ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

BGS FIRST GRADE COLLEGE

H.G. RAVI SHANKAR
 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

SECOND SEMESTER

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

I INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL 3-8

STUDIES

II ECOSYSTEMS 9 - 28

III NATURAL RESOURCES 29-50

IV BIODIVERSITY & CONSERVATION 51 -65

V ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION 66-78

ENVIRONMENTAL POLICIES &

VI PRACTICES
79-89

HUMAN COMMUNITIES & 90-101

VII
ENVIRONMENT

MR. H.G. RAVISHANKAR, M.Sc., B.ed

DEPARTMENT OF STUDIES IN ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

BGS FIRST GRADE COLLEGE, MYSURU-23

 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES - SYLLABUS
Number of Theory Number of lecture hours Number of field work hours
Credits
2 (LTP 3-1-0) 45 5

Content of AECC – Environmental Studies 45 hours

Unit 1 Introduction to Environmental Studies 2
Multidisciplinary nature of environmental studies
Scope and importance; Concept of sustainability and
sustainable development.
Unit 2 Ecosystems 6
Ecosystem - Structure and function of ecosystem; Energy
flow in an ecosystem: food chains, food webs and ecological
succession. Case studies of the following ecosystems:
a) Forest ecosystem,
b) Grassland ecosystem,
c) Desert ecosystem,
Aquatic ecosystems (ponds, streams, lakes, rivers, oceans,
estuaries)

Natural Resources: Renewable and Non-Renewable

Unit 3 Resources 8

Land resources and land-use change; Land degradation, soil

erosion and desertification.
Deforestation: Causes and impacts due to mining, dam
building on environment, forests, biodiversity and tribal
populations.
Water: Use and over-exploitation of surface and ground
water, floods, droughts, conflicts over water (international &
inter-state).
Energy resources: Renewable and non-renewable energy
sources, use of alternate energy sources, growing energy
needs, case studies.
Unit 4 Biodiversity and Conservation 8
Levels of biological diversity: Genetic, species and
ecosystem diversity; Biogeographic zones of India;
 Biodiversity patterns and global biodiversity hot spots.
India as a mega-biodiversity nation; Endangered and
endemic species of India.
Threats to biodiversity: Habitat loss, poaching of wildlife,
man-wildlife conflicts, biological invasions; Conservation of
biodiversity: In-situ and Ex-situ conservation of
biodiversity.
Ecosystem and biodiversity services: Ecological, economic,
social, ethical, aesthetic and Informational value.
Unit 5 Environmental Pollution 8
Environmental pollution: types, causes, effects and
controls; Air, water, soil and noise pollution.
Nuclear hazards and human health risks
Solid waste management, Control measures of urban and
industrial waste
Pollution case studies.
Unit 6 Environmental Policies & Practices 7
Climate change, global warming, ozone layer depletion, acid
rain and impacts on human communities and agriculture.
Environment Laws: Environment Protection Act; Air
(Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act; Water (Prevention
and control of Pollution) Act; Wildlife Protection Act;
Forest Conservation Act. International agreements: Montreal
and Kyoto protocols and Convention on Biological Diversity
(CBD).
Nature reserves, tribal populations and rights, and human
wildlife conflicts in Indian context
Unit 7 Human Communities and the Environment 6
Human population growth: Impacts on environment,
human health and welfare.
Resettlement and rehabilitation of project affected persons;
case studies.
Disaster management: floods, earthquake, cyclones and
landslides.
Environmental movements: Chipko, Silent valley, Bishnois
of Rajasthan
 Environmental ethics: Role of Indian and other religions
and cultures in environmental conservation
Environmental communication and public awareness, case
studies (e.g., CNG vehicles in Delhi).
Unit 8 Field work 5
 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

UNIT-1
INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

DEFINITION & MEANING OF ENVIRONMENT:-

The term environment is derived from the French word “Environ”, which
means encircle or surround. Environment means all that environs (ie., surrounds)
us. In other words, environment means surroundings or surrounding conditions.
The environment is defined as “The sum total of all conditions, agencies and
influences which affect the development, growth life and death of an organism and
species.
IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENT:-
The importance of environment is as follows –
• Environment is the sole source of life of all forms of life on the earth.
• Environment determines the existence, growth and development of all forms
of life including human beings.
• The various components of environment i.e., lithosphere, hydrosphere,
atmosphere and biosphere provide water, gases, materials and many other
ingredients for life to survive on the earth.

DEFINITION & MEANING OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

Environmental studies or environmental science is the study of the earth
(i.e., the environment) comprising air, water, land and living organisms.
The study of the interaction of the biotic (i.e., living) components of the
environment such as plants, animals, micro-organisms etc. among themselves and
also with the abiotic (i.e., non-living) components such as air, soil, water,
temperature, rainfall etc.
The systematic study of the relationship between the abiotic factors with the
biotic factors is known as the ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE.

MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

There are three approaches to the study of a discipline or subject of study.
They are-
A) MONO OR INTRA – DISCIPLINARY APPROACH:-
The method of studying a discipline or subject by a single discipline i.e., by
itself is called mono (or) intra – disciplinary approach.

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 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

B) INTER-DISCIPLINARY APPROACH:-
The method of studying a discipline or subject by two related disciplines is
called inter-disciplinary approach.
(A) MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
The method of studying a discipline or branch of knowledge by many related
disciplines is called multidisciplinary approach.
To understand the environmental concepts, it requires basic knowledge of
every branch of science, arts, commerce and engineering disciplines.
MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

Science discipline: Art discipline:

Biology, Chemistry, Law, Philosophy, Political
Mathematics, Geology etc., science etc.

Environmental Studies

Commerce discipline: Engineering discipline:

Economics, Accountancy, Civil, Mechanical,
Business Management etc. Industrial etc.

(I) ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES AND SCIENCE DISCIPLINE:- The science

discipline which involves the difference branches like physics, chemistry,
mathematics, Biology other sub branches like statistics, ecology, anthropology.
A) ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES & BIOLOGY:- The environmental studies deals
about the life as one of main aspect is known as ENVIRONMENTAL BIOLOGY. It
helps us to understand the interaction of abiotic components with biotic
components how a toxic element reacts with living organisms etc.

B) ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES & CHEMISTRY:- The Environment studies which

deal about the chemical reactions is known as ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY.
The environment chemistry help us to know what are the compounds present in
the environment and how do the chemical interact with each other, their reactions,
chemical effects & nature of chemicals present in water/ air.
C) ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES & MATHEMATICS:- The environmental studies
which helps the environment to predict the amount and effect of pollutants in

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 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

particular area through their models. By using mathematical models we can

predicts the effect without the laboratory experiment through calculations.

D) ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES & GEOLOGY:- The relationship between geology

and environmental studies is studied in a branch called ENVIRONMENTAL
GEOLOGY. This branch deals with the study of environment related to the earth
like earth quakes, volcanoes, natural resources etc.,
(II) ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES & COMMERCE DISCIPLINE
The commerce disciplines comprise the subjects like economics, business
management, accountancy etc. The subjects of commerce discipline help
environmental studies in many ways.
(A) ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES & ECONOMICS:- The branch of environmental
studies which deals with economic aspects is known as ENVIRONMENTAL
ECONOMICS. Increasing production and decreasing the cost of the production is
the main aim of the economics, but to get the sustainable production the
environmental economics play a vital role.

(B) ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES & ACCOUNTANCY:- ENVIRONMENTAL

AUDITING is a branch of environmental studies which is primarily derived from the
accountancy practiced in major industries.

(C) ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES & BUSINESS MANAGEMENT:- The business

management plays a key role in maintaining the business or industries. Some of
strategies derived from the business management is useful to manage the natural
resource which exist on earth to its optimum level with minimum degradation.
(III) ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES & ARTS DISCIPLINE
Law, philosophy, political science, history are some of the major subjects of the
arts discipline. These subjects play a vital role in the environmental studies to
conserve the environment.
(A) ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES & LAW:- Environmental law is a separate
branch of law derived to protect & conserve environment. The over exploitation of
natural resources leads to instability in the society.

(B) ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES & PHILOSOPHY:- The environmental ethics

plays a vital role in the preaching about correct guidelines which should be
practiced in the conservation of natural resource.
(C) ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES & POLITICAL SCIENCE:- The political science
with respect to environment tries to minimize the crises created by the political
issues towards the environment.

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 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

(IV) ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES & ENGINEERING DISCIPLINES

The discipline of engineering plays a key role in the study and protecting the
environment by designing the industry, designing pollution control devices,
deriving the eco-friendly procedure in producing the materials etc.
(B) SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
Environmental Studies play an important role in the present day
technological world. This subject is gaining a lot of importance in the field of
pollution control to sustain the life & nature.
• It helps to study the functions of various components of the environment.
• Studies the interaction between environment & living organisms.
• Analysis the life supporting process of water, air, land & other beneficial
organisms.
• It creates a standards for scientific fields which are accepted as safe, clean &
healthy environment to man.
• Studies about ecological imbalance in ecosystem.
• Studies about global issues such as greenhouse gases, global warming, acid
rain, ozone layer depletion etc.
• Management of hazardous waste municipal waste & sustains for cleaner
environment.
• Studies the proper management of usage of natural resources.
• Studies on environmental techniques known as environmental engineering
or environmental science |management.
• Creates public awareness to highlight the various environmental problems to
involve the public in the improvement of environment.
• Recycling of biodegradable waste needs the knowledge of environmental studies.
(C) IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
The main importance of environmental education is as follows:-
• Environmental education is important for the economy and welfare of human
society.
• It helps us in careful handling the issues like pollution, over exploitation of
natural resources & sustainable development.
• Environmental education helps us to find ways and means to maintain the
ecological balance.
• It helps to understand different food chains and the ecological balance in
nature.

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 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

• Environmental studies can help the students to acquire the knowledge, skills,
motivation and values needed to manage the earth’s resources.
• Environmental studies create awareness among the people to know about
various natural resources of a region and their conservation.
• Environmental studies is a key instrument for bringing about the changes in
the changes in the knowledge, values, behavior and lifestyles required to
achieve sustainability & stability within and among countries.
• Environmental studies help us in appreciating nature.
• Use of agrochemicals has degraded the environmental and has disturbed the
ecological balance.

(D) CONCEPT OF SUSTAINABILITY AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

The concept of sustainable development became well known through the
famous 1987 Brundtland report from the United Nations, entitled, “Our Common
Future”.
MEANING OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
A/c to Brundtland report sustainable development is a process of developing
(land, cities, business, communities etc) that meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their own needs.
From the above definition it is clear that sustainable development refers to
economic growth and the expansion of the economy.
In short sustainable development means the proper use of natural resources
for the benefits of human beings which in turn, improves the economy of the
country.
SIGNIFICANCE OF CONCEPT OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
The concept of sustainable development signifies that the natural resources
are exhaustible and the developmental process should be aimed at meeting the
needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of the future
generation to meet their needs.
• Sustainable development must overcome environmental degradation.
• Sustainable development as economic development, social development and
environmental protection.
• Sustainable development also signifies that sustainable development is not just
the development of human beings but the development of even other living beings.

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 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

GUIDELINES FOR ACHIEVING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

There are certain guidelines for achieving sustainable development. Those
guidelines are-
• There should also be a change in people’s attitudes and value system.
• Sustainable development requires the development should last for generations
for which the present generation must be mindful to the future generation while
fulfilling its own needs.
• It requires the government to set higher environment standards in its energy
consumption & conservation policies.
• There should be provision for housing, health care and education for the poor.
• There should be education & empowerment of woman particularly in rural
areas.
• There should be afforestation in cities and rural areas.
• There should be proper treatment of urban wastes and industrial effluents.
• There should be efficient use of resources avoiding wasteful and excessive
utilization.
• There should be change in peoples thinking and attitude towards development.
• There should be people’s participation in conservation and improvement of
environmental quality.
………………………………………………………………………………………

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 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

UNIT-2
ECOSYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION:- The term ‘ecosystem’ was coined by A.G. Tansley an English

botanist, in 1935. The term ecosystem is derived from the words ‘eco’ and
‘system’. Eco refers to environment and system means an interacting /inter –
dependent complex. Ecosystem will be formed through levels of organization in
nature.

Biosphere

Ecosystem

Biotic Abiotic
Community Community

Population

Species

Organisms
LEVELS OF ORGANISATION IN NATURE

DEFINITION OF ECOSYSTEM:- “The system resulting from the integration of all

the living and non-living factors of the environment”. (OR) Any system of
organisms, functioning together with their non-living environment is called an
Ecosystem.
FEATURES OF ECOSYSTEM:- The chief features of the ecosystem are as follows.
• The concept of ecosystem is very broad.
• Ecosystem includes both living organisms and non-living substances.
• Ecosystem is a basic structural and functional unit of an environment.

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 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

• Ecosystem is an open system.

• Ecosystem is broad and flexible.
• Function of ecosystem is related to energy flow.
• Ecosystem is self-sustaining system of relationships between organisms and
their surroundings.
(I) STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ECOSYSTEM
STRUCTURE OF AN ECOSYSTEM:- Ecosystem is the total assemblage of
component entering into interactions of a group of organisms.
COMPONENTS OF AN ENVIRONMENT:- There are two components of an
ecosystem.
(A) BIOTIC COMPONENTS:- It includes all living organisms.
(B) ABIOTIC COMPONENTS:- It includes physical /non-living environmental
components.
(A) BIOTIC COMPONENTS
Biotic components comprise all living organisms. In an ecosystem living organisms
are usually classified into two categories on the basis their trophic or nutritional
relationships. They are; (A) Autotrophs (B) Heterotrophs
AUTOTROPHS:- Those organisms which prepare their own food by using
sunlight, water and minerals present in soil called photosynthesis process. The
organisms are called Autotrophs. Eg: All green plants and certain Bacteria are
known as Producers.
HETEROTROPHS:- The organisms which depend directly or indirectly upon
autotrophs /producers for their food are called Heterotrophs or Heterotropic
organisms as they consume the food produced by the autotrophs, they are called
Consumers.
The biotic components of an ecosystem can be divided into three types.
(I) PRODUCERS:- Producers are autotrophs which are capable of producing food
from non-living inorganic substance. Eg: Green plants, algae & diatoms.
(II) CONSUMERS:- Consumers are heterotrophs which eat up other living
organisms. They include-
(A) HERBIVORES:- Animals which eat plants
(B) CARNIVORES:- Animals which eat other animals
(C) OMNIVORES:- Animals which eat plants & animals also
(D) DETRITIVORES:- Animals which eat detritus (dead & decay)
(1) PRIMARY CONSUMERS:- These are herbivores which feed on green plants.
Eg: Deer, elephant, cattle, sheep, rabbit etc.
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(2) SECONDARY CONSUMERS:- These are carnivores which feed on other animals
/primary consumers. Eg: Snake, Fox, Frogs, Cats etc.
(3) TERTIARY CONSUMERS:- These are top carnivores which feed on other
carnivorous /flesh-eating animals. They also include omnivores. Eg: Tiger, Lion,
Eagle etc.
DEPENDENCIES OF FOOD:- In an ecosystem, there are four types of
dependencies of food. They are;
• Producers depending on abiotic /inorganic substances.
• Primary consumers depending on the producers.
• Secondary consumers depending on primary consumers.
• Tertiary consumers depending on secondary consumers.
(III) DECOMPOSERS:- Decomposers include micro-organisms like bacteria and
fungi, which decompose the dead bodies of producers and consumers into simpler
compounds and components & release inorganic nutrients or matter into the
environment. Eg: Bacteria & fungi.

TROPHIC LEVELS
“The food energy passes from one group of organisms to other groups of organisms
at different level these levels are called “TROPHIC LEVEL”. There are four trophic
levels. They are;
TROPHIC LEVEL - I:- It includes producers /Autotrophs. It converts solar energy
into chemical energy in the form of organic substances such as food for other
organisms.
TROPHIC LEVEL II:- It includes primary consumers.
TROPHIC LEVEL III:- It includes secondary consumers.
TROPHIC LEVEL IV:- It includes Tertiary consumers.

