x2 + 6
  Example 33 Find maximum value of y, if y = – 3x2 + 4x dy
​ ___​ = 3x2 – 6x
Solution dx
Concepts dy
​ ___​ = 0, when 3x2 – 6x = 0
We know that the graph is an inverted parabola; therefore, dx
dy
___ fi x = 0; x = 2
​  ​ = 0 will give us the point of maxima.
dx
d2y d
y = – 3x2 + 4x Now ___
​  2 ​ = ___
​  ​ (3x2 – 6x) = 6x – 6
dx dx
dy d2y
​ ___​ = – 6x + 4 At x = 0; ​ ___2 ​ = – 6
dx
dx
y d2y
At x = 2; ​ ___2 ​ = 6
dy
=0
dx
ymax dx
\ At x = 0, y has a maxima, and at x = 2, it has a
minima.
\  ymax = 03 – 3(0)2 + 6 = 6
x
O 2
3 ymin = 23 – 3(2)2 + 6 = 2

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1.18 Mechanics – I

8.4 Change in y if Change in x is Small We wish to find change in z if both x and y are
changed by small (but finite) amounts equal to D x and D y,
If y is a function of x and x changes by a finite but small
respectively.
amount D x, then corresponding change in y can be obtained
as Differentiate the given equation wrt x
dz dy
​ ___​ = k yb (a xa–1) + (k xa) (b yb–1) ___ ​  ​
dx dx
fi dz = k yb a xa–1 ◊ dx + k xa b yb–1 dy
Divide this equation by z = k xa yb
dz dx dy
​ __ ___ ___
z ​ = a ​  x ​ + b ​  y ​
This equation is exactly true if changes (dx and dy) are
infinitesimally small. However, the same equation will be
nearly accurate in predicting the change in z when changes
( )
dy
D y  ​ ___
​  ​  ​ D x
dx
...(i) in x and y are finite but small.
Dz Dx Dy
\ ​ ___ ___ ___
z ​  a ​  x ​ + b ​  y ​
dy
​​ ___ ( )
​  ​  ​​ ​ = rate of change of y wrt x at A.
dx at A [Remember that D x is used to denote finite change,
If D x is small, we can assume that this rate of change is whereas dx is used for infinitesimally small change.]
constant throughout from A to B. This approximation will Dz
give us a result close to actual if D x is very small. Hence, ​___ z ​ = fractional change in z and
Eq. (i) shall be used only when you are convinced that D x Dz
is sufficiently small. ​___
z ​ × 100 = percentage change in z.

  Example 35 A cube has side length of x = 2.0 m. Find the   Example 36 Given z = 4 x3 y2
change in its volume if its side is increased by 0.001 m. Find percentage change in z if x is increased by 1% and y
Solution is decreased by 2%.
Concepts Solution

( )
dy
D y  ​ ___
​  ​  ​ D x, if D x is small
dx
Concepts
(i) A change of 1% and 2% can be regarded as
small.
Volume of the cube is
Dz Dx Dy
(ii) ​ ___ ___ ___
z ​ = 3 ​  x ​ + 2 ​  y ​
V = x3.
For small change in x, the corresponding change in Dx
volume is Given ​ ___
x ​ × 100 = 1%

dV
DV = ​ ___
dx( )
​  ​  ​ D x

Dy
___
​ y ​ × 100 = – 2%
= (3x2) D x Minus sign indicates that y decreases (i.e., Dy is
= (3 × 2 ) (0.001) 2 negative)
Dz
___ Dx Dy
​ z ​ = 3 ​ ___ ___
x ​ + 2 ​  y ​
= 0.012 m3

8.5 Change in a Quantity if it Depends on Many

Quantities

Dz
___ (Dx
​ z ​ × 100 = 3 ​ ___ ) (Dy
​  x ​ × 100 ​ + 2 ​ ​ ___ )
y ​ × 100 ​
Dz
___
a b
\ ​  z ​ × 100 = 3 × 1 + 2 × (– 2)
Let = z = k◊x y ...(i)
= 3 – 4 = – 1%
where k, a and b are constants.
It means that z will decrease by 1%

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 Use of Basic Mathematics and Calculus in Physics 1.19

In short (iii) z = k xa yb
dy
(i) ​ ___​ = rate of change of y wrt x Fractional change in z when x and y change by small
dx amounts is
= slope of y vs x graph
Dz Dx Dy
(ii) If y is function of x, it forms local maxima or minima ​ ___ ___ ___
z ​ = a ​  x ​ + b ​  y ​
dy d2y
at points where ​ ___​ = 0. Point is a maxima if ​ ___2 ​ < 0,
dx dx Change D x is positive if x increases and it is negative
d2y
___ if D x decreases.
and it is a minima if ​  2 ​ > 0.
dx

