Communication II

EEE – 333

Lecture
Module 2

Course Teacher:
Shuvodip Das
Assistant Professor
Dept. of EEE, PU
 Radio Transmission Techniques
• Radio Transmission Techniques Based on the type of channels being utilized,
mobile radio transmission systems may be classified as the following three
categories-
• Simplex System: Simplex systems utilize simplex channels i.e., the communication
is unidirectional. The first user can communicate with the second
• user. However, the second user cannot communicate with the first user. One
example of such a system is a pager.
• Half Duplex System: Half duplex radio systems that use half duplex radio
channels allow for non-simultaneous bidirectional communication. The first user
can communicate with the second user but the second user can communicate to the
first user only after the first user has finished his conversation. At a time, the user
can only transmit or receive information. A walkie-talkie is an example of a half
duplex system which uses `push to talk' and `release to listen' type of switches.
• Full Duplex System: Full duplex systems allow two way simultaneous
communications. Both the users can communicate to each other simultaneously.
• This can be done by providing two simultaneous but separate channels to both the
users. This is possible by one of the two following methods.
 Radio Transmission Techniques
• Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD): FDD supports two-way radio
communication by using two distinct radio channels. One frequency
channel is transmitted downstream from the BS to the MS (forward
channel). A second frequency is used in the upstream direction and
supports transmission from the MS to the BS (reverse channel).
Because of the pairing of frequencies, simultaneous transmission in
both directions is possible. To mitigate self-interference between
upstream and downstream transmissions, a minimum amount of
frequency separation must be maintained between the frequency pair,
Time Division Duplexing (TDD): TDD uses a single frequency band
to transmit signals in both the downstream and upstream directions.
TDD operates by toggling transmission directions over a time interval.
This toggling takes place very rapidly and is imperceptible to the user.
 Fundamental Techniques of Cellular
Communication
Mobile Station (MS) or subscriber unit
communicates to a fixed Base Station (BS) which in
turn communicates to the desired user at the other
end. The MS consists of transceiver, control circuitry,
duplexer and an antenna while the BS consists of
transceiver and channel multiplexer along with
antennas mounted on the tower. The BS are also
linked to a power source for the transmission of the
radio signals for communication and are connected to
a fixed backbone network. The MSC is sometimes
also called Mobile Telephone Switching Office
(MTSO). A minimum amount of signal strength is
needed in order to be detected by the mobile stations
or mobile sets which are the hand-held personal units
(portables) or those installed in the vehicles
(mobiles). The region over which the signal strength
lies above such a threshold value is known as the
coverage area of a BS.
 Operational Channels
• In each cell, there are four types of channels that take active part during a
mobile call. These are:
• Forward Voice Channel (FVC): This channel is used for the voice
transmission
from the BS to the MS.
• Reverse Voice Channel (RVC): This is used for the voice transmission
from the MS to the BS.
• Forward Control Channel (FCC): Control channels are generally used
for controlling the activity of the call, i.e., they are used for setting up calls
and to divert the call to unused voice channels. Hence these are also called
setup channels. These channels transmit and receive call initiation and
service request messages. The FCC is used for control signaling purpose
from the BS to MS.
• Reverse Control Channel (RCC): This is used for the call control purpose
from the MS to the BS. Control channels are usually monitored by mobiles.
How a Mobile Call is Actually Made?
• When a mobile is idle, i.e., it is not experiencing the process of a call, then it
searches all the FCCs to determine the one with the highest signal strength.
The mobile then monitors this particular FCC. However, when the signal
strength falls below a particular threshold that is insufficient for a call to
take place, the mobile again searches all the FCCs for the one with the
highest signal strength.
• Each mobile has a mobile identification number (MIN). When a user wants
to make a call, he sends a call request to the MSC on the reverse control
channel. He also sends the MIN of the person to whom the call has to be
made.
• The MSC then sends this MIN to all the base stations.
• The base station transmits this MIN and all the mobiles within the coverage
area of that base station receive the MIN and match it with their own.
• If the MIN matches with a particular MS, that mobile sends an