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(B) ABIOTIC COMPONENTS

Abiotic components refer to non-living /physical environmental factors. The
important factors are;
1) WATER:-
• Water is a necessity for all living organisms.
• Organisms require water for survival.
• Water is essential for photosynthesis.
• Water is responsible for migration of animals
2) SOIL:-
• Soil plays an important role in the ecosystem.
• It plays important role in plant growth.
• It provides all the nutrients to the plants.
• It helps for Agricultural production.
3) AIR:-
• Air is a mixture of several gases like nitrogen, oxygen, CO 2 etc.
• It plays important role on plants and other living organisms of the
ecosystem.
• CO2 in the air affects the rate of photosynthesis.
4) TEMPERATURE:-
• Temperature is one of the important factors of the ecosystem.
• Each organism has a minimum, maximum & optimum temperature for life.
• It influences the behavior of plants, animals and even human beings.
5) LIGHT:-
• Light is one of the important factors of the ecosystem.
• It is the source of energy for all the life on land.
• It is an essential factor for the formation of chlorophyll.
• It is essential for human life.
FUNCTIONS OF THE ECOSYSTEM
Ecosystem is the functional unit of an environment ecosystem is not a static,
it is dynamic and changes will be occur in nature.
FUNCTIONING OF AN ECOSYSTEM:- The functioning of an ecosystem comprises
the three aspects;
(1) ENERGY FLOW (2) PRODUCTIVITY (3) BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLING

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(A) ENERGY FLOW IN THE ECOSYSTEM

Energy is the ability to do work. The plants covert solar energy into chemical
energy in the process of photosynthesis. The chemical energy passed on from one
trophic level to next level. “The flow of energy that occurs along a food chain is
called Energy Flow”. The energy flow is unidirectional is an ecosystem and is
formed from producers to herbivores to carnivores. It cannot occur in the reverse
direction.
TEN PERCENT LAW REGARDING FLOW OF ENERGY
According to the ten percent law “there is a gradual decline in the amount of
energy available as we move from one trophic level to the next trophic level i.e.,
from the producer level to the next higher level”. During this transfer almost 90%
of the energy is lost to the environment in the form of heat which cannot be used
again. As we move up the trophic levels, the amount of available usable energy
keeps on decreasing at energy flow in an ecosystem.

Heat Heat
10,000 units eneryg 1000 units eneryg
Sun Producers Consumers

Heat
Inorganic Decomposers
nutrients
10 units eneryg 100 units eneryg

IMPORTANCE OF ENERGY FLOW

• Every functioning of ecosystem is dependent the process of flow of energy.
• It maintains itself & stability through energy
• Ecosystems are under pressure from human beings.
(B) PRODUCTIVITY OF ECOSYSTEM
Productivity of an ecosystem means the rate of production ie., amount of
organic matter produced or accumulated by plants per unit of time and area. The
term productivity of ecosystem denotes the amount of organic matter accumulated
in any unit of time.
TYPES OF PRODUCTIVITY
1) PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY:- Refers to the rate at which radiant energy is stored
by photosynthetic and chemosynthetic activities of producer organisms.

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2) SECONDARY PRODUCTIVITY:- Refers to the capacity of energy storage at the

consumer level or second trophic level.
3) NET PRODUCTIVITY:- Net productivity refers to the rate of storage of organic
matter not used by the consumers at the consumer’s level or second trophic level.
(C) BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLING
The cycling of chemical elements within an ecosystem is called Ecosystem
Mineral Cycling.
Ecosystem mineral cycling connects biological cycles to geological cycles.
Chemical elements cycle within an ecosystem from organism to organism through
water, air, soils and rocks.
The naturally available elements/chemicals are converted into useful forms
to through various processes like biological, geological and chemical processes are
called Biogeochemical Cycles.
There are many biogeochemical cycles in nature through which the
environment or ecosystem functions among them hydrological cycle, carbon cycle,
oxygen cycle, phosphorus cycle, nitrogen cycle and sulphur cycle are important.
The flow of energy is the main driving force among all these cycles.
HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE /WATER CYCLE
• Water cycle is the most important cycle
• It involves interchange of water between the earth’s surface & the
atmosphere through rainfall and evapo-transpiration.
NITROGEN CYCLE
• Nitrogen is an essential element of all forms of life
• The chief source of nitrogen is the atmosphere
• Atmosphere has about 79% nitrogen.
• The chief symbiotic nitrogen fixers are bacteria and asymbiotic nitrogen
fixers are blue- green algae.
For all biogeochemical cycles microorganisms play a major role in the ecosystem or
our environment.
(II) ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
INTRODUCTION:- An ecosystem is never static. It is dynamic. Its structure and
function changes with time in a very orderly way and such a change can be
predicted.
DEFINITION:- “An orderly process of changes in the community structure and
function with time through modification in the physical environment which
ultimately in a stable ecosystem”
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(OR)
“Transformation or orientation of a biological community plant and animal species
come into an area and alter the environmental conditions in favor of new plant and
animal species”.
Odum defined changes in communities /ecosystem development in terms of
three parameters;
1) An orderly process of biological community development that involves
changes in species structure.
2) The modification of the physical environment by the biological community
3) In ecosystem maximum biomass and symbiotic function between organisms
are maintained per unit of available energy flow.
FEATURES OF ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
• Causes climatic changes such as soil erosion, fire etc.,
• Causes successive changes in population.
• Causes stabilization of the community.
TYPES OF ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
1) PRIMARY SUCCESSION:- Takes place in plants and animal colonies such as
base rocks, new volcanic island etc.
2) SECONDARY SUCCESSION:- Starts from previously built-up community,
sudden change in climate factor, biotic intervention, fire etc.
The other types of ecological succession are;
(A) HYDROSERE OR HYDRARCH:- This type of ecological succession starts in
region where water is plenty like pond, lake etc. The pioneer community is plant
community.
(B) MESOSERE OR MESARCH:- This type of ecological succession starts in an
area where adequate moisture, conditions are present.
(C) XEROSERE OR XERARCH:- This type of succession starts in areas where
moisture is present in minimum amount such as deserts, rocks etc.,
It may be noted that Xerarch can be further divided into-
• Lithosere starts on a bare rock.
• Psammosere starts on sand
• Holosere starts on saline soil.

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(II) FOOD CHAINS, FOOD WEB & ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS

(A) FOOD CHAIN
Food chain refers to the transfer of food energy from one organism to other.
The kind of nutritional relationship the food energy is transferred from one trophic
level to another trophic level is called Food Chain.

GENERAL PATTERN OF A FOOD CHAIN IN ECOSYSTEM

Sun
synthesis
photo

Plants Food Herbivorous Animals Food Carnivorous Animals Food Top carnivorous Animals
Primary porducers Energy [Primary consumers] Energy [Secondary Consumers] Energy [Teritary Consumers]

EXAMPLES OF FOOD CHAIN (GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM)

Grass Grass hopper Frog Snake Hawk

EXAMPLES OF FOOD CHAIN (POND ECOSYSTEM)

Phytoplanktons Water Fleas Small fish Big fish

TYPES OF FOOD CHAIN
1) GRAZING /HERBIVOROUS FOOD CHAIN:- In this food chain, the transfer of
food takes place from green plants (producers), to the herbivore (primary
consumers) and ends with carnivore (secondary or tertiary consumers). Primary
consumer is plant eating animals. Eg: Grass→Rabbit→Fox→Wolf→Tiger
2) DETRITIVOROUS FOOD CHAIN:- In this type, food chain starts from dead
organic matter of decaying animals and plant bodies to the micro-organisms and
then to detritus feeding organism and to other predators. Eg: Detritus →
Earthworm→Birds
3) PARASITIC FOOD CHAIN:- In this type of food chain either the producer or the
consumer is parasitized. So the food passes to the smaller organism. Here the
transfer of food chain occurs through a series of parasites at each trophic level.
Eg: Trees→ Parasitic birds →Birds lice → Protozoans

Trees→ Fruit eating birds→ Lice and bugs→ Bacteria and fungi

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(B) FOOD WEB

GRASSHOPPER

LIZARD

GRASS RABBIT HAWK

MOUSE SNAKE

Food chains are different and are often inter linked to form food web. They are
inter-linked to form food web. The inter-locking /inter- linking pattern of food
chains is called the Food Web.
SIGNIFICANCE OF FOOD CHAIN & FOOD WEB
• Both play a very important role in the ecosystem.
• Helps in understanding the feeding relationships and the interactions
between organisms in any ecosystem.
• A study of food web provides information about the biological diversity of any
ecosystem.
• Food chain & food web balance the ecosystem.
• Food chains help in maintaining the population size of different animals.
• It helps to understand the mechanism of energy flow.
• It helps in the movement of toxic substances & biological magnification.
(III) MAJOR ECOSYSTEMS
An ecosystem may be natural or artificial.
1) NATURAL ECOSYSTEM →A natural ecosystem is an ecosystem which is found
in nature /natural conditions. It includes terrestrial and aquatic ecosystem.
TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM (OR) LAND BASED ECOSYSTEM
(A) FOREST ECOSYSTEM
(B) GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM
(C) DESERT ECOSYSTEM
AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM (OR) WATER BASED ECOSYSTEM
(A) FRESH WATER ECOSYSTEM

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(I) LENTIC (OR) STANDING WATER ECOSYSTEM such as lake ecosystem pond
ecosystem, swamp ecosystem etc.,
(II) LOTIC (OR) RUNNING WATER ECOSYSTEM such as river ecosystem stream
ecosystem
(III) OCEAN OR MARINE ECOSYSTEM
(IV) ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEM
2) ARTIFICIAL ECOSYSTEM → An artificial ecosystem is man-made ecosystem
created by man. It includes
• CROPLAND ECOSYSTEM
• PARK ECOSYSTEM
• KITCHEN GARDEN ECOSYSTEM & AQUARIUM ECOSYSTEM
(1) TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM (OR) LAND BASED ECOSYSTEM
(I) FOREST ECOSYSTEM
• About 30% of the land area of the earth is under forests.
• A forest is a community of living trees and other plants like shrubs,
climbers, creepers etc.
TYPES OF FORESTS:- There are 3 types of forests;
1) CONIFEROUS FORESTS:- Found in North America
2) TEMPERATE DECIDUOUS FORESTS:- Found in Eastern North America,
Europe, Japan & Australia.
3) TROPICAL RAIN FORESTS (OR) EVERGREEN FORESTS:- Found in south
America, Africa, Sri lanka etc.,
CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF FOREST ECOSYSTEM
• It is an important ecosystem.
• It is terrestrial or land based ecosystem
• It is a complex ecosystem contains a wide variety of plants and animals.
• It plays important role in ecological balance in nature like global warming
water cycle etc.
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF FOREST ECOSYSTEM
The forest has two components (1) Abiotic components (2) Biotic components.
ABIOTIC COMPONENTS:- The biotic components in forest ecosystem includes
inorganic and organic substances present in the soil and atmospheric /climatic
factors like temperature, light, rainfall, soil, minerals.

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BIOTIC COMPONENTS:- The biotic components of the forest ecosystem are mainly
trees of many species, shrubs and ground vegetation. There are 3 biotic
components: Producers, Consumers & Decomposers
(A) PRODUCERS:- In the forest ecosystem, the major producers are trees of
different species. The other producers are shrubs and undergrowth.
(B) CONSUMERS:- The consumers are of three types, they are: (1) PRIMARY
CONSUMERS (2) SECONDARY CONSUMERS (3) TERTIARY CONSUMERS
(I) PRIMARY CONSUMERS:- Smaller herbivores or animals feeding on tree leaves
such as ants, flies, beetles, leaf hoppers, bugs, spiders, etc. and larger animals
grazing on leaves, shoots and fruits such as elephants, deers, mongooses etc.
(II) SECONDARY CONSUMERS:- The secondary consumers are the carnivores like
snakes, birds, lizards, foxes etc., feeding on herbivores.
(III) TERTIARY CONSUMERS:- The tertiary consumers are the top carnivores like
lions, tigers etc., that eat carnivores of the secondary consumer level.
(C) DECOMPOSERS:- The decomposers are many varieties of micro-organisms
such as fungi, bacteria, worms etc. which convert the dead parts of plants and
trees into organic materials and finally into smaller element.
(II) GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM
A grassland ecosystem is a luxuriant growth of grasses. The grassland
ecosystem is found on tropical and temperate regions of the world.
TYPES OF GRASSLANDS:- Grasslands are of two main types. They are;
(1) TROPICAL GRASSLANDS (2) TEMPERATE GRASSLANDS
The tropical grasslands are popular called savannas. The temperate grasslands are
called prairies in North America, steppes in Europe.
CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM
1) Grassland ecosystem comprises different types of grasses with a little
amount of shrubs & a few trees.
2) The main vegetation of the grassland ecosystem is grasses.
3) Many grazing animals or herbivores & insects are found.
4) The edaphic conditions of grassland ecosystem do not permit the growth of
trees. Hence few trees are found in the grassland ecosystem.
STRUCTURE & FUNCTION OF GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM
(1) ABIOTIC COMPONENTS (2) BIOTIC COMPONENTS
ABIOTIC COMPONENTS:- The abiotic components are inorganic & organic
substances present in the soil and in the atmosphere. In addition to minerals,
organic materials are also present.

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BIOTIC COMPONENTS:- The biotic components consist of following components;

A) PRODUCERS B) CONSUMERS C) DECOMPOSERS
(A) PRODUCERS:- The producers include grasses, few herbs & shrubs.
(B) CONSUMERS:- The consumers include primary consumers, secondary
consumers & tertiary consumers.
(I) PRIMARY CONSUMERS:- Primary consumers include animals feeding on
grasses like cows, buffaloes, sheep, deer etc.,
(II) SECONDARY CONSUMERS:- The Secondary Consumers include carnivores
like snakes, lizards, fox etc. feeding on herbivores.
(III) TERTIARY CONSUMERS:- Tertiary Consumers include top carnivores like
fox, lion, tiger etc., feeding on secondary consumers.
(C) DECOMPOSERS:- The decomposers include variety of micro-organisms
including fungi, algae, bacteria etc. They decompose the dead organic matter and
help to bring minerals back to the soil.
(III) DESERT ECOSYSTEM
Desert ecosystem is present in regions where the annual rainfall is less than
25cm and the temperature is very high. Sahara desert in Africa, Thar desert in
India etc., About 17% of the total land area of the world is under desert ecosystem.
TYPES OF DESERT ECOSYSTEM:- Deserts may be tropical deserts or hot
deserts, temperate deserts and cold deserts. But hot deserts are more important
than temperate and cold deserts.
CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF DESERT ECOSYSTEM
• Desert ecosystem occurs in regions of very high temperature & low rainfall.
• Desert ecosystem occupies a greater part of the land.
• Due to high temperature and low availability of water it is poorly represented
by flora and fauna.
• The soil contain very little organic matters
STRUCTURE & FUNCTION OF DESERT ECOSYSTEM
The desert ecosystem has two components; abiotic & biotic components.
ABIOTIC COMPONENTS:- The abiotic components comprise organic substances
poorly present.
BIOTIC COMPONENTS:- The biotic components include; (a) Producers (b)
Consumers & (c) Decomposers
(A) PRODUCERS:- The producers cover desert shrubs, some grasses and very few
trees. There are three life forms of plants adapted to desert conditions.
(I) ANNUALS:- Grow only when there is adequate moisture.