Your Turn

Q.12 Current (I ) is defined as rate of flow of charge. Q.16

__
y = 5​÷x ​
Quantity of charge (Q) that flows past a conductor in time
t is given as Q = 3t2 where Q is measured in coulomb (c) Find percentage change in y if x increases by 1%.
and time is measured in second (s).
Q.17 Time period of a simple pendulum is given by
(i) Find average current (Iav) in the conductor in the __

÷
interval 0 £ t £ 2 s. l
T = 2p ​ __
​ g ​ ​, where l is its length and g is acceleration due
(ii) Find instantaneous current (I ) at time t = 2 s. to gravity. Find change in time period if length increases by
Q.13 Distance travelled by a particle changes with 1% and g decreases by 0.5%.
time as
dy
s = 4t – t2 for 0 £ t £ 2 s Q.18 y vs x graph is shown in the figure. Find ___
​  ​ at
dx
Find (i) x = 2.
(i) average speed in the given interval. (ii) x = 6.
(ii) instantaneous speed at t = 2 s. (iii) x = 12.
Q.14 Two curves A and B are expressed in mathematical
form as y
3 2
A: y = x ; B: y = x
1
Which of the two curves has higher slope at x = __
​   ​? 20
2
Q.15 Radius of a balloon is growing at a rate of 10 cms–1.
At what rate is the surface area of the balloon increasing x
O 4 10 15
when its radius is 15 cm?

9. Integration What is differentiation of (sin x + 9) or (sin x – 11) or

(sin x + 1,000/3)? Answer to all is cos x. Therefore, we say
Mathematically, integration is defined to be a reverse process that integration of cos x wrt x is (sin x + c), where c is any
of differentiation. Differentiation of sin x with respect to x constant.
is cos x, and we say that integration of cos x with respect
to x is sin x.
\ Ú cos x dx = sin x + c
‘Integration of cos x with respect to x ’ is symbolically Such integration is termed as indefinite integration because
the constant c is ‘indefinite (not fixed)’. It will be necessary
written as Ú cos x ◊ dx.

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1.20 Mechanics – I

to learn some basic formulae of indefinite integration given   Example 38 Evaluate

below. __
(i) Ú 4​÷x ​ dx (ii) Ú 4 sin x dx
Some Basic Formulae
Solution
(i) Ú dx = x + c, where c is a constant Concepts
xn + 1
(ii) Ú x dx = _____
n
​   ​ + c, except when n = –1. Ú a y dx = a Ú y dx
n+1
3/2
1 __ x
Ú x dx = Ú ​ __x ​ dx = loge x + c Ú 4 ​÷x ​ dx = 4 Ú x dx = 4 ___
–1 1/2
(iii) (i) ​   ​ + c
3
__
​   ​
ex dx = ex + c 2
(iv) Ú 8
= ​ __ ​ x3/2 + c
(v) Ú sin xdx = – cos x + c 3
(vi) Ú cos xdx = sin x + c (ii) Ú 4 sin x dx = 4 Ú sin x dx = – 4 cos x + c
2
(vii) Ú sec xdx = tan x + c
  Example 39 Evaluate
(viii) Ú sec x tan xdx = sec x + c
n+1 __
(ax + b) (i) Ú (1 – x)​÷x ​ dx (ii) Ú (sin x + cos x) dx
(ix) Ú (ax + b)ndx = ​ __________
   ​ + c
a(n + 1)
Solution
(x) Ú tan xdx = loge sec x + c
– cos ax Concepts
(xi) Ú sin ax dx = _______
​  a ​ + c
Ú [ f (x) + g(x)] dx = Ú f (x) dx + Ú g(x) dx
sin ax
(xii) Ú cos axdx = _____
​  a ​ + c __ __ __
– cos(ax + b)
(i) Ú (1 – x) ​÷x ​ dx = Ú ​÷x ​ dx – Ú x ​÷x ​ dx
(xiii) Ú sin(ax + b) = ___________
​  a    ​ + c
= Ú x1/2 dx – Ú x3/2 dx
‘c’ is constant of integration in all the above.
x3/2 x5/2
Rules = ___
​   ​ – ​ ___ ​+ c.
3
__ 5
__
​   ​ ​   ​
(i) Ú aydx = a Ú ydx + c, where a is a constant 2 2
2 2
(ii) Ú {f (x) ± g(x)}dx = Ú f (x) dx ± Ú g(x)dx = __
​   ​ x3/2 – ​ __ ​ x5/2 + c
3 5
  Example 37 Evaluate (ii) Ú (sin x + cos x) dx = Ú sin x dx + Ú cos x dx
___1
(i) Ú dx (ii) Ú x4 dx (iii) Ú ​  __  ​ dx
​ x​
÷ = – cos x + sin x + c.
Solution   Example 40 Find the integral
Concepts
p
​ 
n+1
x
Ú x dx = _____
n
 ​ + c
n+1 (i) (
Ú sin ​ 2x + __
3 )
​   ​  ​ dx
2
0+1
(ii) Ú sin x dx
x
Ú dx = Ú x dx = _____
0
(i) ​   ​ + c = x + c Solution
0+1
Concepts
x4+1 x5
Ú x dx = _____  ​ + c = __ cos (ax + b)
4
(ii) ​  ​   ​ + c
4+1 5 (i) Ú sin (ax + b) dx = – __________
​  a    ​ + c
1
1
– ​ __ ​ + 1 (ii) sin2x = __
​   ​  (1 – cos 2x)
1
– ​ __ ​ x​ ​ 2 ​ 2
(iii) ​ 1__ ​ dx = Ú
Ú ___ ​x​ 2 ​ dx = ​ ______  ​ + c cos 2x = cos 2x – sin 2x = 1 – 2 sin 2x
​÷x ​ 1
– ​ __ ​ + 1
2
p p
= 2 x1/2 + c = 2​÷x ​ + c
__
(i) (
Ú sin ​ 2x + __ ) 1
(
​   ​  ​ dx = – ​ __ ​ cos ​ 2x + __
3 2
​   ​  ​ + c
3 )
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 Use of Basic Mathematics and Calculus in Physics 1.21

