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The document provides comprehensive Oracle SQL notes, covering key definitions, database normalization, SQL categories, data types, constraints, and commands for DDL, DML, and DQL. It includes examples of SQL queries, functions, joins, set operations, and conditional expressions, along with practice tasks for DDL, DML, and querying. The notes serve as a systematic reference for understanding and applying SQL concepts and commands.

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text [MConverter.eu] (1)

The document provides comprehensive Oracle SQL notes, covering key definitions, database normalization, SQL categories, data types, constraints, and commands for DDL, DML, and DQL. It includes examples of SQL queries, functions, joins, set operations, and conditional expressions, along with practice tasks for DDL, DML, and querying. The notes serve as a systematic reference for understanding and applying SQL concepts and commands.

Uploaded by

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Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
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Here’s a fully merged and comprehensive note in Markdown format, based on the content

of your course material, enriched with additional SQL knowledge, covering everything
systematically.
# Oracle SQL Notes

## 1. Introduction to Databases

### **Key Definitions**


- **Data**: Raw facts about objects and events.
- **Information**: Processed data useful for decision-making.
- **Database**: An organized collection of interrelated data.
- **DBMS**: Software that manages databases (e.g., Oracle, MySQL).
- **ERD (Entity Relationship Diagram)**: A visual representation of
entities and their relationships.

### **Database Normalization**


- **1NF**: Each cell contains a single value; rows are unique.
- **2NF**: Meets 1NF and has no partial dependency.
- **3NF**: Meets 2NF and has no transitive dependency.

---

## 2. SQL Basics

### **Categories of SQL**


| **Category** | **Commands** |
**Purpose**
|
|---------------|------------------------------------------|----------
----------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------|
| **DDL** | `CREATE`, `ALTER`, `DROP`, `TRUNCATE` | Define
database schema and objects like tables, views, sequences.
|
| **DML** | `INSERT`, `UPDATE`, `DELETE`, `MERGE` |
Manipulate data within tables.
|
| **DQL** | `SELECT` | Retrieve
data from the database.
|
| **TCL** | `COMMIT`, `ROLLBACK`, `SAVEPOINT` | Manage
transaction control.
|
| **DCL** | `GRANT`, `REVOKE` | Manage
access control.
|

---
## 3. Data Types

| **Type** | **Description** | **Examples**


|
|---------------|---------------------------------------|-------------
-----------------|
| `CHAR(n)` | Fixed-length character string. | `CHAR(10)`
|
| `VARCHAR2(n)` | Variable-length character string. |
`VARCHAR2(50)` |
| `NUMBER(p,s)` | Numeric data with precision/scale. |
`NUMBER(10,2)` |
| `DATE` | Stores date and time. | `YYYY-MM-DD`
|

---

## 4. Constraints

| **Constraint** | **Purpose**
| **Example** |
|-------------------|-------------------------------------------------
-----|----------------------------------------|
| `PRIMARY KEY` | Uniquely identifies rows.
| `id INT PRIMARY KEY` |
| `FOREIGN KEY` | Enforces referential integrity.
| `FOREIGN KEY (dept_id) REFERENCES departments(dept_id)` |
| `CHECK` | Limits column values.
| `CHECK (age >= 18)` |
| `NOT NULL` | Prevents NULL values.
| `name VARCHAR2(50) NOT NULL` |

---

## 5. DDL (Data Definition Language)

### **Commands**
- **`CREATE TABLE`**: Define a new table.
```sql
CREATE TABLE students (
id INT PRIMARY KEY,
name VARCHAR2(50),
age INT
);

• ALTER TABLE: Modify a table.


ALTER TABLE students ADD COLUMN grade CHAR(1);
• DROP TABLE: Delete a table.
DROP TABLE students;

• TRUNCATE TABLE: Removes all rows from a table.


TRUNCATE TABLE students;

6. DML (Data Manipulation Language)


Commands
• INSERT: Add data to a table.
INSERT INTO students (id, name, age) VALUES (1, 'Alice', 20);

• UPDATE: Modify existing data.


UPDATE students SET age = 21 WHERE id = 1;

• DELETE: Remove rows from a table.


DELETE FROM students WHERE id = 1;

7. Queries (DQL)
Simple SELECT
• Retrieve all columns:
SELECT * FROM students;

• Retrieve specific columns:


SELECT name, age FROM students WHERE age > 18;

Sorting with ORDER BY


• Ascending order:
SELECT name, age FROM students ORDER BY age ASC;

• Descending order:
SELECT name, age FROM students ORDER BY age DESC;

8. Functions
Single-Row Functions
• Numeric: ROUND, CEIL, FLOOR.
• Character: UPPER, LOWER, LENGTH.
• Date: SYSDATE, ADD_MONTHS.
• Conversion: TO_CHAR, TO_DATE.
Aggregate Functions
• COUNT: Count rows.
SELECT COUNT(*) FROM students;

• SUM: Sum values.


SELECT SUM(age) FROM students;

9. Joins
Types of Joins
Type Description Example
INNER JOIN Rows matching both SELECT * FROM A
tables. JOIN B ON A.id =
B.id;
LEFT JOIN All rows from left table, SELECT * FROM A
matching rows from LEFT JOIN B ON
right table. A.id = B.id;
RIGHT JOIN All rows from right SELECT * FROM A
table, matching rows RIGHT JOIN B ON
from left table. A.id = B.id;
FULL OUTER JOIN All matching and non- SELECT * FROM A
matching rows from FULL OUTER JOIN B
both tables. ON A.id = B.id;
SELF JOIN Joins a table with itself. SELECT a.col,
b.col FROM A a, A
b WHERE a.id >
b.id;

10. Set Operations


Operation Description Syntax
UNION Combines results, SELECT col FROM A
removing duplicates. UNION SELECT col
FROM B;
UNION ALL Combines results, SELECT col FROM A
includes duplicates. UNION ALL SELECT
col FROM B;
INTERSECT Finds common rows SELECT col FROM A
between two queries. INTERSECT SELECT
col FROM B;
MINUS Rows in the first query SELECT col FROM A
but not in the second MINUS SELECT col
query. FROM B;
11. Conditional Expressions
Expression Purpose Example
CASE Conditional logic. SELECT CASE WHEN
age > 18 THEN
'Adult' ELSE
'Minor' END;
NVL Handle NULL values. SELECT NVL(grade,
'N/A') FROM
students;
NULLIF Compare values. SELECT
NULLIF(col1, col2)
FROM table;

12. Tasks and Practice


DDL Practice
• Create tables for departments and employees.
• Use constraints like NOT NULL, CHECK, PRIMARY KEY.

DML Practice
• Insert rows into a table.
• Update records to test CHECK constraints.
• Delete records based on a condition.

Query Practice
• Retrieve employees with salary > $50,000.
• Aggregate queries for average salaries by department.
• Use joins to find employees and their managers.

This Markdown file comprehensively combines all topics, commands, and examples
covered in your course material. If you’d like, I can refine this or export it to a different
format such as PDF or HTML.

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