acknowledgment to the BS.
 How a Mobile Call is Actually Made?
• The BS then informs the MSC that the mobile is within its coverage area.
• The MSC then instructs the base station to access specific unused voice
channel pair.
• The base station then sends a message to the mobile to move to the
particular channels and it also sends a signal to the mobile for ringing.
• In order to maintain the quality of the call, the MSC adjusts the transmitted
• power of the mobile which is usually expressed in dB or dBm. When a
mobile moves from the coverage area of one base station to the coverage
area of another base station i.e., from one cell to another cell, then the signal
strength of the initial base station may not be sufficient to continue the call
in progress. So the call has to be transferred to the other base station. This is
called handoff.
• In such cases, in order to maintain the call, the MSC transfers the call to one
of the unused voice channels of the new base station or it transfers the
control of the current voice channels to the new base station.
 Generations of Cellular Communication
• 1G: First Generation Networks: The first mobile phone system in the
market was AMPS. The main technology of this first generation mobile
system was FDMA/FDD and analog FM.
• 2G: Second Generation Networks: Digital modulation formats were
introduced in this generation with the main technology as TDMA/FDD and
CDMA/FDD. The 2G systems introduced three popular TDMA standards
and one popular CDMA standard in the market. These are as follows:
1. TDMA/FDD Standards
• (a) Global System for Mobile (GSM): It was the first fully digital system
utilizing the 900 MHz frequency band. The initial GSM had 200 KHz radio
channels, 8 full-rate or 16 half-rate TDMA channels per carrier, encryption
of speech, low speed data services and support for SMS for which it gained
quick popularity.
• (b) Interim Standard 136 (IS-136): It was popularly known as North
American Digital Cellular (NADC) system. In this system, there were 3 full-
rate TDMA users over each 30 KHz channel. The need of this system was
mainly to increase the capacity over the earlier analog (AMPS) system.
 Generations of Cellular Communication
• (c) Pacific Digital Cellular (PDC): This standard was developed as the
counterpart of NADC in Japan. The main advantage of this standard was its
low transmission bit rate which led to its better spectrum utilization.
• 2. CDMA/FDD Standard
• Interim Standard 95 (IS-95): The IS-95 standard, also popularly known as
CDMA One, uses 64 orthogonally coded users and code words are
transmitted simultaneously on each of 1.25 MHz channels.
• 2.5G Mobile Networks
• 2.5G networks also brought into the market some popular application, a few
of which are: Wireless Application Protocol (WAP), General Packet Radio
Service (GPRS), High Speed Circuit Switched Data (HSCSD), Enhanced
Data rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE) etc.
• 3G: Third Generation Networks: 3G is the third generation of mobile phone
standards and technology, superseding 2.5G. It is based on the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU) family of standards under the International Mobile
Telecommunications-2000 (IMT-2000).
• IMT-2000 defines a set of technical requirements for the realization of such targets,
which can be summarized as follows:
• high data rates: 144 kbps in all environments and 2 Mbps in low-mobility and
indoor environments
• symmetrical and asymmetrical data transmission
• circuit-switched and packet-switched-based services
• speech quality comparable to wire-line quality improved spectral efficiency
• several simultaneous services to end users for multimedia services
• seamless incorporation of second-generation cellular systems
• global roaming
• open architecture for the rapid introduction of new services and technology.
• 3G Standards and Access Technologies
• ITU finally approved a family of 3G standards, which are part of the 3G framework
known as IMT-2000:
1. W-CDMA 2. CDMA2000 3. TD-SCDMA
 Wireless Transmission Protocols
• Wireless Local Loop (WLL)
Microwave wireless links can be used to create a wireless local loop. The local loop
can be thought of as the "last mile" of the telecommunication network that resides
between the central office (CO) and the individual homes and business in close
proximity to the CO.
• Bluetooth
• Facilitates ad-hoc data transmission over short distances from fixed and mobile
• Devices.
• Uses a radio technology called frequency hopping spread spectrum. It chops up the
data being sent and transmits chunks of it on up to 79 different frequencies.
• In its basic mode, the modulation is Gaussian frequency shift keying (GFSK).
• It can achieve a gross data rate of 1 Mb/s.
• Primarily designed for low power consumption, with a short range (power class-
dependent: 1 meter, 10 meters, 100 meters) based on low-cost transceiver microchips
in each device
Bluetooth
 Wireless Transmission Protocols