1 are known as lower limit and upper limit of integration,

Ú sin x dx = __​ 2 ​ Ú (1 – cos 2x) dx
2
(ii)
respectively.
1 1 Following examples will clarify the procedure of
= __
​   ​ Ú dx – __
​   ​ Ú cos 2x dx evaluating definite integrals.
2 2
x 1
= __
​   ​ – __
​   ​ sin 2x + c   Example 41 Evaluate
2 4
p/2 p 1
9.1 Definite Integration (i) Ú​ ​  ​ ​cos q dq (ii) ​Ú​ ​ sin q dq (iii) ​Ú​ ​ (3x2 + 2x) dx
0 0 0
Integration of a function f (x) when x changes from a to b
is written as Solution
b p/2
​Ú​ ​ f (x) dx p
​ ​  ​ = sin ​ __ ​ – sin 0
(i) ​Ú​  ​ ​cos q dq = [sin q​]p/2
a 0 2
0
If integration of f (x) is F(x) (for example integration = 1 – 0 = 1
p
of f (x) = cos x is F(x) = sin x), then the above integral is
evaluated as (ii) ​Ú​ ​ sin q dq = [– cos q​]p0​ ​ ​ = – [cos p – cos 0]
0
b = – [– 1 – 1] = 2
​Ú​ ​ f (x) dx = [F(x)​]ba​ ​​  = F(b) – F(a).
[ ]
1
a 3x3 2x2 1
(iii) ​Ú​ ​ (3x2 + 2x) dx = ​​ ___
​   ​ + ___
​   ​  ​​ ​​ 
We need not write the constant of integration (c) while 0 3 2 0
evaluating this kind of integration. Such integration is known
as definite integration as the answer is ‘definite’. a and b = [x3 + x2​]10​ ​​  = (13 + 12) – (03 + 02)
= 2.

Your Turn

Q.19 Evaluate the following integrals 1

(iv) ​Ú​ ​ (4x3 – 3x2 + 2x + 5) dx
2
0
(i) ​Ú​ ​ x dx p/2 p
1
(v) ​Ú​  ​ ​ sin x dx (vi) Ú​ ​ ​ cos x dx
3 0 0
(ii) ​Ú​ ​ dx p/4
p
0
9 0
(
(vii) ​Ú​  ​ ​sin ​ x + __ )
​   ​  ​ dx
4
__
(iii) ​Ú​ ​ ​÷x ​ dx p
4 (viii) ​Ú​  ​sin (2t) dt
0

9.2 Applications of Integration We know that distance (s) = speed × time; but our
problem is that there is no fixed speed. Speed is changing
9.2.1 Summation continuously.
Integration is a mathematical process of adding infinite To solve such problems, we need to divide the entire time
number of infinitesimally small terms. interval of 0 to 4 s into infinitely many small intervals dt1,
Consider a particle moving along a straight line with dt2, dt3, dt4 ...
speed (v) changing with time (t) as In each interval, distance travelled by the particle
will be
v = t2 (t is in s and v is in ms–1). ds1 = v1 dt1, ds2 = v2 dt2, ds3 = v3 dt3 ...
How much distance the particle will cover in first 4 s of where v1, v2, v3…. are instantaneous speeds. Total distance
motion? travelled is given by