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(II) SUCCULENTS:- The succulents like cactus have high capacity to store water.
(III) DESERT SHRUBS:- Have numerous branches & special root system that
help them to adapt to desert conditions.
(B) CONSUMERS:- The consumers comprise desert animal’s like camels & goats
are the important desert animals. Apart from camels & goats, insects, reptiles etc.
are also found.
(C) DECOMPOSERS:- The decomposers are fungi and bacteria. The decomposers
vary and are few due to scarcity of flora & fauna.
(2) AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM (OR) WATER BASED ECOSYSTEM
Aquatic ecosystem comprises fresh water ecosystem like pond or lake
ecosystem, stream or river ecosystem, ocean or marine ecosystem & estuarine
ecosystem.
(I) POND ECOSYSTEM
A pond is shallow water body on the surface of the earth. A pond is not only a place
where plants and animals live. But also plants and animals make the pond what it
is.
CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF POND ECOSYSTEM
The chief features of pond ecosystem are
• Pond ecosystem is an aquatic ecosystem.
• It is a fresh water ecosystem.
• It is a good example of small, self-sufficient and self -regulating ecosystem.
• It is a simple aquatic ecosystem.
• The location size, depth & substratum of a pond influence the pond
ecosystem.
STRUCTURE & FUNCTIONS OF POND ECOSYSTEM
The components of the pond ecosystem can be abiotic and biotic components.
ABIOTIC COMPONENTS
• The abiotic components are temperature, water, light, several inorganic &
organic substances
• Water provides dissolved gases and nutrients for plants and microbes.
• The bottom soil provides substrata for the microbes and decomposers.
• Sunlight penetrates fairly deep into the pond water, depending upon the
turbidity & provides energy for photosynthesis.
• Organisms depend on the dissolved oxygen in water for respiration.

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BIOTIC COMPONENTS
The biotic components of a pond are ecologically classified into three groups. They
are producers, consumers & decomposers.
(A) PRODUCERS:- Producers are green plants categorized into two types;
macrophytes and phytoplanktons.
(I) MACROPHYTES:- Rooted larger plants, submerged, free floating & amphibious
plants.
(II) PHYTOPLANKTONS:- Minute floating or suspended lower plants which belong
to algae & flagellates.

(B) CONSUMERS:- The consumers are of three types; primary, secondary &
tertiary consumers.
(I) PRIMARY CONSUMERS:- Primary consumers are zooplankton and benthos or
bottom forms.
(1) ZOOPLANKTONS:- Animals that drift with were currents and are found along
with phytoplankton. They feed on phytoplanktons.
(2) BENTHOS (OR) BOTTOM FORMS:- Comprises bottom dwell animals which
feed on plants directly or remain at the bottom.
(II) SECONDARY CONSUMERS:- Secondary Consumers are the carnivores which
feed on the herbivores. They include insects, fish and frogs.
(III) TERTIARY CONSUMERS:- Tertiary consumers or top consumers are some
large fish such as game fish which feed on smaller fish.
(C) DECOMPOSERS:- Several aquatic bacteria, fungi, etc. are distributed through
the pond. They decompose plants and animals. The play an important role in the
return of mineral elements i.e., the nutrients back into the ecosystem.

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(II) LAKE ECOSYSTEM

A lake is large fresh water body with standing water. The Oal lake of
Srinagar, Naini Lake in Nainital in Uttarkhand & Loktak Lake in Manipur are some
of the famous lakes of India.
Lakes have a shallow water zone called LITTORAL ZONE, an open water
zone called LIMNETIC ZONE, where effective penetration of Solar-light takes place,
and a deep water zone called PROFUNDAL ZONE where light penetration is
negligible.
CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF LAKE ECOSYSTEM
The three temperature strata found in a deep lake are Epilimnion, Metalimnion &
Hypolimnion.

(1) EPILIMNION:- Is the upper strata of the water, which is exposed to solar
radiation. It is warm during summer & comparatively cooler during winter. Water
keeps on circulating in these strata.
(2) METALIMNION:- Is the transition zone between epilimnion and hypolimnion
where temperature change occur. The maximum temperature change occurs in the
middle part of the metalimnion.
(3) HYPOLIMNION:- Is the base stratum, where water is always cool water does
not circulate here.
ON THE BASIS OF THEIR PRODUCTIVITY LAKES CAN BE CLASSIFIED AS;
(A) OLIGOTROPHIC LAKES:- Have very little plant and animal life. Sambar lake
of Rajastan is an example. It has high salt content which makes it unfit for growth
of fresh water plants only a few green algae grow in these lakes.
(B) EUTROPHIC LAKES:- Comparatively shallow. Oal lake of Srinagar is an
example. In the littoral area are found amphibious plants and free-floating plants.

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STRUCTURE & FUNCTIONS OF LAKE ECOSYSTEM

The components of the pond ecosystem can be abiotic and biotic components.

ABIOTIC COMPONENTS:- The abiotic components are the inorganic as well as

organic substances present in the bottom soil or dissolved in water. In addition to
the minerals, some dead organic materials are also found.
BIOTIC COMPONENTS:- The biotic components of a lake are of three groups.
They are producers, consumers & decomposers.
(A) PRODUCERS:- The biotic components of lake include submerged, free-floating
and amphibious macrophytes minute floating and suspended leaves,
phytoplanktons
(B) CONSUMERS:- Among consumers the primary consumers are zooplanktons
and benthos. The secondary consumers are the carnivores like insects & fishes
feeding on the herbivore. The tertiary consumers are the large fishes feed an small
fishes.
(C) DECOMPOSERS:- The decomposers are micro-organic like bacteria, fungi and
actinomycetes.
(III) STREAM (OR) RIVER ECOSYSTEM
• Stream or river ecosystem is called lotic or flowing water system, Since the
water keeps on flow in the hills, the streams have a high speed and so, there is very
little plant growth.
• In the plains, the flow is less turbulent; in the rainy season, most of the
steams and river possess muddy water, which does not allow the light to penetrate,
the banks of the stream or may possess marsh areas.
• Flowing water ecosystem has uniform oxygen tension with no thermal on
chemical zonation.

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• It is not completely dependent on aquatic plants as producers, Detritus

eaters and decomposers are comparatively more abundant.
• They obtain their food from the dead and living land organisms which
happen to fall accidently or brought down by rain water.
STRUCTURE & FUNCTIONS OF RIVER/STREAM ECOSYSTEM
The components of stream ecosystem are abiotic and biotic components.
ABIOTIC COMPONENTS:- The abiotic components of river/stream ecosystem
include oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, Calcium, amino acid etc. Producers take
them in small amount in soluble forms to tolerate periods of low oxygen.
BIOTIC COMPONENTS:- The biotic components includes the following
components
(A) PRODUCERS:- The producers in river/stream ecosystem, ecosystems are the
phytoplankton.
(B) CONSUMERS:- The consumers are zooplanktons, insects, fish, turtles, water
snakes etc.,
(C) DECOMPOSERS:- The decomposers are micro-organisms like bacteria and
fungi.
(IV) MARINE (OR) OCEAN ECOSYSTEM
Oceans are gigantic reservoirs of water, covering nearly 70% earth’s surface
the major oceans of the world are the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, the Indian
Ocean, the Arctic Ocean and the Antarctic Ocean.
Ocean ecosystem is different from freshwater ecosystem mainly because of
its salty water and also because the ocean is deep continuous and water is a
continuous circulation.
CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF MARINE ECOSYSTEM
• The trophic structure starts from the smallest autotrophs like planktons and
end with larger animals like giant fish and whales.
• In the marine ecosystem, the ecology of shallow and deep water as well as
estuarine part is different from each other and forms a separate ecosystem.
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF MARINE ECOSYSTEM
The components of marine ecosystem are
ABIOTIC COMPONENTS:- High Na–, Ca–, Mg and K salt concentrations, variable
dissolved oxygen content, light & temperature make a unique physico-chemical
condition in marine water.
The concentration of dissolved nutrients remain low, which constitute an
important limiting factor determine the size of marine populations.

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BIOTIC COMPONENTS:- The biotic components of marine ecosystem

(A) PRODUCERS:- Producers include phytoplanktons large seaweeds and
mangrove vegetations like Rhizophara, Avicennia, Carapa, Aegeros etc.,
(B) CONSUMERS:- The consumers comprise the following;
(I) PRIMARY CONSUMERS:- Herbivores and feed directly on producers like
crustaceans, mollusks, fish etc.,
(II) SECONDARY CONSUMERS:- It comprise fishes such as sea horse, cuttle fish
etc.,
(III) TERTIARY CONSUMERS:- Top carnivores fishes, feeding on small fishes eg:
Whales, Sharks, Cods etc.,
(C) DECOMPOSERS:- The decomposers are micro-organisms like bacteria and
fungi.
(V) ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEM
• An estuary is a semi-enclosed coastal body of water connected on the one
side with open sea and with freshwater river on the other side.
• It is a transition zone which is strongly affected by tidal action, and within
this zone, sea water is mixed with fresh water from river.
• An estuary is highly productive and offer high food potential for human
beings due to the nutrient and energy inputs from both sea water and river water.
CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEM
• Estuarine ecosystem is characterized as an ecosystem having fluctuating
water level.
• Because of fluctuating water level, the organisms present in an estuarine
ecosystem show wide range of tolerance to temperature and salinity.
• Estuarine ecosystem consists of endemic species confined to the estuarine
zone only.
STRUCTURE & FUNCTION OF ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEM
ABIOTIC COMPONENTS:- Abiotic components are limited distribution of organic &
inorganic substances and climatic factors are light, water, temperature etc.
BIOTIC COMPONENTS:- The biotic components of an estuarine ecosystem are
(A) PRODUCERS:- The producers are macrophtes (i.e. grasses, sea weeds, Sea
grasses, and phytoplankton).
(B) CONSUMERS:- The consumers are oysters, Crabs, Several kinds of shrimp and
many commercial sport fish.
(C) DECOMPOSERS:- The decomposers are micro-organisms like bacteria and
fungi.
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…………………………………………………………………………………………………

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UNIT-3
NATURAL RESOURCES: RENEWABLE AND NON-
RENEWABLE RESOURCES

Any part of natural environment which can be utilized by man to satisfy his
wants and to promote his well-being is Natural Resource.
CLASSIFICATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES:- Natural resources can be
classified on the basis of 4 types.
(I) ON THE BASIS OF THEIR ORIGIN:- Natural resources are classified into two
classes they are;
(A) BIOTIC RESOURCES (OR) LIVING RESOURCES:- They include all living
organisms /things which are useful to man. Eg: Wild animals, fishery resources
forests etc.
(B) ABIOTIC (OR) NON-LIVING RESOURCES:- Abiotic resources refer to non-
living things which satisfy man’s needs. Eg: Mineral resources, power resources
like coal, petroleum and natural gas.
(II) ON THE BASIS OF RENEWABILITY:- Natural resources can be classified into
two types-
(A) RENEWABLE (OR) INEXHAUSTIBLE RESOURCES:- The resources which can
be regenerated replesinshedin nature. Eg: Water resources, Forest, fishery etc.
(B) NON-RENEWABLE (OR) EXHAUSTIBLE RESOURCES:- The resources which
cannot be replenished once depleted in nature. Eg: Mineral resources, fossil fuels.
The non-renewable resources are also classified into two types-
(I) RECYCLABLE RESOURCES:- The resources can be collected and reuse Eg:
minerals.
(II) NON-RECYCLABLE:- The resources cannot be collected once use Eg: Fossil
fuels like petrol.
Renewable resources Non-Renewable resources
Can be renewed or regenerate in Cannot be renewed or regenerate
nature in nature
Inexhaustible resources Exhaustible resources
Flow resource Stock or fund resource
Mostly Biotic in nature Abiotic in nature

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(III) ON THE BASIS OF DISTRIBUTION:- Natural resources are classified into

two types, they are
A) UBIQUITOUS RESOURCES:- Occurs almost everywhere in nature. Eg: Oxygen,
Sunshine etc.
B) LOCALISED RESOURCES:- Resources which are concentrated at specific
places. Eg: Minerals, fossil fuels etc.
(IV) ON THE BASIS OF UTILITY:- Natural resources can be classified into three
types. They are-
A) FOOD RESOURCES:- The resources which are used by man as food. They
include agricultural food crops, animal products, fish products etc.
B) RAW MATERIALS:- The resources which are used as raw materials in
industries. They may be agricultural products, forest products etc.
C) ENERGY RESOURCES:- The resources which are used as energy or power in
industries, ships, trains, automobiles etc., solar energy, tidal energy wind energy,
geothermal energy etc. are examples of energy resources.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………

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(I) LAND RESOURCES

DEFINITION: Land resources are the natural resources that occur naturally within
environments that has undisturbed by mankind, in a natural form.
(A) LAND AS A RESOURCE
(I) Agriculture is land based in a predominant agricultural country.
(II) Animal Husbandry is almost land-based.
(III) Land supports the growth of forest & grasses.
(IV) Land sustains a wide variety of living beings.
(V) Human settlement requires vast areas of land.
(VI) Even wild life depends upon land.
(VII) Industrialization & urbanization depend on the availability of vast areas of
land.
(VIII) Construction of roads & railway lines depends on availability of suitable
lands.
(IX) Development of sanctuaries, parks, play grounds & public places depends on
the availability of lands.
(X) Construction of schools, colleges, universities, hospitals, etc. depends on the
availability of adequate lands.
(XI) Land regulates water cycle & carbon cycle.
(XII) Land acts as the store house of basic resources like fossil fuels & ground
water.
OVER-EXPLOITATION OF LAND RESOURCES: Over-use & abuse of land has
resulted in desertification, land slide, soil erosion, etc. Fertile agricultural lands
are diverted for other uses & are not available for agriculture. Hence there should
be proper check on the use of land & should be used in a planned manner.
(B) LAND USE CHANGE
The interaction of natural environment with human decisions changes land
use pattern. However some natural changes also leads to change in land use
pattern. For eg: Some wet conditions lead to development of rangeland but with
sudden drought or drier conditions, it gets converted to barren land.
“Land use” is the term used to describe the human use of land. It represents
the economic and cultural activities (e.g., agricultural, residential, industrial,
mining, and recreational uses) that are practiced at a given place. Public and
private lands frequently represent very different uses.
CAUSES OF LAND USE CHANGE:- Land use is also changed by both human and
climate factors. Technological innovation has also influenced land-use change, with

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the expansion of cultivated lands from the development of irrigation technologies

and, more recently, decreases in demand for agricultural land due to increases in
crop productivity.
(C) LAND DEGRADATION
DEFINITION: Land degradation refers to the decline in the fertility of the soil
which reduces the productive capacity of the soil.
FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR LAND DEGRADATION
(I) Intensive agriculture results in removal of minerals from top layer.
(II) Growing same crop every year deprives soil of minerals.
(III) Flowing water, washing away the minerals of the top soil.
(IV) Improper irrigation, leading to salinization of soil making less productive.
(V) Addition of industrial waste changes the chemical nature & reduces fertility.
(VI) Misuse of land through short-sighted development policies.
(VII) Deforestation is one of the factors of land degradation.
(VIII) Over-grazing on grasslands is also responsible for land degradation.
(IX) Poor crop rotation & planting unsuitable crops.
(X) Frequent use of heavy machinery like tractors.
(XI) Soil erosion, landslides, Floods etc.
(XII) Desertification of land & persistent usage of chemical fertilizers.
CONTROL OF LAND DEGRADATION
(I) Degraded or waste land should be reclaimed & put to productive uses.
(II) In India, National Wasteland Development Board (NWDB) established to
formulate plans to prevent land degradation & deforestation.
(III) It is concerned with regeneration of degraded forest areas, reclamation of land,
arid tracts, mine spoils etc.
(IV) NWDB helps to check land degradation, bring wastelands into sustainable
use, increase biomass availability & restore ecological balance.
(D) SOIL-EROSION
DEFINITION:- Soil erosion refers to the loss of the top fertile layer or part of the
soil caused by natural agencies like running water, wind and sea waves.
TYPES OF SOIL EROSION:- Soil erosion is of four types and they are as follows;
(I) NORMAL SOIL EROSION:- Normal soil erosion is a natural phenomenon. It is
not harmful helps in soil formation.
(II) SOIL EROSION BY WATER:- It is mainly responsible for loss of soil and soil
fertility. It is of three types, viz,

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(A) SHEET EROSION:- Refers to the uniform removal of soil over a large area from
the surface of sloping lands by rain water.
(B) RILL EROSION:- Refers to the eroding of the soil in its course by rain water
running along the slopes in the form of tiny channels.
(C) GULLY EROSION:- Refers to the eroding of the soil in its course by rain water
running along the slopes in the form of enlarged rills or valleys.
(III) WIND EROSION:- Caused by wind. Wind is an agent of soil erosion which is
effective in arid & semi arid regions.
(IV) ACCELERATED SOIL EROSION:- Caused by human activities which
accelerate the process of soil erosion by deforestation, over grazing, mining,
defective agricultural practices etc.
CAUSES OF SOIL EROSION
(I) Deforestation for various purposes like human settlement, construction of
dams, roads & railway lines, agriculture & forest products.
(II) Over-grazing or excessive grazing of animals affects plant growth on the soil
causes soil erosion.
(III) Rivers, when they are in floods.
(IV) Heavy downpour of rains.
(V) Strong winds.
(VI) Slope of the land.
(VII) Texture of the soil; hard soil resists soil erosion, whereas soft soil is easily
eroded.
(VIII) Faulty methods of cultivation like ploughing in the direction of slopes,
growing same crop on the soil year after year, shifting cultivation etc.
(IX) Careless & excessive exercise of irrigation.
(X) Removal of the top soil from the land for making bricks, tiles, pots & other
products.
EFFECTS OF SOIL EROSION
(I) It makes vast area of cultivable land unfit for cultivation.
(II) It reduces the fertility of the soil.
(III) Due to soil erosion, rivers are filled & floods are caused.
(IV) Due to the silting of rivers caused by soil erosion, rivers change their courses.
(V) Due to soil erosion, reservoirs & tanks are silted & storage capacity is reduced.
(VI) Soil erosion limits percolation of water, as a result natural springs dry up.
(VII) Soil erosion results in the blocking of navigable channels.
(VIII) Soil erosion reduces subsoil water.