• Wireless Local Area Networks (W-LAN)

• IEEE 802.11 WLAN uses ISM band (5.275-5.825GHz)
• Uses 11Mcps DS-SS spreading and 2Mbps user data rates (will fallback to
1Mbps in noisy conditions)
• IEEE 802.11a standard provides upto 54Mbps throughput in the 5GHz
band.
• The DS-SS IEEE 802.11b has been called Wi-Fi. Wi-Fi networks have
limited range. A typical Wi-Fi home router using 802.11b or 802.11g with a
stock antenna might have a range of 32 m (120 ft) indoors and 95 m (300 ft)
outdoors. Range also varies with frequency band.
 Wireless Transmission Protocols
• WiMax
• Provides upto 70 Mb/sec symmetric broadband speed without the need for
• cables. The technology is based on the IEEE 802.16 standard (also called
• Wireless MAN)
• WiMAX can provide broadband wireless access (BWA) up to 30 miles (50 km)
• for fixed stations, and 3 - 10 miles (5 - 15 km) for mobile stations. In contrast,
the WiFi/802.11 wireless local area network standard is limited in most cases to
only 100 - 300 feet (30 - 100m)
• Zigbee
• ZigBee is the specification for a suite of high level communication protocols
using small, low-power digital radios based on the IEEE 802.15.4-2006
standard for wireless personal area networks (WPANs), such as wireless
headphones connecting with cell phones via short-range radio.
• This technology is intended to be simpler and cheaper. ZigBee is targeted at
radio-frequency (RF) applications that require a low data rate, long battery life,
and secure networking.
 Cellular Concept
Cell: A cell may be defined as an area of radio coverage from one BTS antenna
system. It is the smallest building block in a mobile network and is the reason
why mobile networks are often referred to as cellular networks. Typically, cells
are represented graphically by hexagons.
There are two main types of cell:
• Omni directional cell: An omni-directional cell (or omnicell) is served by a BTS
with an antenna which transmits equally in all directions (360 degrees).
• Sector cell: A sector cell is the area of coverage from an antenna, which
transmits, in a given direction only. For example, this may be equal to 120
degrees or 180 degrees of an equivalent omni- directional cell. One BTS can
serve one of these sector cells with a collection of BTS’s at a site serving more
than one, leading to terms such as two-sectored sites and more commonly, three-
sectored sites.

Fig.: Sector Cell

Fig.: Omnicell
 Types of Cells
• Femtocell: femtocell is a small, low-power cellular base station, typically designed for use in a
home or small business. Coverage of few meters. It has found its applications in WCDMA,
GSM, CDMA2000, TD-SCDMA, WiMAX and LTE solutions. Around 10 meters coverage.
• Picocell: A picocell is a small cellular base station typically covering a small area, such as in-
building (offices, shopping malls, train stations, stock exchanges, etc.), or more recently in-
aircraft. In cellular networks, picocells are typically used to extend coverage to indoor areas
where outdoor signals do not reach well. Application: WLAN. Around 200 meters of coverage.
• Microcell: A microcell is a cell in a mobile phone network served by a low power cellular base
station (tower), covering a limited area such as a mall, a hotel, or a transportation hub. A
microcell is usually larger than a picocell, though the distinction is not always clear. A microcell
uses power control to limit the radius of its coverage area. Application: PCS. Around 2 km of
coverage.
• Macrocell: A macrocell is a cell in a mobile phone network that provides radio coverage served
by a high power cellular base station (tower). Generally, macrocells provide coverage larger
than microcell. The antennas for macrocells are mounted on ground-based masts, rooftops and
other existing structures, at a height that provides a clear view over the surrounding buildings
and terrain. Application: Metropolitan area.
• Megacell: Covers nationwide area.
• Umbrella Cell: A layer with micro cells is covered by at least one macro cell, and a micro cell
can in turn cover several pico cells. A covering cell is called an umbrella cell. Umbrella cells are
used to cover shadowed regions of smaller cells and fill in gaps in coverage between those cells.
 Frequency Reuse
• Frequency reuse, or, frequency planning, is a technique of reusing frequencies
and channels within a communication system to improve capacity and spectral
efficiency.
• Frequency reuse is one of the fundamental concepts on which commercial
wireless systems are based that involve the partitioning of an RF radiating area
into cells.
• The increased capacity in a commercial wireless network, compared with a
network with a single transmitter, comes from the fact that the same radio
frequency can be reused in a different area for a completely different
transmission.
• Frequency reuse in mobile cellular systems means that frequencies allocated to
the service are reused in a regular pattern of cells, each covered by one base
station.
• The repeating regular pattern of cells is called cluster. Since each cell is
designed to use radio frequencies only within its boundaries, the same
frequencies can be reused in other cells not far away without interference, in
another cluster. Such cells are called `co-channel' cells. The reuse of frequencies
enables a cellular system to handle a huge number of calls with a limited
number of channels.
• Handoff Process
• When a user moves from one cell to the other, to keep the communication
between the user pair, the user channel has to be shifted from one BS to the
other without interrupting the call, i.e., when a MS moves into another cell,
while the conversation is still in progress, the MSC automatically transfers
the call to a new FDD channel without disturbing the conversation. This
process is called as handoff.
• Co-channel Interference (C/I)
• Cellular networks are more often limited by problems caused by
interference rather than by signal strength problems. Co-channel
interference is caused by the use of a frequency close to the exact same
frequency. The former will interfere with the latter, leading to the terms
interfering frequency (I) and carrier frequency (C).
• The GSM specification recommends that the carrier-to interference (C/I)
ratio is greater than 9 decibels (dB). However, Ericsson recommends that 12
dB be used as planning criterion.
• This C/I ratio is influenced by the following factors:
• The location of the MS
• Local geography and type of local scatters
• BTS antenna type, site elevation and position
• Adjacent channel interference (C/A)
• Adjacent frequencies (A), that is frequencies shifted 200kHz from the carrier
frequency (C), must be avoided in the same cell and preferably in neighboring cells
also. Although adjacent frequencies are at different frequencies to the carrier
frequency they can still cause interference and quality problems.
• The GSM specification states that the carrier-to-adjacent ratio (C/A) must be larger
than -9dB. Ericsson recommends that higher than 3 dB be used as planning
criterion.
 What is a Handoff?
• Handoff refers to a process of transferring an
ongoing call or data session from one channel
connected to the core network to another.
• Process of transferring a MS from one base
station to another.
• Also called as ‘Handover’.
Reasons for a Handoff to be conducted
• To avoid call termination: call drops
• When the capacity for connecting new calls of a
given cell is used up.
• Interference in the channels.
• When the user behaviors change.
▫ Speed and mobility.
Importance of handoff decision time
 Types of protocols