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1.22 Mechanics – I

s = ds1 + ds2 + ds3 + ... • terms.

dx dx
Integration is a process which helps us in finding such x
2px
sums. In fact,
t  = 4
s = Ú ds = ​Ú ​​ ​v dt
t=0

The lower and upper limits are the initial and final values There are many such strips in the disc and its area can be
of independent variable t. obtained by adding the areas of all such strips. Such addition
In our present example, is done by integration.
x=r
\ A = ​Ú ​ ​dA = ​Ú ​​ ​ 2p x dx
[]
4 4
t3 4
s = ​Ú​ ​v dt = ​Ú​ ​ t2 dt = ​​ __
​   ​  ​​ ​​  x=0
0 0 3 0 Note that x changes from x = 0 to x = r so as to cover all
strips in the disc.
43 03 ___
[ ]
64 r
= __
​   ​ – __
r
​   ​ = ​   ​ m. x2
3 3 3 \ A = 2p ​Ú​  ​x dx = 2p ​​ __
​   ​  ​​ ​​  = p r2.
0 2 0
Below, few more examples are given to illustrate the
concept. In short
(i) Integration is a process of summation of infinite
  Example 42 Area of a rectangle is length × width and number of infinitesimally small terms.
circumference of a circle is 2p r, where r is its radius.
(ii) Distance = sum of distance travelled in infinitesimally
Using these facts, derive the formula for area of a disc of
small intervals of time
radius r.
t2
Solution = Ú v dt
t1
Concepts
or else, we can think like this:
We can think of a disc as made up
ds
of infinite number of very thin rings as v = __
​  ​
dt
shown in figure. Adding the areas of all
thin rings will give us the area of the fi ds = v dt
disc. s t2

Consider a circle of radius x and another circle of radius

fi Ú ds = Ú v dt
0 t1
x + dx in the disc. The strip between these two circles is a
t2
ring of circumference C = 2p x and width dx. If you cut open
this ring (see figure) and straighten it, it will be a strip of fi s= Ú v dt
t1
length 2p r and very small width dx. Area of the strip is
Note the limits. We are saying that distance travelled changed
dA = 2p x dx from 0 to s when time changed from t1 to t2.

Your Turn

Q.20 Speed of a particle changes with time as v = (2t + 1) Q.21 A tap is opened to fill water in a tank. The tap
ms–1. Find distance travelled by the particle in the interval dispenses water at a rate of (4t – t2) litre/s, where t is time
0 £ t £ 2 s. in s. The tap supplies water for interval 0 £ t £ 4 s. Find
the amount of water in the tank at the end of 4 s.

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 Use of Basic Mathematics and Calculus in Physics 1.23

9.2.2 Area under graph   Example 43 Find the area enclosed by the graph of y = sin x
x=b between x = 0 and x = p. y

Ú y dx gives the area enclosed between the y – x graph,

Solution y = sin x
x=a
x =p p
x-axis and the lines x = a and
x = b.
Area = Ú y dx = Ú sin x dx
O p x
x=0 0
Figure shows the graphical plot
of y = f (x). The shaded area ABCD = – [cos x​]p0​ ​ ​ = – [cos p – cos 0]
is evaluated as
b
= – [–1 – 1] = 2 sq. unit
Area = Ú y dx
a

Your Turn
Q.22 Find the shaded area in the following figures:
y y
2
y=x
x +3
y=

x x
O 2 O 2
(ii)
(i)

y y
9.2.3 Average of a Varying Quantity
y = f (x)
y is a quantity that changes with x according to a relation
y = f (x). Average value of y in the range x = x1 to x = x2 yav
is defined as
x2 x x
O x1 x2 O x1 x2
yav = Ú y dx
x1 Shaded area in both figures are equal.
x2 - x1
  Example 44 Find the average value of y = A sin x in the
x2 interval x = 0 to x = p.
Geometrically, the integral Ú y dx represents area under the Solution
x1 p

curve between x = x1 and x = x2. the average of y is the

Ap
Ú y dx A
constant value of y which encloses the same area between yav = Ú sin x dx = – ​ __
0
= p ​ [cos x​]p0​ ​ ​
the limits x = x1 and x = x2. p -0 p 0
A 2A
= – ​ __ ___
p ​ [cos p – cos 0] = ​  p

Your Turn

Q.23 Find average of y = cos x in interval x = 0 to Q.24 Force acting on a particle changes with time as
x = p.
(
F = F0 ​ 1 – __
t
)
​   ​  ​ where F0 and t0 are constants. Find average
t0
force on the particle in the interval 0 £ t £ t0.