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(IX) Soil erosion results in desertification.

SOIL CONSERVATION
DEFINITION:- “Soil conservation means the prevention of soil erosion as well as
the protection & maintenance of the fertility of the soil.”
(A) CONTROL OF SOIL EROSION
(I) CONTOUR FARMING:- Ploughing across the slope rather than with the slope
which involves construction of horizontal bunds in the mountainous regions.
(II) STRIP CROPPING:- Strip cropping combined with crop rotation is helpful in
controlling soil erosion in increasing soil fertility.
(III) TERRACING:- The modern terracing is an embankment of earth constructed
across the slope to control water run-off and to minimize erosion.
(IV) GULLY PLUGGING:- Earthen stone & concrete dams may be built at intervals
along the gully. Once the dams are constructed & water run-off is restricted, soil
may be stabilized.
(V) MULCHING:- It is used on the surface of the soil to enrich productivity of the
soil. Mulch may be leaves, straw, litter or waste with properties to improve top soil.
Mulch reduces the growth of weeds, increases the infiltration of water in the soil,
maintains soil structure, and enhances humification & microbial activities.
(VI) SHELTER BELTS:- Shelter belts are green belts of trees, which help to break
the force of strong winds & prevent the blowing away of the loose top soil.
(VII) OTHER METHODS OF CONTROL OF SOIL EROSION:
(A) Afforestation (i.e., growing trees in hilly regions).
(B) Prevention of reckless felling (i.e., cutting of trees).
(C) Controlled grazing by cattle.
(D) Turfing (i.e., growing grasses on eroded lands).
(E) Growing cover crops after harvesting the main crops to keep soil covered.
(F) Construction of river embankments in places where rivers are likely to be in
spate.
(G) Prohibition of shifting cultivation.
(VIII) RECLAMATION OF WASTE LANDS: Wastelands can be reclaimed and used
for cultivation. This is one of the measures of soil conservation.
(E) DESERTIFICATION
DEFINITION:- It is defined as the destruction of the biological potential of the land
which can ultimately lead to desert-like conditions.

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FEATURES OF DESERTIFICATION
(I) Desertification is deterioration of the ecosystem due to change in the pressure
of human adaptation.
(II) It is a process through which fertile land is converted into infertile land.
(III) It is a slow process in which land productivity decline steadily.
(IV) It is the end product of a combination of economic, political & technological
forces.
CAUSES OF DESERTIFICATION
(A) Deforestation is the cause for soil erosion, water erosion, wind erosion etc.,
which cause the desertification.
(B) Over-exploitation of vegetation cover, results in reduction of vegetation cover
leading to uncontrolled runoff, degradation of soil structure, loss of fertile surface
soil, reduction in water holding capacity etc.
(C) Strong winds are responsible for desertification causing blow-off of surf soil.
(D) Improper agricultural practices cause desertification.
(E) Over grazing, which causes soil erosion is also responsible for desertification.
(F) Faulty land use is one of the causes of desertification.
(G) Climatic factors such as low precipitation, high temperature, dry & dusty
winds, intense evaporation etc., are responsible for desertification.
CONSEQUENCES OF DESERTIFICATION
(I) Desertification adversely affects agriculture.
(II) Desertification results in loss of vegetation cover.
(III) Desertification affects the habitats of wild animals.
(IV) Desertification adversely affects transport & communication.
(V) Desertification affects the industrial & economic development of countries.
(VI) Desertification badly affects the life of millions of people all over the world.
(VII) It forces the people to migrate to urban areas from rural areas.
(VIII) The land gets degraded becomes unproductive & becomes a desert.
(IX) Loss of soil either by natural process or mismanagement is harmful to the
whole ecosystem.
MEASURES FOR CONTROL OF DESERTIFICATION
(A) Ban on cutting of desert vegetation.
(B) Plantation or growing of ecologically suitable plants.
(C) Control of overgrazing in desertified areas.
(D) Development of pasture lands to release pressure on susceptible areas.
(E) Stabilization of sand dunes.

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(F) Proper use of available ground water resources in desertified areas.

(G) Proper management of land use.
(H) Adoption of proper farming practices.
(I) Intensification of national watershed programme.
(J) Generation of public awareness & the need for the control of desertification.
(K) Reduction of population pressure.
..............................................................................................................

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(II) DEFORESTATION
Deforestation means “Reckless or large scale felling or cutting of trees by man for
commercial & other purposes.”
CAUSES OF DEFORESTATION
(I) Expansion of agriculture into forest lands.
(II) Population growth, resulting in felling of trees for human settlement.
(III) Large-scale felling of trees for industrial development.
(IV) Growth of towns in forest areas, resulting in deforestation.
(V) Construction of roads & railway lines across forests.
(VI) Mining in forest areas; cultivation on hill slopes.
(VII) Shift cultivation; cattle ranching;
(VIII) Reckless timber harvesting.
(IX) Fire wood collection by tribal people & diseases affecting forests.
CONSEQUENCES OF DEFORESTATION
(I) Desertification; soil degradation & soil erosion.
(II) Loss of vegetation cover.
(III) Destruction of natural habitats of wild life & loss of wild life.
(IV) Changes in climatic conditions.
(V) Environmental pollution; Damage to forest ecosystem & reduction in soil
moisture.
CONTROL OF DEFORESTATION
Deforestation can be checked through the following measures:
(I) Prevention of human settlement in forest areas.
(II) Check on expansion of agriculture into forest lands.
(III) Prohibition of setting up of industries in forest areas.
(IV) Check on the growth of towns & cities on forest lands.
(V) Check on reckless felling of timber trees.
(VI) Control of over-grazing on forest lands.
(VII) Controlled mining in forest areas.
(VIII) Check on construction of large dams in forest areas.
(B) MINING
DEFINITION:- “Extraction of minerals occurring on the under surface of the earth.”
CAUSES FOR MINING
➢ Population growth
➢ Income growth
➢ Increasing demand for resources

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➢ Single source of income

➢ Advancements in technology
➢ Importance for industrial processes
➢ Lack in substitutability
➢ Economic factor for countries
ADVERSE EFFECTS OF MINING IN FOREST AREAS (FORESTS & TRIBAL
PEOPLE)
(1) Excessive mining leads to deforestation & loss of vegetation cover.
(2) Excessive mining results in depletion of forests & results in loss of habitats for
wild animals & tribal people.
(3) Excessive mining causes large scale destruction of forests results in ecological
imbalance.
(4) Excessive mining may lead to volcanic rise & causes ground subsistence.
(5) Mining wastes cause many adverse impacts on environment.
(6) Overlying minerals are ruthlessly destroyed resulting in total destruction of
plants & animal species.
(7) In Mining, Overburden is removed & dumped to nearby areas susceptible to soil
erosion, resulting in reduction of productivity of the land.
(8) Mining in forest areas, results in depletion of forests& deprives tribal people of
forest products.
(9) Disposal of a large quantity of mining wastes is a daunting task for mining
industry.
(10) Mining activities cause pollution in water bodies & pollution in water bodies
result in deterioration in water quality & degradation of aquatic system.
(C) DAMS
DEFINITION:- Barrier across the flowing water that obstructs directs or retards
the flow and often creates a reservoir, lakes or impoundment.
BENEFITS OF DAMS:- Dams provide water for irrigation, generation of hydro-
electric power, transportation, control floods & soil erosion, help fish culture,
recovery of water logged areas for cultivation.
DAMS BUILDING ON ENVIRONMENT, FORESTS, BIODIVERSITY & TRIBAL
POPULATIONS
(1) Large dams constructed across forests cause large –scale destruction of forests.
(2) By causing deforestation, dams cause soil erosion in the adjacent areas.
(3) Dams constructed across forests result in ecological imbalance in the area.

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(4) Dams constructed across the forests cause the defacing of topography,
destruction of landscapes & loss of biodiversity.
(5) By causing large-scale destruction of forests, dams result in loss of habitats for
wild animals.
(6) Large dams by causing destruction of forests, damage the tribal people of their
livelihood.
(7) Large dams, by causing destruction of forests, cause the displacement of tribal
people from their original habitats to new areas.
(8) Large dams, causes destruction of forests, & displacement & resettlement of
tribal people in new areas make them lose their identity & culture.
(9) Dams, due to impounding of large quantity of water, may lead to seismic
impact.
(10) Sedimentation & consequent long term loss of storage is a serious concern.
(11) Water-logging & salinity caused by dams, affect about 1/5th of crop land.
..............................................................................................................

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(III) WATER RESOURCES

(A) SURFACE & GROUND WATER
SURFACE WATER:- Surface water is any body of water found on the Earth's
surface, including both the saltwater in the ocean and the freshwater in rivers,
streams, and lakes
GROUND WATER:- Groundwater is water that comes from the ground. It is a
source of drinking water and also a major source of water for irrigation.
Groundwater sources are beneath the land surface and include springs and wells.
USES OF SURFACE WATER & GROUND WATER
(I) It is used for irrigation, which is essential for the agriculture.
(II) It is used for the hydro-electric power.
(III) Water is used for the production of thermal power.
(IV) Surface water & Ground water is used for Pisciculture (Development of
fisheries).
(V) Surface water & Ground water is used for industrial purposes.
(VI) Water resources provide navigation facilities (Transportation facilities).
(VII) Water is used for domestic purposes like cooking, washing, cleaning etc.
(VIII) Surface water & Ground water is indispensable for drinking.
(IX) Water is used for wild life preservation.
(X) Water resources are used for livestock.
(XI) Surface water & Ground water is used for recreation activities.
(XII) Water resources are used in mines in coal washeries. [A plant at a mine
where water or other liquid is used to remove dirt from a mineral]
(XIII) Water is used for extinguishing forest fires and fire in industries &
residencies.
(XIV) Water resources are used for treatment of industrial, domestic & municipal
wastes.
(XV) Availability of water plays an important role in the evaluation of earth’s
ecosystem.
(XVI) Water resources reduce climate change.
(XVII) Water resource is useful for diluting pollutants.
(XVIII) Water resources are used as coolant in industries.
OVER-UTILIZATION OF SURFACE & GROUND WATER
(1) The increased extraction of groundwater has led to decreased groundwater level.
The inadequate rainfall caused reduction in storage of water in reservoirs leading to
decrease of groundwater.

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(2) Building construction activities seal permeable soil zone and reduce the area for
percolation of rainwater thereby increasing surface runoff.
(3) If groundwater withdrawal rate is higher than recharge rate, sediments in
aquifers get compacted resulting in sinking of overlaying land surface. This leads to
structural damage in buildings, and reverses the flow of canals leading to tidal
flooding.
(4) Over-utilization of groundwater in arid and semi-arid regions for agriculture
disturbs equilibrium of reservoir in the region causing lowering of water table and
decreased pressure in aquifers coupled with changes in speed and direction of
water flow.
(5) Over utilization of groundwater in coastal areas leads to rapid intrusion of salt
water from the sea thereby rendering it unusable for drinking and agriculture.
(6) Over-utilization of groundwater leads to decrease in water level thereby causing
earthquake, landslides and famine.
(7) Over-utilization of groundwater leads to drying-up of dug wells as well as bore
wells.
(8) Due to excess use of groundwater near agricultural fields, agricultural water
that contains nitrogen as a fertilizer pollutes the groundwater rendering water unfit
for potable use.
(9) LOSS OF INTEGRITY OF FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS:- Human activities
for infrastructure development like creation of dams, land conversion, etc.
responsible for loss of integrity of freshwater ecosystems.
(10) RISK TO ECOSYSTEM FUNCTIONS:- Population and consumption growth
increases water abstraction and acquisition of cultivated land.
(11) DEPLETION OF LIVING RESOURCES AND BIODIVERSITY:- Overharvesting
and exploitation causes groundwater depletion, collapse of fisheries. Production of
food, quality and quantity of water and supply of water affected by depletions of
living resources & biodiversity.
(12) POLLUTION OF WATER BODIES:- Release of pollutants to land, air or water
alters ecology of water bodies. Greenhouse gas emissions produce significant
changes in runoff and rainfall patterns.
(B) FLOODS
DEFINITION: Floods generally mean “Excess flow of water in the rivers resulting
from excessive and incessant rains, overflowing the river banks.”

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CAUSES OF FLOODS
(A) Floods occur when there is excessive rainfall. For instance, floods occur in
India when there is excessive rainfall caused by monsoons (South-West & North-
East Monsoons).
(B) Heavy & sudden rainfall by cyclones also causes floods.
(C) Incessant rains & poor drainage are also responsible for floods.
(D) Melting of snow also causes floods.
(E) The occurrence of high tides at the time when the rivers are in spate.
(F) Earthquakes also cause floods.
(G) Deforestation is also one of the causes of floods.
(H) Lack of check dams across the rivers is also one of the causes of floods.
EFFECTS OF FLOODS
(A) Floods destroy standing crops. If the floods destroy standing crops over a vast
area, they may be even famine in the flood affected areas.
(B) Roads & railway lines are breached due to floods. As a result, traffic is
suspended for days together.
(C) Floods damage houses, particularly in rural areas. Floods ruin stored food
grains.
(D) Floods damage sewage system; as a result, drainage system is affected and
there is outbreak of serious epidemics.
(E) Floods cause soil erosion, especially on sloping lands.
(F) Floods uproot the trees on sloping lands.
(G) Floods uproot telephone & electric poles.
(H) Floods change the course of rivers.
(I) Floods result in silting of lakes, loss of wild animals & human life.
(J) Floods force the government to spend huge amounts on relief & rehabilitation
measures in the flood affected areas.
CONTROL OF FLOODS
The following measures may be taken for the control of floods:
(I) Construction of dams across rivers.
(II) Construction of embankment on river banks.
(III) Drainage channels in areas which suffer from Poor Drainage & Water-Logging.
(IV) Desilting of river channels.
(V) Afforestation, i.e., growing of trees on sloping lands.
(VI) Improvement of weather forecasting techniques for accurate forecasting of
weather conditions.