• 3 types of handoff protocols which help in providing continuous

and QOS-guaranteed service.
• Network-controlled handoff (NCHO): Surrounding BSs
measure the signal from MS and network initiates the handoff
process.
• Mobile-assisted handoff (MAHO): network asks the MS to
measure the signal from the surrounding BSs. The network
makes the handoff decision based on reports from MS.
• Mobile-controlled handoff (MCHO): MS continuously
monitors the signal of the surrounding BS and initiate the
handoff process.
• Cell-Splitting
• Cell Splitting is based on the cell radius reduction and minimizes the need to
modify the existing cell parameters. Cell splitting involves the process of
sub-dividing a congested cell into smaller cells, each with its own base
station and a corresponding reduction in antenna size and transmitting
power. This increases the capacity of a cellular system since it increases the
number of times that channels are reused. Since the new cells have smaller
radii than the existing cells, inserting these smaller cells, known as
microcells, between the already existing cells results in an increase of
capacity due to the additional number of channels per unit area.

Splitting of congested
seven-cell clusters.
Sectoring
Sectoring is basically a technique which can increase the SIR without
necessitating an increase in the cluster size. Till now, it has been assumed
that the base station is located in the center of a cell and radiates
uniformly in all the directions behaving as an omni-directional antenna.
However it has been found that the co-channel interference in a cellular
system may be decreased by replacing a single omni-directional antenna
at the base station by several directional antennas, each radiating within a
specified sector.

Figure : A seven-cell cluster with 60o sectors.

 GSM Frequency Band
System Band Uplink (MHz) Downlink Channel
(MHz) Number
GSM – 850 800 824.2-849.2 869.2-893.8 128-251
P-GSM-900 900 890-915 935-960 1-124
E-GSM-900 900 880-915 925-960 975-1023,
0-124
R-GSM-900 900 876-915 921-960 955-1023,
0-124
T-GSM-900 900 870.4-876 915.4-921 Dynamic
DCS 1800 1800 1710-1785 1805-1880 512-885
PCS-1900 1900 1850-1910 1930-1990 512-810
P-GSM: Primary GSM
E-GSM: Extended Global System for Mobile Communications
R-GSM: Railway Global System for Mobile Communications
T-GSM: Trunking-GSM
DCS : Digital Cellular Service
PCS: Personal Communications Service
GSM Architecture
 GSM NETWORK COMPONENTS
• The GSM network is divided into two systems.
• Switching System (SS)
• Base Station System (BSS)
GSM NETWORK COMPONENTS
GSM NETWORK COMPONENTS
GSM NETWORK COMPONENTS
GSM NETWORK COMPONENTS
GSM NETWORK COMPONENTS
GSM NETWORK COMPONENTS
GSM NETWORK COMPONENTS
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GSM Interfaces
GSM Channels
GSM Channels