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1.24 Mechanics – I

Miscellaneous Examples
  Example 45 Draw graphs of y = x2 and y = x4 on same Solution
set of axes. Concepts

Solution (i) |x| = x for x ≥ 0

Concepts = – x for x < 0.
(ii) Draw a graph for y = x, and then wherever y is
(i) For values of x < 1; x2 > x4 [For example
negative, take a positive value corresponding to it.
(0.1)2 > (0.1)4].
For example if y = – 2, in graph of y = x, we will
(ii) At x = 1, both are equal. take y = + 2 in graph for y = |x|.
(iii) For x > 1, x4 > x2. Similarly, one can plot y = |ln x|

(i)

  Example 46 Draw the graph for y = |4 – x2|.

(ii)
Solution
Concepts
(i) Draw the graph for y = 4 – x2.
(ii) For the part of the graph lying below x-axis, take Note: You can remember it like this: Draw a graph of y = x.
mirror image. Now assume that x-axis is a mirror and draw the image of
the part of the graph that is below the x-axis. This image
y = 4 – x2 plus the part of the graph already above the x-axis gives the
This graph intersects x-axis at x = ± 2. complete graph for y = |x|
It is an inverted parabola with vertex at origin [exactly
p
midway between x = – 2 and x = ± 2] graph for y = |4 – x2|
is shown in bold line.
  Example 48 ( 4 )
Draw the graph for y = sin ​ x + ​ __ ​  ​ and
p
(
y = sin ​ x – __ )
​   ​  .​
4
Solution
Concepts
Draw a graph for y = sin x. Now translate the origin to
p p
right by __ (
​   ​ to get the graph of y = sin ​ x + __
4 )
​   ​  .​
4
p
If you shift the origin to left by __ ​   ​ , you will get the
4
p
(__
)
graph of y = sin ​ x – ​   ​  ​.
4

  Example 47 Draw a graph for each of the followings Note: Alternatively, one can keep the origin fixed and
p
(i) y = |x| (ii) y = |ln x| (
4 )
translate the graph to left and right ​ by ​ __ ​  ​, respectively, for

the above two graphs.

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 Use of Basic Mathematics and Calculus in Physics 1.25

Volume of a cone V = k r 2h where k is a constant

DV Dr Dh
___
\ ​ ___​ = 2 ​ ___
r ​ + 1 ​ h ​
V
DV
V
Dr
​ ___​ × 100 = 2 ​ ___ ( Dh
) (
​  r ​ × 100 ​ + 1 ​ ___
​ ​ × 100 ​
h )
= 2 × 1 + 1 × (– 0.5)
= 1.5%

  Example 51 Water is being heated in a pot. Its temperature

(q ) changes with time as q = (19 + 18t – t2) °C in the interval
0 £ t £ 9 min (t is time in minute). After t = 9 minute the
temperature remains constant.
(i) Plot a graph showing variation of temperature with
time.
(ii) Find the maximum rate of change of temperature.
Solution
Concepts
Graph is parabolic.
Looking at the graph, one can tell that its slope is maximum
at t = 0.
At t = 0, q = 19°C.
At t = 9, q = 19 + 18 × 9 – 92
= 100°C.
  Example 49 Estimate the change in value of y if x is Graph for the interval 0 to q (°C)
increased from 30° to 31° 9 min is an inverted parabola.
100
y = sin x. Its slope is maximum at
t = 0.
Solution Hence, rate of change of
19
Concepts temperature is maximum at

( )
dy
Dy  ​ ___
​  ​  ​ D x   if D x is small.
dt
t = 0.
Rate of change of temperature
O 9
t (min)

p dq
x = 30° = __
​   ​ radian = ___
​  ​ = (18 – 2t) °C/min.
6 dt
p At t = 0, its value is
D x = 1° = ____
​   ​ radian
180
y = sin x
dq
​​ ___ ( )
​  ​  ​​ ​ = 18 – 2 × 0 = 18° C/min
dt t = 0

( )
dy
Dy = ​ ___
​  ​  ​ D x = (cos x) D x
dx
__
This is the maximum rate of change of temperature at
any point of time.
p p p ​÷3 ​
= ​ cos __
​   ​  ​ ​ ____
6 180 (
​   ​  ​ = )( ) ____
​   ​ = 0.015
360
  Example 52 Distance travelled
by a particle moving with a vari-
t
  Example 50 Find percentage change in volume of a cone if able speed is given by s = Ú v dt .
its radius increases by 1% and height decreases by 0.5%. 0

Solution Find the distance travelled by a

particle in 10 s if its speed changes
Concepts with time as per the graph shown
Dz Dx Dy
If z = k xa yb ; then ___
​  z ​  a ​ ___ ___
x ​ + b ​  y ​
in the figure.