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(VII) Quick relief & rehabilitation measures to provide relief to people affected by
floods.
(C) DROUGHT
MEANING OF DROUGHT: “Scarcity of rainfall is often called Droughts.”
CAUSES OF DROUGHTS
(I) Droughts occur mainly due to lack of rainfall. The intensity of droughts
depends upon the variability of rainfall.
(II) In areas of higher rainfall variability, there are frequent droughts. For
instance; in India droughts occur when the south-west monsoon is weak.
(III) When the amount of rainfall from south-west monsoon is less than expected
rainfall or behind the scheduled times, droughts occur.
(IV) Deforestation i.e., reckless cutting of trees and the result is scarcity of rainfall
is another cause for droughts.
(V) Unwise use of water and land is also responsible for droughts.
EFFECTS OF DROUGHTS
(I) Droughts cause damage to standing crops.
(II) Droughts disturb agricultural operations.
(III) Droughts directly affect the cropping pattern & types of crops.
(IV) Droughts cause scarcity of water for animals & human beings.
(V) Droughts lead to famine. In the past, the most serious effect of droughts was
famine.
(VI) Droughts, by causing famine may contribute to the spread of epidemics.
(VII) Droughts force government to spend huge amount on relief & rehabilitation
measures.
(VIII) Famine, caused by droughts may cause loss of human life & domestic
animals.
CONTROL MEASURES
(I) Efficient use of water available from rivers, lakes & wells.
(II) Desilting of rivers & lakes for increasing the quantum of water from lakes &
rivers.
(III) Efficient use of underground water by digging open wells & tube wells.
(IV) Economic use of water by the people without wastage.
(V) Artificial rains.
(VI) Quick relief & rehabilitation measures for providing relief to people affected
areas.
(VII) Prohibition of indiscriminate felling of trees.

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(VIII) Afforestation, growing of more & more trees in the catchment areas of rivers.
(IX) Control on reckless digging of deep wells for underground water.
(D) CONFLICTS OVER WATER
MEANING: “It is river water disputes arising from rivers flowing over two or more
states in a country or flowing over two or more countries regarding sharing of their
water or in regard to water pollution caused by such rivers in downstream regions
or regarding sharing of cost of Joint River protected constructed on such rivers.”
CAUSES FOR CONFLICTS OVER WATER
(I) When a state on the upper course of a river flowing through two or more state
constructs a dam on the common river, but does not want to release the water to
the lower-lying state, dispute will naturally arise between the two states.
(II) When the river project causes the pollution problem to the lower-lying state
from the activities undertaken by the state on the upper course of the river,
conflicts over water may arise between the states.
(III) When the state on the upper course of a common river wants to construct a
dam on the river for power and irrigation, but the lower-lying state objects to the
construction, fearing shortage of water from that river for its use, there will be
conflicts over water between the states.
(IV) Conflicts may also arise over sharing of the cost of the joint river project.
EFFECTS OF INTER-STATE RIVER DISPUTES
(I) The direct effect of river water disputes is farms in the states are badly affected,
as they are not able to carry on farming throughout the year due to the short
supply of water.
(II) Power generation in both the upper-stream state and lower stream state is
badly affected by the river water disputes.
(III) The relations between the states may be strained.
(IV) The issues relating to the sharing of the common river water may affect the
government of the state.
(V) The inter-state river water disputes slow down the economic development of the
states.
SOLVING CONFLICTS OVER WATER
(A) Allowing the construction of an additional dam on the common river in the
lower lying state for its requirements.
(B) High level of inter-dependence between the states regarding the sharing of
water.
(C) Improved sharing of information between the states regarding sharing of water.

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(D) Through intervention, mediation & arbitration.

(E) Through give & take policy of the state using the common river.
(F) Adjudication through the appointment of water dispute tribunals for solving
interstate water disputes.
(G) Judgement of the apex court.
(H) Changing the complex cropping pattern & thereby optimizing the use of
available water & reducing the requirement of more water for irrigation.
(I) Inter-linking the interstate rivers & bringing them under common control for the
proper sharing of river water.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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(IV) ENERGY RESOURCES

DEFINITION:- A source from which useful energy can be extracted or recovered
either directly or by means of a conversion or transformation process
(A) GROWING ENERGY NEEDS
• Energy plays a key role in the process of economic growth of a nation. The
Industrial development of any country is dependent on the organized development
of its power resources.
• All industrial processes like mining, transport, lighting, heating & cooling in
buildings need energy.
• With the growing population, the world is facing an energy deficit. Lifestyle
change from simple to a complex and luxurious lifestyle adds to this energy deficit.
• Almost 95% of commercial energy is available from fossil fuels like coal and
natural gas. These fossil fuels will not last for more than a few years. Hence, we
must explore alternative fuel/energy options.
• Relying on fossil fuels alone to increase the energy production is impossible.
Due to lack of access to required resources and even if resources are available, it
would produce irreparable damage to the environment through global warming.
• Energy is a primary input in any industrial operation.
• It is also a major input in sectors such as commerce, transport,
telecommunications etc.
• The wide range of services required in the household and industrial sectors.
• Owing to the far-reaching changes in the forms of energy and their
respective roles in supporting human activities, research and training on various
aspects of energy and environment have assumed great significance.
• Energy is the capacity for doing useful work. It is an essential input for
economic growth. This energy is used in the form of electrical energy, thermal
energy, light, mechanical energy and chemical energy etc.
(B) RENEWABLE SOURCES OF ENERGY
DEFINITION:- Renewable energy comes from sources that can be renewed.
SOURCES OF RENEWABLE ENERGY
(1) SOLAR ENERGY:- It is energy derived from the sun and is form of alternative
energy. Electricity can be generated with the help of solar energy, using
photovoltaic technology or heat powered engines. Some of the more common uses
are solar cooking, heating water and battery powered electronics. Solar power has
also been adapted to industrial uses.

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(2) WIND ENERGY:- These are similar to windmills in construction and work like
regular turbines. When the wind speed is high enough to move the turbines,
electricity can be produced by the movement. Higher the speed of the wind, more
the amount of electricity can be produced.

(3) HYDRO ELECTRIC POWER:- Sun provides with energy through water. Dams
are a common way to generate electricity on a large scale basis. The fall of water
powers turbines, are able to produce energy when they turn. Small waterfalls
occurring naturally are another source, along with systems that derive kinetic
energy from the movement of water in rivers, streams and oceans.

(4) GEOTHERMAL ENERGY:- Tremendous amount of energy stored within the

Earth. Many radioactive release great amounts of heat. This heat makes it away to
crust and finds a way out when cracks appear in the surface of the Earth. These
thermal vents, release super-heated steam & boiling water. These vents can be
adapted for the generation of electrical power which provides more renewable
sources of energy.

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(5) BIOMASS ENERGY:- Plants contain energy is stored within them during
photosynthesis. This energy is broken down and made usable when the plants are
burnt. Biomass plants are furnaces that break down large amounts of raw
material. Leftover parts of crops, rotten plants, diseases vegetables and even waste
wood parts are usable as raw material.

(6) BIOFUELS:- Extracted from plants and crops. These are synthetic in nature
not utilized directly create electricity. Ethanol is the main form of biofuel, which is
created by the fermentation of sugar. It is regularly blended with gasoline as a form
of car fuel, as it produces lesser carbon dioxide when it burns.

(7) OCEAN ENERGY:- Ocean energy can be harnessed via 3 ways: wave energy,
tidal energy and Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC). The rise and fall of tides
is used by the tidal energy generators, which is then used to move turbines, which
in turn generate electricity. The tidal energy converts the kinetic energy to electrical
energy.

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(C) NON-RENEWABLE SOURCES OF ENERGY

DEFINITION:- Non-renewable energy comes from sources that will run out or will
not be replenished.
SOURCES OF NON -RENEWABLE ENERGY
(1) COAL:- Coal is the most abundant form of fossil fuel found below the earth
and major source of fuel for electricity generation. When coal is burnt, it produces
heat which converts water into steam. The steam is used to move turbines which
in turns activate generators to produce electricity. Excessive extraction and use
has resulted in degradation of environment and ecological imbalance.

(2) OIL:- When plants and animals died they are covered with thick layer of mud
and sand which created huge pressure and temperature. Wide usage of oil its
products resulted in air pollution. It is a major source of fuel. Oil is transported to
other nations using pipelines or ships. Leakage in ships leads to oil spill which
affects animals and plants that live inside or around the sea.
(3) NATURAL GAS:- Natural gas is a mixture of several gases and burns
completely without leaving any ashes. It causes almost no pollution and is one the
cleanest form of fossil fuel. Of these gases, methane is highly inflammable. Hence
some chemicals are added to it so that leakage can easily be detected. This source
of fuel causes almost no pollution, cheap and environment friendly.
(4) NUCLEAR ENERGY:- Most of world’s electricity production comes through
nuclear energy. Nuclear power plants use Uranium as a fuel to extract energy from
it. Nuclear fission is the most common technique to harness nuclear energy. U-235
element is bombarded with slow moving neutrons which break the atom and
releases energy to produce mass amount of energy. These elements emit strong
radiations and must be buried deep underground so that they don’t affect human
life.

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(D) USE OF ALTERNATE ENERGY SOURCES

ALCOHOL AS FUELS:- There are certain alcohols used as fuels, they are as
follows;
ETHYL ALCOHOL OR ETHANOL:- Ethanol is used as fuel. Ethanol is produced
by fermenting plant sugar with the help of yeast. It is cheaper than petrol. It is
water soluble and bio-degradable. It can be used as an alternate fuel for petrol. It
is eco-friendly.
METHYL ALCOHOL OR METHANOL:- It is an alternate source of energy. It burns
at a lower temperature than petroleum & diesel. It is advantageous alternate
source of fuel.
LIQUIFIED PETROLEUM GAS (LPG):- LPG is used as an alternate fuel in vehicles
in many countries including India. LPG can reduce pollution and emission in the
air.
HYDROGEN AS ENERGY:- It is a alternative source of energy. It is inexhaustible
and a renewable source of energy. It is free from pollution and ubiquitous in
nature. It is produced from many sources like fossil fuels, water, biomes etc.
BIOMASS ENERGY:- Biomass is the organic matter produced by plants or animals
which include wood, crop residue. Biomass produces energy by burning.
TIDAL ENERGY:- Tidal energy is a form of hydropower that converts energy
obtained from tides into useful forms of power, such as electricity
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY:- Tremendous amount of energy stored within the Earth.
Many radioactive release great amounts of heat. This heat makes it away to crust
and finds a way out when cracks appear in the surface of the Earth. These thermal
vents, release super-heated steam & boiling water. These vents can be adapted for
the generation of electrical power which provides more renewable sources of energy.
………………………………………………………………………………………………

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UNIT-4
BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION

The term biodiversity is a contraction of the term “Biological Diversity.” The term
biological diversity was coined by Walter G. Rosen in 1965. The contracted term
“Biodiversity” was coined by biologist by name E.O. Wilson in 1985.
DEFINITION & MEANING OF BIODIVERSITY
The term biodiversity is defined as the variety & variability among living organisms
and the ecological complexes in which they occur.
Biodiversity is defined as “Genetic variability & diversity of life forms such as
plants, animals & microbes living in a wide range of ecosystems.”
According to IUCN Biodiversity is defined as “Variety & Variability within species &
their populations, the varieties of species & their life forms.”
Various definitions of biodiversity emphasize the fact that biodiversity is not just
confined to species but even extends to distinct population within species that
contribute to biodiversity.
IMPORTANCE OF BIODIVERSITY
➢ Biodiversity is important for proper functioning of organisms & ecosystems.
➢ Biodiversity plays an important role in the formation & enriching the soil.
➢ Biodiversity influences water cycle & biogeochemical cycles in the ecosystem.
➢ Human population depends on the varieties of plants & animals for food,
clothing etc. Biodiversity influences human life.
(I) TYPES OF BIODIVERSITY / LEVELS OF BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity refers to the variety & variability of plants, animals & micro organisms
of the world. It is the totality of genes, species & ecosystem in a region. The
biological diversity include three hierarchial levels; (A) GENETIC DIVERSITY (B)
SPECIES DIVERSITY (C) ECOSYSTEM DIVERSITY
(A) GENETIC DIVERSITY
❖ DEFINITION: It refers to variation of genes within a species.
❖ Gene is the basic fundamental unit of hereditary character which forms the
chromosomes which is found in the nucleus of the cell.
❖ The number of genes present in a species differs from the genes present in
other species.
❖ The genetic information is stored in the form of genes are transferred from
generation to generation. Eg: Man belongs to the species Homo sapiens. All

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human beings form one human population. There are different races around the
world which differs in skin colour. These differences in human race are due to
genetic diversity.
❖ A species with more genetic diversity can adapt better to the changed
environmental conditions.
❖ The genetic diversity plays a vital role in maintaining ecological balance.
❖ Genetic diversity is brought by natural process but man has capacity to
manipulate the gene causing genetic diversity.
❖ Genetic diversity contributes for economic benefit. Gene manipulation
results in increased agricultural yield.
(B) SPECIES DIVERSITY
➢ DEFINITION: It refers to the variety of species within a region. Eg: It
includes full range of species in the region from micro-organisms to multi-cellular
plants & animals.
➢ Species are the group of organisms which interbreed among themselves to
produce fertile offspring and that reproductively isolate from other species.
➢ Genetic diversity is the major root cause for species diversity.
➢ Species are commonly unit describing biodiversity. There are 3 types.
1) α-INDEX DIVERSITY:- It is the relative richness of different species in an area.
2) β-INDEX DIVERSITY:- It is the relative richness of different species along a
gradient from one habitat to another habitat within the community.
3) γ-INDEX DIVERSITY:- It is the richness of different species in a range of
habitats within the geographical area.
(C) ECOSYSTEM DIVERSITY
➢ DEFINITION: It refers to the variation in different ecosystems of a
geographical area. Eg: Forest ecosystem is having different character than the
desert ecosystem in both abiotic & biotic components.
➢ Variety & variability among different ecosystems in the biosphere is
Ecosystem diversity.
➢ In ecosystem, living organisms are continuously interacting with the non-
living component of the environment.
➢ Ecosystem differs from one another by its physical, chemical & biological
structure.
➢ Variation in the trophic structure, nutrient cycles, energy flow etc is found in
this type of diversity.

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➢ Ecosystem diversity is characterized by different types of ecosystem which

represent different parts of biosphere.

TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM

Forest Ecosystem Ocean Ecosystem

Grassland Ecosystem River Ecosystem

Desert Ecosystem Pond Ecosystem

Garden Ecosystem Lake Ecosystem

Caves Ecosystem Aquarium Ecosystem

(II) BIOGEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION ZONES OF INDIA

India has different types of climate and topography. It has a rich heritage of
biological diversity. it has large variability in flora and fauna. India is divided into
ten bio-geographical zones. These zones are;
(I) TRANS-HIMALAYAN REGION:- This region includes Ladakh mountains in
Jammu and Kashmir & Himachal Pradesh. This region is cold and arid, extensive
areas of base rocks and glaciers.
FLORA:- The flora of this region comprises trees like Pine and Deodar.
FAUNA:- The animals of this region are Wild Sheep, Yak, Tibetian Ass, Snow
Leopard, Wolf etc,.
(II) HIMALAYAN REGION:- It covers North-West Himalayas, Western Himalayas,
Central Himalayas & Eastern Himalayas.
FLORA:- Flora of Himalayan region are Pine, Cart Tree, Sal, Castor etc,.
FAUNA:- Wild Bear, Sambar, Leopard, Deer etc,.
(III) GANGETIC PLAINS:- It comprises the upper ganga plains and lower ganga
plains. This region stretches from eastern Rajasthan, through Uttar Pradesh to
Bihar and West Bengal. These Gangetic plains are most fertile regions.
FLORA:- Acacia, Sal, Mango etc,.
FAUNA:- Black Chinkara, Rhinoveros, Turtle, Alligator etc,.
(IV) NORTH-EASTERN REGION:- It comprises Brahmaputra valley and eastern
hills or Assam hills. This region is rich in ever-green and semi-evergreen rain
forest, moist deciduous forest, swamps and grasslands.
FLORA:- Bamboo, Sal, Jackfruit, Castor.
FAUNA:- 390 species of fauna, Elephant, Rhino, Buffalo, Deer, Porcupine etc,.

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(V) DESERT ZONE:- Desert zone comprises salt desert of Kutch in Gujarth &
sand desert of Thar in Rajasthan. The natural vegetation of this region consist of
tropical thorny forest & salt marshes.
FLORA:- Acacia, Grass.
FAUNA:- Wolf, Chinkara, Desert Cat, Indian Bustard.
(VI) SEMI-ARID ZONE:- West of India is the area between deserts, deccan plateau
including Aravalli range. This zone includes Punjab plains, Rajasthan & Gulf of
Kutch & Kathiwar peninsula of Gujarath.
FLORA:- Tropical thorny forest, Date, Palm, peepal.
FAUNA:- Lion, Blackbuck, Sambar.
(VII) DECCAN PENINSULA:- South & South Central Plateau of river. The Deccan
Peninsula covers about 43% of India’s total land surfaces.
FLORA:- Deciduous forest & Tropical forest.
FAUNA:- Tiger, Leopard, Sloth bear, Elephants, Wild buffaloes.
VIII) WESTERN GHATS:- These are the hill regions flows across Karnataka,
Tamilnadu, Kerala & Andhra Pradesh which covers 5% of Indian land resources.
FLORA:- Different plant species, Monsoon forests etc.
FAUNA:- Niligiri Langur, Lion-tailed macque, hornbill, Tortoise, Frog, Lizards,
Snakes etc.
IX) COASTAL ZONE:- Comprises of the west coast & east coast.
FLORA:- Sea grasses, Coconut, Banana, Cashewnut etc.
FAUNA:- Crocodiles, Dolphin, turtles, tortoises etc.
X) ISLANDS:- It comprises of Andaman & Nicobar Islands on the Bay of Bengal &
the Lakshadweep islands in the Arabian Sea. Lakshadweep Islands consists of 30
major islands.
FLORA:- Jack fruit, coconut, Cardamom, Clove etc.
FAUNA:- Dolphin, Alligator, Water Snake, Turtles, Crabs, Sponges etc.
(III) BIODIVERSITY PATTERNS & GLOBAL BIODIVERSITY HOT SPOTS
➢ Every country is characterized by its own biodiversity depending mainly on
its climate. India has a rich biological diversity of flora and fauna.
➢ Overall 6% of global species are found in India.
➢ It is estimated that India ranks 10th among the plant rich countries of the
world.
➢ 11th rank in terms of number of endemic species of higher vertebrates.
➢ 6th among the centers of diversity and center of agricultural crops.

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➢ The total number of living species identified in our country are about
1,50,000.
➢ Out of a total of 25 biodiversity hotspots in the world, India posses two, one
is north-east region of India and one is western ghats.
➢ India is also one of the 12-mega diversity countries of the world.
➢ Some major groups of flora and fauna in India are – Algae, Lichen, Fungi,
Bryophytes, Pteridophytes, Flowering plant, Fishes, Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds
and Mammals.
HOTSPOTS OF BIODIVERSITY
➢ A biodiversity hotspot is a region of the earth which is extremely biologically
diverse and also under severe threat due to habitat loss, climate change or
extensive species loss.
➢ Around 25 sites worldwide are recognized as biodiversity hotspots, and
several organizations have made efforts to protect these sites. Guarding such
regions from further damage is considered environmentally and culturally
important, as a biodiversity hotspot hosts organisms which are not found anywhere
else on earth.
➢ Hotspots have been identified based on three criteria, they are;
(a) On the number of species present.
(b) On the number of those species found exclusively in an ecosystem.
(c) On the degree of threat they face.
➢ British ecologist Norman Myers created the biodiversity hotspots concept in
two scientific papers published in 1988 and 1990.
➢ There are 25 hotspot of biodiversity at the global level. India has two
hotspots and they are;
EASTERN HIMALAYAS:- It occupies the total area of 7298 sq km which include
4250 plant species which are endemic. This region shows a varied topography
which includes orchid flowers, bryophytes and lichens etc., which are endemic to
this region. The endemic animals in Himalayan region are snow leopards, yak,
birds, etc.
WESTERN GHATS:- It occupies the total area of 1,89,611 sq km includes the
western strip regions of Karnataka, Kerala and Tamilnadu. This regions shows a
high endemic in reptilian, amphibian species and has 10 species of endemic
threatened species, 14 species of endemic threatened mammals, 87 species of
threatened amphibians and 405 species of endemic plant species.

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(IV) INDIA AS A MEGA-DIVERSITY NATION

➢ India is one of the 19 mega biodiversity countries of the world. So far about
70% of the total area of the country has been surveyed for biodiversity. Till to date
45,000 wild species of plants and 81,000 wild species of animals have been
identified.
➢ There are also 45,000 species of wild plants found in India. About 18%
including many flowering plants are endemic.
➢ Indian forest covers 64.01 million hectares having rich biodiversity of plant
in the trans-himalayan, North-west, west central and eastern Himalayan forests,
western, coasts etc.
➢ India’s World Heritage sites are Khaziranga National Park in Assam,
Keoladeo Ghana National Park in Rajasthan, Manas Wild life Sanctuary in Assam,
Nanda Devi National Park in Uttar Pradesh, Sundarban National Park in West
Bengal.
➢ Besides the above facts, the following facts clearly indicates that India is a
mega diversity nation.
➢ Out of the 12,28,183 life forms in the world reported till now, India has
about 89,451 or 7.28% and more likely to be discovered.
➢ Nearly 5,10,000 insects have been identified in India.
➢ Out of 35,000 described species of crustaceans about 3000 are found in
India.
➢ India’s fish fauna is very rich with more than 2,500 fish species known to
occur in India.
➢ India has also recorded 64 gymnosperms, 1,135 pteridophyta, 2850
bryophytes, 2021 lichens, 6500 algae and 14500 fungi.
➢ India has the major population. For instance nearly 60% of the world’s tiger,
80% of the world’s one-horned rhinoceros, 100% of the Asiatic lion, 65% of the
Asian elephant are found in India.
➢ More than 3000 species have been recorded for use in fibre, fodder, gum,
dyes, colours, essential oils, scents and also for religious purposes.
(V) ENDANGERED & ENDEMIC SPECIES OF INDIA
ENDANGERED SPECIES
➢ A species is said to be endangered when its number are reduced severely
and it faces the danger of becoming extinct.
➢ EXTINCT:- A species is said to be extinct when there are no more
individuals of that species alive anywhere in the world.

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➢ In India nearly 450 plant species have been identified in the categories of
endangered.
➢ Endangered plant species includes orchids, Rhododendrons, medicinal
plants, sandal wood tree etc.
➢ Endangered animals species includes
➢ REPTILES:- Green sea turtle, tortoise, python.
➢ BIRDS:- Great Indian bustard, great horn bill, Siberian white crane
➢ OTHER ANIMALS:- Indian wolf, Red panda, Indian lion, Golden cat, desert
cat, Golden monkey, lion tailed macaque.
ENDEMIC SPECIES
➢ A species is said to be endemic when the species is found extensively only in
that particular area.
➢ In India out of 47,000 plant species, 7000 species are endemic.
➢ Indian sub-continent has endemic flora restricted mainly to Himalayas and
western ghats.
➢ Important endemic flora includes – Orchid’s species like Saprishimalayans,
(Tooth brush orchids).
➢ There are large number i.e. 81,000 animal species in our country is
endemic.
➢ There are more than 60% of amphibian species (Frog, toad) and more than
50% of reptiles (Lizard, crocodiles) are endemic to Western Ghats.
➢ Important endemic species in India are Indian salamander, monitor lizards,
reticulated python.
(VI) THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY
The causes of biodiversity loss are said to be threats to biodiversity. Human
activities are the major threats to biodiversity. As the nature of threats increases
more & more species are forced towards extinction. Biodiversity loss is caused due
to;
1. DESTRUCTION OF HABITATS:-
➢ Destruction of natural habitat is primary threat to biodiversity. Natural
habitats which protect flora & fauna are being converted into human settlements
like dams, reservoirs, crop lands, grazing grounds and mining sites.
➢ Destruction of habitats declines reproductive capacity of wild animals due to
reduction of area of their free movement.

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➢ Sometimes human cleanliness destroy the habitat of scavengers like

vultures, kites etc. California condor, shy scavenger which is largest flying bird has
been affected by human cleanliness.
2. HABITAT FRAGMENTATION:-
➢ Habitats generally occupied wide areas are divided into smaller and
scattered areas.
➢ Habitat fragmentation is due to construction of roads, fields, towns, canals,
power lines etc.
➢ Due to habitat fragmentation barriers are created which limit the potential of
species for proper dispersal & colonization which reduces the foraging (Food
searching) ability of animals.
3. DISTURBANCE & POLLUTION:-
➢ Natural as well as manmade disturbance such as forest fire, tree fall,
defoliation by insects affects communities adversely.
➢ Massive use of synthetic compounds, release of radiation & spill over of oil in
sea lead to change in habitat quality & adversely affect on aquatic organisms.
➢ Due to accumulation of pesticides, DDT in Atlantic Ocean leads to decline in
fish eating birds & wide spread deaths of seals (Kind of sea animal) has been
observed.
➢ The population of fish eating birds decline due to excessive use of pesticides
in crop fields.
4. INTRODUCTION OF EXOTIC SPECIES:- New species entering a geographical
region are called exotic species. Introduction of exotic species cause significant
loss to the native biological communities.
Eg: (A) Parthenium (Carrot Grass) has destroyed many herbs & shrubs in open
spaces.
(B) Nile Perch, exotic predatory fish introduced into Lake Victoria of South Africa
has eliminated several native Chichlid fish species.
(C) Lantana Camara, a plant that has entered into forests & seriously damaging
the native species growing there.
(D) Goats & rabbits introduced in the islands of Pacific & Indian Oceans are
destroyed the habitats of several plants, birds & reptiles.
5. POACHING & HUNTING OF WILD ANIMALS:- Poaching & hunting of wild
animals are the main source of wild life depletion.
POACHING:- Killing of prohibited wild animals for illegal trading of wild life
products is called poaching.

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➢ Though international ban on trade, the products from endangered species,

smuggling of wild life items like furs, horns, tusks, live specimens & herbal
products worth millions of rupees per year is still going on.
HUNTING:- Man started hunting wild animals for food, safety & pleasure since his
appearance.
➢ Disappearance of Dodo bird of Mauritius (Country) & Cheetah of India is
mainly due to excessive hunting.
6. OVER-EXPLOITATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES:- Over-exploitation of wild
plants for various purposes, over fishing & mechanical catching of animals is a
serious threat to the wild life.
7. DISTURBANCE OF MIGRATORY ROUTES:-
➢ Animals like fishes due to construction of dams, bridges etc., are not able to
reach their spawning grounds & face extinction.
➢ Birds also face the threats of extinction due to disturbance in migratory
routes. Eg: Disturbance due to complex power lines.
8. LACK OF EDUCATION:- Majority of Indian people are not aware of the
importance of wild life & its ill effects of its destruction. So people should be
education to save wild life.
(VII) POACHING AND SMUGGLING OF WILD LIFE
POACHING
➢ Poaching refers to the illegal killing of wild animals for illegal trading of
wildlife products.
➢ Poaching and hunting of wild animals are the main causes of wildlife
depletion.
CAUSES OF POACHING:-
➢ Flesh of wild animals is a tasty protein food. Hence they are hunted.
Eg: Rabbit, deer, wild pig.
➢ The animal parts and products are sold in the market at high price.
Eg: Tusks of elephant, skin of wild animals.
➢ Animals are killed for drugs. Eg: Peacock, Varanus, Eryx.
➢ Catching fishes during their breeding season is a threat to fish population.
➢ Increase of human population increases the demand for food.
WILD LIFE SMUGGLING
➢ It involves the illegal gathering, transportation and distribution of animals
and their derivatives. This can be done either internationally or domestically.

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➢ Products demanded by the trade include exotic pets, food, traditional

medicine, clothing and jewellery made from animals’ tusks, fins, skins, shells,
horns and internal organs.
➢ Wildlife trade threatens the local ecosystem, and puts all species under
additional pressure at a time when are facing threats.
(VIII) MAN-WILDLIFE CONFLICTS
In recent years the man and wild animals conflicts is one of the important
threats which is faced by the wild life. The major reason for the man wildlife
conflicts is due to the invasion (entering) of forest area by man. As human
populations expand and natural habitats shrink, people and animals are
increasingly coming into conflict over living space and food.
The invasion of forest area is due to;
➢ Expansion of agricultural fields, urbanization, industrialization etc.
➢ Construction of roads, tunnels, railway tracks etc.
➢ Invasion of forest areas by man is leading in the destruction of the habitat
and scarcity of food resource for the wildlife. The animals in search of food attack
on the agricultural field and living stock resulting in killing of wildlife by man.
➢ People lose their crops, livestock, property and sometimes their lives. The
animals, many of which are already threatened or endangered, are often killed in
retaliation or to prevent future conflicts.
➢ Human-wildlife conflict is one of the main threats to the continued survival
of many species, in many parts of the world, and is also a significant threat to
many local human populations.
➢ Human-wildlife conflict is occurring more and more and affecting many
different species. The problem is universal, affects rich and poor and causes
harmful effects for all concerned.
(IX) BIOLOGICAL INVASIONS
DEFINITION: Biological invasions take place when species are
deliberately or accidentally introduced and become established in
environments that they have not previously occupied. Eg: Water hyacinth,
African catfish, Killer Algae, Zebra Mussel & Sea Walnut. These so-called 'invasive
species' may set in, spread and ecologically alter the invaded community. Biological
invasions can be broken down into four distinct population processes: arrival,
establishment, spread, and impact.

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(X) CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY

DEFINITION:- It is the management of the biosphere in such a way that it may
yield the greatest sustainable benefit to present generation while maintaining its
potential to meet the needs of future generation.
So wildlife conservation involves the management of not only living
organisms but also the abiotic factors of the environment.
OBJECTIVES
There are three specific objectives
➢ To maintain essential ecological processes and life supporting system (air,
water and soil)
➢ To preserve the diversity of species or genetic material of world’s organisms.
➢ To ensure a continuous use of species, which support rural communities &
urban industries.
CONSERVATION STRATEGIES
A comprehensive and world conservation strategy for judicious use of natural
resources has been formulated by the scientists from 100 countries of the world.
Some of the proposed steps to protect the wildlife are
(a) Protection of useful animals and plants in their natural habitat (in situ) and
zoological and botanical gardens (ex situ).
(b) Preservation of critical habitats i.e feeding, breeding nursery and resting areas.
(c) Hunting should be regulated.
(c) International trade in useful product of wild plants and animals should be
regulated.
(d) Educating the people about the importance of wildlife and its conservation.
(f) National parks and sanctuaries should setup to protect wildlife.
(I) IN-SITU CONSERVATION METHOD
In-situ conservation means ‘on-site conservation.’ Here, the plant or animal
species are protected in their natural habitat. This is carried on by two methods.
(I) Either by protecting or cleaning up the habitat itself.
(II) By defending the species from predators.
A) SACRED FORESTS:- Some forest patches are being protected by tribals due to
religious practices are called sacred forests.
B) NATIONAL PARKS:- A national park is an area which is strictly reserved for
the betterment of the wildlife and where activities like forestry, grazing or
cultivation are not permitted.