@iitjeehelps
1.26 Mechanics – I

Solution Volume of the entire ball = Sum of volume of material

Concepts used in all such shells between
x = 0 and x = r.
x2
x =r
Ú y dx = Area under y vs x graph, x-axis, x = x1, and
\ V= Ú dV = Ú 4p x 2 dx
x1
x=0
x = x2.
r
4
t = 4 p Úx
2
dx = __
​   ​ p [x3​]r0​ ​​ 
3
s = Ú v dt = Area under the v–t graph 0
0 3
4p r
fi V = _____
​   ​
= Area of D with base 10 s and height 10 ms–1. 3
1 m
= ​ __ ​ × (10 s) × ​ 10
2 ( __
)
​ s ​  ​ = 50 m.   Example 54 Find the average value of y = A sin2 x between
x = 0 to x = p. Also draw a graph of y vs x for the interval
x = 0 to x = 2p.
  Example 53 Knowing that surface area of a sphere is
4 Solution
4p r2, prove that its volume is given by V = __
​   ​ p r3. Here, r
3 Concepts
is radius.
Solution x2

Concepts Ú y dx
x1
yav =
(i) How will you calculate the volume of leather used x2 - x1
in a football? Obviously, it is equal to surface area
of the ball multiplied with the thickness of the p
leather. Ú y dx Ap 2
Ú sin x dx
0
(ii) Think of a solid spherical ball made of multiple yav = =
p p 0
layers of spherical shells (like footballs).

=
p0
[
A p 1________
– cos 2x
Ú ​ ​  2 ​  ​ dx ]
A
[ sin 2x p
= ​ ___ ​ ​​ x – _____
2p ]
​   ​  ​​ ​ ​
2 0

= ​ ___ ​ ​[ ​( p – _____
​   ​ )​ – (0 – 0) ]​
A sin 2p
To get the volume of the sphere, we will add the 2p 2
volume of material used in making each of these
A
shells. = ​ __ ​.
2
Consider a shell of radius x and thickness dx. [Note that Graph is as shown below.
dx is infinitesimally small.] Volume of material used in shell y
(i.e., volume of shaded part in figure) is

dx
A
x

r x
O p 2p

Shell of   Example 55 A particle is floating over a liquid surface in

thickness dx.
a cylinder of radius 2 cm. If volume of liquid is decreasing in
the cylinder at a rate of 5 cm3s–1, calculate the speed of the
dV = 4p x2 ◊ dx particle with which it is coming down inside the cylinder?

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 Use of Basic Mathematics and Calculus in Physics 1.27

Solution Solution
Concepts Concepts
dh
(i) If h is the height of liquid in the cylinder, then ​ ___​ Mass is density multiplied by volume. In this question,
dt
density is not constant. We will divide the cylinder into
dh
___
is the speed of particle. Actually, speed is – ​  ​ as infinite number of thin discs and add the masses of all
dt
dh these discs to get the total mass of the cylinder. Addition
___
h is decreasing with time, and ​  ​ itself is a nega-
dt will be done through integration.
tive number.
Consider a disc element of thickness ‘dx’
(ii) V = pr2 h.
located at a distance x from one end
dV
Volume V is also decreasing. Hence, ​ ___ ​ is also of the cylinder.
dt
negative. Volume of the disc-shaped ele-
dV dV dV dh ment is dV = A ◊ dx
​  ​ = p r2 \ ​ ___​ = ___
___ ​  ​ × ___
​  ​
dh dt dh dt Mass of the element is
dh
___ 5 dh
___ 5 \ dm = r ◊ dV fi dm = r ◊ (A.dx)
fi ​  ​ = ____
​  2 ​ fi ​  ​ = ___
​  ​ª 0.4 cms–1
dt pr dt 4p fi dm = r0 x ◊ A ◊ dx
m L
  Example 56 If density of a cylinder of area ‘A’ varies as fi ​Ú​ ​ ​dm = ​Ú​ ​ r0 Ax ◊ dx
r = r0x. Here, x is distance from one end of the cylinder. 0 0
Calculate it’s mass if it’s length is L. r0AL2
fi m = ______
​   ​
2

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Worksheet 1
1. Find the degree measure corresponding to the 12. Differentiate the following with respect to x:
following radian measures: 1
9p 5p (a) x3 – 27 (b) ​ __2 ​
(a) ​ ___ ​ (b) – ​ ___ ​ x
5 6 __ 1
(c) ​÷x ​ + ___
​  __ ​
18 p ​ x​
÷
(c) ​ ____ ​
5 13. Differentiate the following with respect to x:
2. Find the radian measure corresponding to the
(a) sin x + cos x (b) sec x + tan x
following degree measures:
(a) 300° (b) 135° 14. Differentiate the following with respect to x:
______
(c) 125°30¢ (a) ​÷ax + b ​ (b) eax + b
3. Find the approximate value of sin q, tan q and (c) ln (ax + b)
cos q for the figure shown. dy
15. (a) If x = at3 and y = bt2, then find ___
​  ​.
dx
2x + 3 dy
1mm (b) If y = ​ ______ ​, then find ___
​  ​.
3x + 2 dx
q 16. Differentiate the following with respect to x:
1m
sin (x + a)
(a) sin (x + a) (b) ​ _________
cos x ​
4. For a certain animal, a normal eye can see an object
making an angle of 1.8° at the eye. What is the 17. Find the slope of the tangent to the curve:
approximate height of the object which can be seen f (x) = 2x6 + x4 – 1 at x = 1
by an eye placed at a distance of 1 m from the object.
df (x)
18. For f (x) = l x2 + m x + 12, it is given that _____
​  ​ at
dx
h df (x)
1.8° x = 4 is 15 and ​ _____ ​ at x = 2 is 11, then find
dx
1m l and m.
19. Differentiate the following with respect to x:
5. A line passes through origin and makes an angle of
(a) ex (x + log x) (b) (5 x2 + 6) (2x3 + 4)
45° with + y-axis, find the equation of line.
x2 + 1
6. Find the angle made by the line y = 4x – 3 with the (c) _____
​   ​
x-axis. x+1
dy
7. A line has a slope of 1 unit, and its y intercept is 3. 20. Find ___
​  ​ when x = 3:
Write its equation. dx
8. Draw the lines: (i) (6x2 + 3) (3x + 7) (ii) (x – 1)/(x2 + 1)

(i) y – 2x + 3 = 0 (ii) 2y + 2x = 4 dy
21. In the figure shown what is the value of ___
​  ​ at x = 4
9. Find the angle between two straight lines given by dx
and at x = 8.
x__
equation y = ​ ___  ​ and y = x. At which point will they What is the rate of change of y wrt x at x = 4?
÷
​ 3 ​
meet?
y
10. The co-ordinates of centre of a circle are (4, 3) and
its radius is 5 cm; then write the equation of circle.
11. Sketch graph for the following equations:

(i) y = 2x + 3 (ii) y = 3x2

2
(iii) y = __
​ x ​ (iv) y = sin 2 x 45°
x
4 8

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 22. The radius of a circle increases with time according
to r = t2. ( 1
(e) ​Ú​ ​ ​ ______
​ 
(ax + b
​  ​ dx )
Find the rate of change of area with respect to time 27. Evaluate the following integrals:
at t = 1 s. p/2 p

23. The distance time graph of a particle is shown. (a) ​Ú​  ​  ​cos (4 x) dx (b) ​Ú​  ​sin 2 x dx
0 0
Tell whether the particle is moving with increasing 2
speed or decreasing speed? (c) ​Ú​  ​ (x2 – 3x) dx
s 1
p/4
28. Evaluate: Ú​ ​  ​  ​sin x cos x dx.
0
•
t GMm
29. Evaluate Ú​ ​ ​  _____
​​  2 ​ dx; G, M and m are constants.
24. If the displacement x (in metre) of a particle is R x
related with time (in second) according to equation 30. Find area enclosed between the curve y = 2x2 and
x = 2 t3 – 3 t2 + 2 t + 2. x-axis between x = 0 and x = 4.
Find the position, velocity and acceleration (= rate of 8
change of velocity) of a particle at the end of 2 s. 31. Graph of y vs x is shown in the figure. Find Ú​ ​  ​ y dx
25. A particle starts from origin with uniform acceleration. 0
Its displacement after t seconds is given in metres by y
the relation x = 2 + 5 t + 7 t2. Calculate the magnitude
of its initial velocity. 4
26. Evaluate the following integrals:

1 x
(a) ​Ú​ ​(x3 – 27) dx (b) ​Ú​ ​ __
​  2 ​ dx 8
x
32. Using 1 AU (mean earth - sun distance) = 1.5 × 1011 m
(c) ​Ú​ ​(e
ax + b
) dx ( __
​​÷x ​​ )
(d) ​Ú​ ​ ​​ ​÷x ​ + ​ 1__ ​  ​​ ​ dx
2
and parsec as distance at which 1 AU subtends an
angle of 1 sec of arc, find parsec in metres.