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There are about 75 national parks (in 1993) in India spread over nearly 1%
of the country’s geographical area.
Eg:
➢ Gir National park (Gujarat)
➢ Bandipur national park (Karnataka)
➢ Corbett national park (Uttarakhand)
C) SANCTUARIES:- A sanctuary is a protected area which is reserved for the
conservation of only animals or birds and human activities like harvesting of
timber, collection of minor forest products and private ownership rights are
allowed.
There are about 368 sanctuaries (in 1988) in India which cover 3.2 percent
of country’s geographical area.
Eg:
➢ Annamalai sanctuary (Karnataka)
➢ Periyar sanctuary (Kerala)
➢ Ranganathittu bird sanctuary (Karnataka) etc.
D) BIOSPHERE RESERVE: a biosphere reserve is a specified area in which
multiple use of the land is permitted by dividing it into certain zones, each zone
being specified for a particular activity.
Zones of biosphere reserves
A) CORE ZONE: It lies at centre where no human activity is allowed. It is legally
protected.
B) BUFFER ZONE: In this zone limited human activities are allowed. It surround
core area.
C) TRANSITION ZONE: In this zone multiple human activities are allowed but
ecology is not permitted to be disturbed.
Eg: Nilgiri, Sunderbans, Gulf of mannar, Great nicobar.
(II) EX-SITU CONSERVATION METHOD
Ex situ conservation means “the process of protecting biodiversity or wild flora and
fauna outside the natural environment.”
1. SEED GENE BANK:- This is the easiest way to store the germ plasm of plants
at low temperature. Germ plasm can be preserved by in vitro (in lab condition)
culturing where cutting of plants and maintained under controlled conditions.
2. CRYOPRESERVATION:- A type of in vitro conservation is done at very low
temperature i.e., -196°C in liquid nitrogen. Cryopreservation is highly successful
in crops like potato.

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3. BOTANICAL GARDENS:- These are specialized gardens have collections of

living plants for reference.
➢ In botanical gardens plant species are grown for identification purposes and
each plant is labeled by indicating its botanical name and family.
➢ Some of the important botanical gardens are
➢ Kew botanical garden (England)
➢ Indian botanical garden, Howrah (India)
➢ Lalbagh botanical garden, Bangalore (India)
4. ZOOLOGICAL PARKS (ZOO):-
➢ These are the places where wild animals are protected in conditions very
similar to their natural habitats.
➢ In these parks food and shelter is provided. Health of the animal is
monitored.
➢ The scientific purpose of such park is to breed animals under captivity to
avoid extinction.
(XI) ECOSYSTEM AND BIODIVERSITY SERVICES
Biodiversity is useful to man in several ways. Human get many direct &
indirect benefits from biodiversity. The value of biodiversity in terms of food
source, commercial utility, ecological services, social, cultural & aesthetic value is
enormous.
1. CONSUMPTIVE USE VALUE:- Consumptive use value includes biodiversity
products that can be harvested & consumed directly. Examples: Food, Drugs &
Medicine, Fuel.
A) FOOD:-
➢ One of the most fundamental values of biodiversity is providing food.
➢ More than 85% of the world’s food is produced by plants while the rest of
15% of world’s food is produced by animals.
➢ The following food products are supplied by biodiversity.
PLANT SOURCE:- Rice, Wheat, Corn, Cereals, Fruits & vegetables
ANIMAL SOURCE:- Meat, Fish, Egg, Milk etc.,
➢ In recent years, many improved varieties of crops & other useful plants have
been developed through breeding programs.
B) DRUG & MEDICINES:-
➢ About 75% of world’s population depends upon plants or plants extracts for
medicines.
➢ Some examples of drugs & medicines extracted from plants are;

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➢ Morphine, a pain killer obtained from Poppy.

➢ Quinine is used to treat malaria. It is obtained from Chinchona tree.
➢ Penicillin, an antibiotic obtained from fungus, Penicillium notatum.
C) FUELS:-
➢ Fire wood is s fuel used by tribes & local villagers for cooking & other house
hold purpose.
➢ The fossil fuels like coal, petroleum & natural gases are also products of
fossilized biodiversity.
➢ Gobar gas obtained from cow dung.
2. PRODUCTIVE USE VALUE:- The marketable (Commercially usuable) items of
biodiversity forms the productive use value.
EXAMPLES:-
➢ Agriculture produces food products. It creates green revolution.
➢ Fishes and aquatic food sources are produced by aquaculture. It creates
blue revolution.
➢ Silk worm produces silk – Sericulture.
➢ Honey bee produce honey – Apiculture.
➢ Paper is manufactured from wood.
➢ Sugar is obtained from sugar cane.
➢ Fur and skin are obtained from wild animals are source of trade.
3. ETHICAL VALUE:-
➢ Ethical value of biodiversity is the use of plant & animal species in a right
way (Moral way).
➢ Our ethical duty is to conserve the wild life for future generations.
➢ This value involves ethical issues like “all life must be preserved”. It is based
on the concept of “Live and let Live” and “Live and make them live.”
4. SOCIAL VALUE:-
➢ Social value of biodiversity refers to religious and cultural importance.
➢ Many plants are considered sacred (god) and even worshipped in India.
EXAMPLES:-
➢ Garuda for lord Vishnu, Bull for Ishwara, Mouse for Ganapathy, Peacock for
Subramanyam, Tiger for goddess Durga.
➢ Goats, Chicks, pigs etc are sacrificed for god.
➢ Herbs, shrubs, climbers and their roots are used as ayurvedic medicines.

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5. AESTHETIC VALUE:-
➢ The use of plants and animals in beautifying the surrounding is said to be
their aesthetic value.
➢ Biodiversity includes attractive species of plants, animals & birds, which give
a natural beauty to habitat.
EXAMPLES:-
➢ Ornamental plants are grown in hanging baskets in rooms & home gardens.
➢ Beautiful birds are reared in small cabinets.
➢ Ornamental birds are reared in glass container
➢ Zoos, museum and parks attract many people and children by their beauty.
6. SPORT AND ENJOYMENT:-
➢ Wild animals are important part in certain games.
➢ Some animals are used in recreation of people in circus shows.
7. ECOSYSTEM SERVICES:-
Biodiversity is essential to keep natural cycles going and make the
ecosystem self sustaining unit. Some of these services are;
➢ Climate control by forests
➢ Natural pest control.
➢ Formation and protection of soil
➢ Maintenance of gaseous composition like O2, CO2, N2 etc.,
………………………………………………………………………………………………

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UNIT-5
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

DEFINITION: “It is undesirable changes in the physical, chemical or biological

characteristics of air, land & water that harmfully affect the human life &
undesirable species or deteriorate raw material resources.”
TYPES OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTANTS
BIODEGRADABLE POLLUTANTS: Biodegradable pollutants are those which are
decomposed by bacteria. Eg: Plant wastes, Animal wastes etc.
NON-BIODEGRADABLE POLLUTANTS: The pollutants which cannot be
decomposed by the natural biological processes are called Non-biodegradable
pollutants. Eg: Metal wastes, D.D.T , plastics.
TYPES OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
(1) Air Pollution (or) Atmospheric pollution.
(2) Water Pollution (or) Hydrospheric Pollution.
(3) Soil Pollution (or) Land Pollution.
(4) Noise Pollution (or) Sound Pollution.
(5) Thermal Pollution.
(I) AIR POLLUTION
DEFINITION: “Any solid, liquid or gaseous substance present in the atmosphere
which tends to be harmful to human beings or other living creatures or plants or
properties.”
(A) CAUSES OF AIR POLLUTION
(A) POPULATION EXPLOSION: Increase in population resulted in increase in
manmade activities leading to air pollution.
(B) URBANISATION: Urbanization has led growth of slums, accumulation of
municipal wastes, etc. leading to air pollution.
(C) INDUSTRIALISATION: Many industries release gases such as ammonia, urea,
carbon-di-oxide, metal fumes, soot, dust, smoke etc. into the atmosphere & cause
air pollution.
(D) COMBUSTION: Combustion of hydrocarbon fuels causes air pollution.
Combustion process releases smoke, fly ash, oxides of sulphur, carbon monoxide,
etc into the atmosphere cause air pollution.
(E) EXCESSIVE USE OF FERTILIZERS IN AGRICULTURE: It is one of the
causes for air pollution.

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(F) RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS: Nuclear wastes released to atmosphere during

nuclear tests, nuclear explosions, nuclear reactors, research institutes, hospitals
etc. causes air pollution.
(G) OTHER CAUSES: Increased use of chemicals & petro-chemicals, population
concentration in cities, deforestation, tests on atomic weapons, chemicals, use of
fuel wood, coal & natural events like volcanic eruptions, dust storms, etc.
(B) EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION
(I) ADVERSE EFFECTS ON HUMAN BEINGS:- Causes diseases like heart disease,
lung cancer, asthma, blood pressure, paralysis, throat irritation & cause death.
(II) It affects the animal life adversely.
(III) Affects the growth of plants & trees, fruits, flowers & vegetables, damages leaf
structure, affects photosynthesis, reduction in growth rate etc.
(IV) SMOG:- Presence of unburnt hydrocarbons produced by automobiles &
aeroplanes results in smog. It causes eye-watering, lung diseases, headache, loss
of vision, abdominal pain & even cancer.
(V) EFFECTS ON WEATHER:- It affects weather, raises the temperature, reduces
humidity, rainfall & visibility.
(VI) Air pollution causes Global Warming.
(VII) ACID RAIN:- It has become one of the major environmental problems.
(VIII) OZONE DEPLETION:- Air pollution is also responsible for ozone depletion.
(C) CONTROL MEASURES OF AIR POLLUTION
(A) Poisonous gases emitted by factories controlled through strict & rigid Factory
Laws by constructing high chimneys and by filtration.
(B) Air pollution from automobile exhausts controlled by catalytic converters.
(C) Slum areas in towns & cities controlled through town planning measures &
removal of slums by providing alternative sites for slum dwellers.
(D) Faulty underground drainage & sewage controlled by proper construction of
the same.
(E) Forest cover protected by restricting deforestation & encouraging afforestation.
(F) Maintaining green belt within & outside the industries.
(G) Minimizing use of automobiles and use of high temperature incinerations.
(H) Plantation of certain plants fixes carbon monoxide & metabolizes nitrogen &
oxygen.
(I) Educating people about importance of trees & plantations to reduce air
pollution.

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(K) Particulate matter produced by industries can be controlled by precipitators,

scrubbers & filters.
(L) Use of alternative sources of fuels like geothermal power, solar power, nuclear
power, wind power, biogas, etc.
(M) Controlling the amount of smoke released by households by using smokeless
solar cookers & biogas.
(II) WATER POLLUTION
DEFINITION: “Deterioration in chemical, physical & biological properties of water
brought about by the human activities.”
(A) CAUSES OF WATER POLLUTION
(I) DOMESTIC & MUNICIPAL EFFLUENTS & SEWAGE: The discharge of
domestic waste water & municipal sewage into water bodies causes water pollution.
(II) INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENTS:- The waste products of industries reach water
bodies either through direct discharge or through leaching causes water pollution.
(III) AGRICULTURAL EFFLUENTS:- Fertilizers, pesticides & insecticides, farm
wastes, animal wastes & mineral particles from agricultural land are washed out
from fields by rains & discharged into the water bodies resulting in water pollution.
(IV) RADIOACTIVE WASTES:- Nuclear tests & explosions, use of radioactive
materials carried through rain, wind etc., are discharged into water bodies results
in water pollution.
(V) WASTES OF POWER PLANTS:- Thermal power plants & hydro-electric power
plants discharge considerable amount of hot effluents into nearby rivers & streams.
(VI) OIL SPILLS:- Due to accident or leakage, oil from tankers spills into the
ocean water causing water pollution.
(VII) SOLID MATERIALS OF MINES & QUARRIES:- When solid materials of
mines & quarries are washed into nearby streams & rivers by rains, water pollution
is caused.
(B) EFFECTS OF WATER POLLUTION
(I) Polluted water becomes unfit for drinking, cooking & other domestic purposes.
(II) Hot water from the factories flowing into the water bodies reduces the amount
of oxygen & marine animals.
(III) It adversely affects the growth of plants & trees.
(IV) It adversely affects animal life.
(V) Water pollution diseases like cholera, typhoid, dysentery, diarrhea, infectious
hepatitis, polio, jaundice & viral diseases.
(VI) Water pollution impairs color, taste & odour of water & unfit for use.

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(VII) Oil spills from ships & oil tankers at the time of loading & unloading ruin
beaches kill birds & destroy marine life.
(VIII) Polluted water affects recreational activities adversely.
(IX) Water pollution causes ozone depletion.
(X) Water pollution causes disease of human beings & animals.
(XI) Water pollution disturbs animal habitats, disrupting food chain.
(XII) Water pollution produces foul smelling gases
(C) CONTROL MEASURES OF WATER POLLUTION
(A) Discharge of effluents into rivers or lakes used for drinking purposes should be
prohibited.
(B) Effluents from the factories should be chemically treated through long pipe
lines before discharged into rivers or deep sea.
(C) SEWAGE TREATMENT:- Septic tanks, filter beds, waste water treatment
plants, oxidation ponds etc are some of the methods used for sewage treatment.
(D) Strict measures should be taken to prevent pollution of rivers, lakes & ponds.
(E) Steps should be taken to prevent formation of slums close to water bodies
(F) Drinking water sources should be kept clean through regular cleaning.
(G) The use of pesticides in agriculture should be limited.
(H) The water purifying organisms should be conserved.
(I) There should be complete ban on the disposal of dead bodies into rivers.
(J) Setting national standards for water quality.
(K) The discharge waste can be purified in course of time by self-purification
process of natural water.
(III) SOIL POLLUTION
DEFINITION:- “Changes in the physical, chemical & biological conditions of the
soil due to man’s intervention or misuse of land, resulting in degradation in quality
or productivity of the soil.”
(A) CAUSES OF SOIL POLLUTION
(A) DOMESTIC & MUNICIPAL WASTES:- Domestic wastes like food scraps, waste
papers, plastic items, glass pieces, wood, canes, broken toys, tyres, building wastes
etc. Municipal wastes comprise dried sludge of sewage.
(B) INDUSTRIAL WASTES:- Industrial wastes discharged by industries like metal
processing industries, engineering industries, etc. The chemicals discharged by
industries enter the surface of the land & pollute soil.
(C) MINING WASTES: Coal mining & mineral mining industries discharge a large
quantity of wastes which contain toxic metals & chemicals and pollute soil.

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(D) AGRICULTURAL WASTES: Agriculture wastes include manure, animal

wastes, branches of plants, slash left over from water-logging.
(E) SALINITY & DESERTIFICATION OF SOIL: Salinity & desertification of soil
due to unscientific management of fertile land.
(F) RADIOACTIVE WASTES:- Radioactive wastes produced by nuclear testing
laboratories, nuclear reactors & industries causes soil pollution. Radioactive
wastes deposited on the soil causes soil pollution.
(G) DEFORESTATION:- It is one of the factors responsible for soil pollution.
(H) BIOLOGICAL AGENTS:- Biological agents like excreta of man, animals &
birds causes soil pollution.
(B) EFFECTS OF SOIL POLLUTION
(I) Soil pollution damages the thin layer of fertile soil thereby reduces fertility of
soil.
(II) It reduces the amount of land available for cultivation.
(III) It adversely affects animal life and growth of plants & trees
(IV) Soil pollution has adverse effects on human life.
(V) Soil wastes & garbage cause nauseating odour.
(VI) Soil wastes & garbage spoil the beauty of the landscape of towns & cities.
(VII) DDT used in agriculture enters the food channel, accumulate in human fat &
cause impotency.
(VIII) Volatile pesticides cause pollution of air of the surrounding areas.
(C) CONTROL MEASURES OF SOIL POLLUTION
(A) Measures should be adopted to avoid water-logging & salt effervescence caused
by over-irrigation.
(B) Re-use or recycling of solid wastes should be thought of.
(C) The conversion of municipal wastes or refuse into fertilizer
(D) Using salt-free water for irrigation can go a long way in controlling soil
pollution.
(E) Open dumping of solid wastes should be segregated.
(F) The conversion of wastes into building blocks should be undertaken.
(G) Cattle dung should be used for methane generation.
(H) Chemical processing of solid wastes undertaken.
(I) Better method of collection & disposal of solid wastes & garbages in cities.
(K) Garbage can be converted into organic manures by suitable technology.
(L) Sanitary landfills should be used for final disposal of solid wastes.
(N) Transporting the untreated wastes to land disposal sites

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(IV) NOISE POLLUTION

DEFINITION: “Noise pollution is defined as the unpleasant or undesirable sound
which causes discomfort to the surrounding areas.”
(A) CAUSES OF NOISE POLLUTION
(I) NOISE ASSOCIATED WITH TRANSPORTATION:- The unbearable noise
created by old motor vehicles, horns, sirens of motor vehicles cause noise pollution.
Trains, airplanes & jet aeroplanes are some of the sources for noise pollution.
(II) INDUSTRIES:- The machines & generators used in manufacturing industries
produce unbearable noise.
(III) CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRIES:- Building construction industries like
drilling machines, earth movers, cranes, cement mixers & other machines for
building construction produce large volume of noise.
(IV) MINING INDUSTRIES:- The blasting &digging machines used in mining
activities produce large amount of noise.
(V) MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS:- Musical instruments like electronic musical
instruments are important sources of noise pollution. The musical instruments &
loud speakers used in social, religious, political or public functions produce large
volume of noise.
(VII) HOUSE HOLD APPLIANCES:- Like mixers, wet grinding machines, vaccum
cleaners, portable generators causes noise pollution.
(VIII) NOISE CREATED IN SHOPPING STREETS:- Hawkers is busy shopping
streets produce unbearable noise by shouting while selling their products.
(IX) ROCKETS, NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS:- They produce noise during their
explosions in the sky.
(X) THERMAL POWER STATIONS:- Also cause noise pollution.
(B) EFFECTS OF NOISE POLLUTION
(I) It reduces man’s hearing, reduces age, loss of mental peace & results in
emotional behaviour.
(II) It increases the level of cholesterol, raises blood pressure. Noise can cause
headaches, loss of sleep & mental problems.
(III) It causes fatigue & affects working capacity & efficiency of workers in the
factory.
(IV) It retards the growth of animals & affects their working capacity.
(V) It causes heart attacks, nausea & dizziness, birth defects & abortion
(VI) Noise pollution interferes with man’s communication.
(VII) Noise pollution causes cracking of doors & windows.