1.29

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Answers Sheet
Your Turn

y y
y y
1. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
0, 1
2
(0,3) (0, 2)
1 ,0
2 (– 3, 0) 45°
x x x 45° x
O O
(– 2, 0)

(0, 6)
3
2. (i) – 1 (ii) 1 (iii) 1 (iv) 1 3. y = __
​   ​ x + 6
4
(–8, 0)
x

y y y y
y y
x
–1
x
O
4.
x x
O O O 1 x x
O 1 O 1
(i) (ii) (iii) 2
(iv) (v) (vi)
y

5. ymin = – 4 6. x graph is a semicircle of radius 4

O (4, 0)

U y
(i) y
2 (ii) (iii) y
O r
2 2
7. 8. p/2 p x
O

–2
x x
O O

9. m3 > m2 > m1 10. slope at A > slope of line OB

3 __ 1 3 2 12 ___ 36
11. (i) 0 (ii) 9 (iii) __
​   ​ ​÷x ​  (iv) – ​ __2 ​  (v) 22x + 4 (vi) cos x – sin x (vii) 3x2 – ____
​  __ ​ (viii) __
​  3 ​ – ___
​  4 ​ + ​  5 ​
2 x 2 ​÷x ​ x x x
(ix) x3 + 4x3 ln x (x) cos2 x – sin2 x (xi) 5x4 + 12x2 + 22x (xii) 2x cos x – (x2 + 4) sin x (xiii) – cosec2 x
1 – ln x 2 sin x 1
(xiv) ​  ______
2
 ​  (xv) __________
​    2 ​ (xvi) 2 sin x cos x = sin 2x (xvii) 2x sec2 x2 (xviii) _______
​  _____  ​ 
x (1 + cos x) 2​÷x + 4 ​
(xix) – x(x2 + 2)–3/2 (xx) 3 cos (3x – 9).

12. (i) 6A (ii) 12A 13. (i) 2 ms–1 (ii) 0 14. B 15. 1,200 p cm2/s

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 16. 0.5% 17. 0.75% increases 18. (i) 5 (ii) 0 (iii) – 4
3 38 1
19. (i) __ ​   ​  (ii) 3 (iii) ___
​   ​  (iv) 6 (v) 1 (vi) 0 (vii) ___
​  __ ​  (viii) 0 20. 6 m
2 3 ÷
​ 2 ​
32 Fo
21. ​ ___ ​ litre 22. (i) 8 (ii) 8/3 23. Zero 24. ​ ___ ​
3 2

Worksheet 1
5p 3p 251 p
1. (a) 324° (b) –150° (c) 648° 2. (a) ___
​   ​ (b) ___
​   ​ (c) _____
​   ​
3 4 360
3. 0.001, 0.001, 1 4. p cm 5. y = x 6. tan–1 4
7. y = x + 3 9. 15°, at origin 10. (x – 4)2 + (y – 3)2 = 25 (in cm)
–2 1 1
12. (a) 3 x2 (b) ___
​  3 ​ (c) ____
​  __ ​ – _____
​  __ ​ 13. (a) cos x – sin x (b) sec x (sec x + tan x)
x 2 ​÷x ​ 2 x ​÷x ​
a a 2b –5
14. (a) ________
​  ______  ​ (b) a . eax + b (c) ______
​  ​ 15. (a) ___
​  ​ (b) ________
​   ​
2 ​÷ax + b ​ ax + b 3 at (3x + 2)2

16. (a) cos (x + a) (b) sec x {sin (x + a) tan x + cos (x + a)}

17. 16 18. l = 1, m = 7

[ 1
19. (a) ex ​ 1 + __ ] x2 + 2x – 1
​ x ​ + x + log x ​ (b) 50 x4 + 36 x2 + 40 x (c) ​  __________
   ​
(x + 1)2
20. (i) 747 (ii) – 1/50 21. 1, 0, 1 22. 4 p units
23. decreasing 24. 10 m, 14 ms–1, 18 ms–2 25. 5 ms–1
x4 –1 eax + b x2 log (ax + b)
26. (a) ​ __ ​ – 27 x + c (b) ___
​  x ​ + c (c) _____
​  a ​ + c (d) __
​   ​ + 2x + log x + c (e) ​ __________
a    ​ + c
4 2
GMm
27. (a) 0, (b) 0 (c) –13/6 28. 1/4 29. ​ _____​
R
128 9.72
30. ​ ____
 ​ units 31. 16 units 32. ​ ____ 16
p ​ × 10 m
3

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