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(VIII) Noise Pollution causes road accidents.

(C) CONTROL OF NOISE POLLUTION
(A) Using suitable silencers for automobiles & industrial machines. Proper gadgets
should be developed to control noise at source.
(B) Old automobiles & machines in the factories should well maintained.
(C) Transmission of noise should be controlled by having rooms with sound
absorbers & by constructing enclosures around industrial machines.
(D) Workers in factories should be protected by providing them with ear-wearing
devices.
(E) Laws should be enacted to regulate & control noise by minimizing the use of
automobile horns.
(F) Trees of various kinds should be grown around the factories as they absorb &
dissipate sound.
(G) Noise-producing industries must be located far way from the residential areas.
(H) People should be educated & made aware of the adverse effects of noise
pollution on their health through mass media.
(I) Noise created by railways can be controlled by constructing ballastless rail
tracks.
(J) Special measures should be undertaken to check the noise near the airports.
(V) NUCLEAR HAZARDS
DEFINITION: “Contamination of the environment by radioactive elements or
pollutants is called radioactive pollution or nuclear pollution or nuclear hazards.”
(A) CAUSES OF NUCLEAR HAZARDS
(I) Nuclear power plants.
(II) Nuclear bombing & nuclear weapon tests.
(III) Transportation of nuclear wastes from one place to another in any form of
transport.
(IV) Disposal of nuclear wastes resulting from any kind of use, such as use in
mining, medical use, etc.
(V) Uranium mining which is a substance used in nuclear power plants.
(VI) Medical X-rays.
(VII) Research laboratories.
(VIII) Minor causes such as TV sets, luminous wrist watches & wall clocks.

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(B) EFFECTS OF NUCLEAR HAZARDS

(I) Most of the radiations have a high penetration & cause great harm.
(II) The dumping of radioactive wastes at sea ensures human being is not harmed,
but exposes marine life to high level of radiation.
(III) Even a small amount of radiation exposure cause serious biological
consequences as radioactive wastes remain toxic for centuries.
(IV) Radiation affects living organisms through damage to DNA.
(V) Radioactive pollution can cause cancer.
(VI) Sun burnt red colorization of skin.
(VII) Eye cataracts.
(VIII) Reduction of fertility.
(IX) Still birth.
(X) Mouth ulcer.
(XI) Skin aging.
(XII) Leukemia.
(XIII) Radioactive pollution can affect the whole ecosystem through its effect on food
chain.
(C) CONTROL MEASURES OF NUCLEAR HAZARDS
(I) Nuclear devices should be exploded only underground and not in the air.
(II) Nuclear medicines & radiation therapy should be applied only when necessary
with minimum doses.
(III) Radioactive wastes should be disposed in such a manner that they do not
create any hazard to human beings & plants.
(IV) In nuclear reactors, closed-cycle coolant system with gaseous coolants of high
parity may be used to prevent evaporation.
(V) In nuclear & chemical industries, the use of radioactive isotopes may be carried
under a sea of soil or water, instead of power & gaseous form.
(VI) In nuclear mining, wet drilling may be employed along with underground
drainage.
(VII) Nuclear reactors must be enclosed in broad concrete walls to prevent the
radiations that emerge out.
(VIII) Workers should wear protective garments & glass spectacles that should be
screened from radiation.

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(VI) SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

DEFINITION: Unwanted or discarded material from residential, commercial,
industrial and agricultural activities is called SOLID WASTE.
This solid waste is a heterogenous mass of through ways from the urban
community as well as agriculture, industry and mining waste.
SOURCES:
1) Municipal solid waste
2) Industrial waste
3) Agricultural waste
4) Waste from natural disaster
CLASSIFICATION OF SOLID WASTE
Solid waste is classified into 5 major types; they are as follows;
1) Biodegradable waste
2) Non-biodegradable waste
3) Toxic waste
4) Non-toxic waste
5) Bio-Medical waste
ALTERNATIVE CLASSIFICATION OF SOLID WASTE
1) Garbage
2) Rubbish
3) Ashes / Residues
4) Construction wastes
5) Hazardous waste
6) Agricultural waste
7) Treatment plant waste
8) Waste from extractive industries
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
The proper method of disposal of solid waste in the scientific manner is called
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT.
TECHNIQUES OF MANAGEMENT
1) Collection
2) Transportation
3) Disposal

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(I) COLLECTION METHODS

(A) GARBAGE BIN COLLECTION:- In important junctions in residential areas
and municipal areas, commercial streets, ‘Common Dust Bin” was being placed
and people are required to put the waste material into those bins.
(B) BLOCK COLLECTION:- Solid waste are brought by the individual and
deposited in the waiting vehicles of the junction of the street in the areas.
(C) KERBSITE COLLECTION:- The waste are brought by individual in containers
and placed on the front way of their homes in advances of the collection time to be
retried by municipal agencies.
(II) TRANSPORTATION METHODS
It is the second step towards treatment of solid waste. The collected waste will be
moved / transported through vehicles to treatment plants.
(III) DISPOSAL METHODS
The disposal methods vary from one country to other country. They are as follows;
1) OPEN DEVELOPING:- Common method of treatment which is commonly
practiced other countries including India. Solid waste will be spread in a open
India.
2) OCEAN DUMPING:- Solid waste are dumped to seas.
3) SANITARY LANDFILLS:- Burying of solid waste in a open space by filling
earthy material (soil).
4) INCINERATION:- Burning of solid waste.
5) GASIFICATION:- Conversion of biodegradable matter into gases such as CO,
CO2 & CH4.
6) COMPOSITING:- Biodegradable process includes living substances parts /
body.
7) COMPACTING:- Reduces the size of the solid material with high pressure.
8) GRINDING:- By harmer mill.
9) CHEMICAL PROCESSING
10) RECYCLING
CONTROL MEASURES OF URBAN & INDUSTRIAL WASTE
An integrated waste management strategy includes three main components:
Source reduction: Source reduction is one of fundamental ways to reduce waste.
This can be achieved by
➢ Using less material when making a product,
➢ Reusing products on site,
➢ Designing products or packaging to reduce their quantity.

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On an individual level, we can

➢ Reduce the use of unnecessary items while shopping,
➢ Buy items with minimal packaging,
➢ Avoid buying disposable items
➢ Avoid asking for plastic carry bags.
➢ Substitute the use of toxic substances with less toxic chemicals usage.
RECYCLING:- Recycling is the process of collecting and processing materials that
would otherwise be thrown away as trash and turning them into new products.
Recycling can benefit community and the environment.
DISPOSAL:- Waste disposal is the collection, processing, and recycling or
deposition of the waste materials of human society. In industrialized countries,
municipal liquid waste is funneled through sewage systems, where it undergoes
wastewater treatment, or sewage treatment.
(VII) CASE STUDIES ON POLLUTION
(I) BHOPAL GAS TRAGEDY, A CASE STUDY ON AIR POLLUTION
Bhopal gas tragedy is the worst disaster form of air pollution in India. It
occurred in the year 1984. This disaster occurred in the Union Carbide factory in
Bhopal in Madhya Pradesh. This disaster killed 1,00,000 people and injured
1,00,000 people.
One year after the disaster, the parliament of India passed an act called the
“Bhopal Gas Disaster (processing of claims) Act, 1985, making the government of
India as the sole representative of the Bhopal gas victims in regard to initiation of
compensation claims against the Union Carbide Corporation. In 1986, the
government of India filed a suit against the Union Carbide Corporation claiming a
compensation of US $ 470 million. Ten years later, only 1/6th of the compensation
claim was received.
It may be noted that the meagre compensation claim received by the victims
of the Bhopal gas tragedy has made in 1991, public viability insurance mandatory
for all hazardous industries to make the necessary provision for insurance to meet
the cost of compensation in the event of any accident in the industry.
(II) CHERNOBYL DISASTER, A CASE STUDY ON NUCLEAR POLLUTION
The Chernobyl disaster is the worst nuclear disaster in history. It occurred
at the nuclear power plant at Chernobyl located 50 km away from Kiev city, the
capital of Ukraine (A part of then USSR) on 26TH April 1986.
It may be noted that the radiation released to this disaster is about 30 to 40
times that of the atom bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan during

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the Second World War. Due to the radiation effect, more than 30 people died
immediately and lakhs of people were evaluated. The radiation effect spread over
the countries surrounding Chernobyl i.e., Norway, Sweden, Poland etc. The health
impact of the Chernobyl disaster on the people is still not fully known. It is
estimated that about 3 million people still live in contaminated area and about
10,000 people still live in Chernobyl itself. Studies near Chernobyl conducted in
1990 revealed that the rate of thyroid cancer increased considerably in the
contaminated regions.
(III) GANGA RIVER POLLUTION, A CASE STUDY ON WATER POLLUTION
The Ganga River originates from the Himalayan glacier, flows along a stretch
of about 2,525 kms and joins the Bay of Bengal. The Ganga River has been
regarded as the holy Ganga and the life line of the country.
The Ganga basin provides irrigation facilities and is responsible for
agricultural prosperity of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal etc. it is the source of
drinking water for the region. The Ganga River is the supplier of fish to the local
market. Many cities are developed in the Ganga basin, and the river basin is
densely populated, accounting for about 40% of the population of the country.
Today Ganga River is the most polluted river in India. Both domestic and
industrial sewage join the Ganga River without any treatment and causes terrible
pollution in the river and the flow of water in the Ganga River has decreased
considerably. This is an indication of terrible pollution in the Ganga River.
The government wanted to check the pollution in the river Ganga and bring it back
to life. It took up a plan called “Ganga Action Plan” launched by Rajiv Gandhi in
the year January 14, 1986.
MAIN FEATURES OF GANGA ACTION PLAN
1. To divert sewage from the small and large towns or both the banks of the
Ganga River into a separate diversion canal, accumulate it in big banks. Subjected
to sewage treatment, clean the river water and release the cleared water for
irrigation and other purposes and to supply the gas produced from sewage through
pipelines to adjoining towns.
2. To construct about 30000 low cost latrines so as to prevent people from
committing nuisance in the river embankments.
3. To construct the Ganga embankment Ghats and construct electric furnaces at
selected sites for funeral rites and prevent the disposal of dead bodies into the
Ganga River.

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4. To make it mandatory for all industries to install treatment plants in their

premises for the treatment of the solid and liquid effluents and gaseous emissions.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………

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UNIT-6
ENVIRONMENTAL POLICIES & PRACTICES

(I) CLIMATE CHANGE

• Climate is the average weather conditions of a place for a long period of time,
i.e., for a number of years.
• Climate change (i.e., change of climate) is a normal process.
• It is brought about by factors like latitude of a place, altitude of a place,
distance from the sea, ocean currents, position of mountains, direction of
prevailing winds, nature of soil, etc.
• Important factors responsible for climate change are green house effect,
global warming, acid rain & ozone layer depletion.
(II) GLOBAL WARMING
DEFINITION:- It is increase in the average temperature of the earth due to green
house effect like carbon-di-oxide, chlorofluorocarbons, methane, etc., which in turn
causes warming up of the earth.
CAUSES OF GLOBAL WARMING
Global warming is caused by the accumulation of green house gases like
carbon-di-oxide & other gases along with the water vapour, which prevent loss of
heat from the earth leading to rise in atmospheric temperature.
ADVERSE EFFECTS OF GLOBAL WARMING
(A) Global warming leads to climatic changes.
(B) Global warming results in warming and rise in sea level.
(C) It contributes to melting of ice & glaciers.
(D) Small islands disappear due to the submergence, resulted from global
warming.
(E) It results in change in crop pattern.
(F) Global warming results in dispersion of harmful chemicals.
(G) It effects ecosystem & biodiversity.
(H) Global warming results in changes in hydrological cycle.
(I) Storms are more frequent & intense due to global warming.
(J) Weather pattern would be less predictable & more extreme.
(K) Crops & woodlands may affected by plant diseases.
(L) Some types of forest may disappear.

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MEASURES FOR CONTROLLING GLOBAL WARMING

(A) Preserve trees & plants which take up carbon-di-oxide, which break it down in
photosynthesis & store carbon in new wood.
(B) By reducing the consumption of fossil fuels & using fuels such as nuclear
energy, solar power, wind power, etc., that limit green house gases.
(C) Encouraging the use of alternative sources of energy.
(D) Conservation of forests.
(E) Afforestation & encouraging community forestry.
(F) Reduction in the use of automobiles.
(G) Development of more efficient automobiles engines.
(H) Ban on CFCs & nuclear explosions.
(I) Development of environment competitive technology with the help of intensive
inter-disciplinary research.
(J) Population control.
(K) Learning to adopt & accept the changing climate.
(L) Environmental education.
(M) International co-operation for attempting the reduction of green house effect.
(III) OZONE LAYER DEPLETION
In the ozonosphere, small amounts of ozone are being formed by the action
of sunlight or oxygen. Some of the manufactured substances used in refrigerators,
air conditioners, solvents, hospital sterilizations, etc., enter ozonosphere & destroy
ozone much faster that it is formed. This results in ozone depletion.
ADVERSE EFFECTS OF OZONE DEPLETION
(I) If ozone is depleted, ultra violet radiations from the sun reaches the earth’s
surface, which is harmful to the life system on the earth.
(II) It has adverse effect on natural vegetation.
(III) It will adversely affect productivity & crop yield.
(IV) It has adverse effect on animal life. It causes damage to wild life & marine life.
(V) It has adverse effect on human health. It is responsible for sunburn, skin
cancer, blindness, etc.
PREVENTION OF OZONE DEPLETION
As ozone depletion is harmful it should be prevented. The following measures may
be adopted for prevention of ozone depletion.
(I) CFC’s should be replaced by HCFC’s (Hydro-chloro-fluro-carbons). It may be
noted that if HCFC’s is over-used. It would cause damage.
(II) Production, use & emission of ozone depletion chemicals should be controlled.

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(III) Recycling of ozone-depletion chemicals should be increased.

(IV) Servicing of refrigerators & air-conditioners should be regulated.
(V) Measures for protecting sun’s radiation must be adopted.
(IV) ACID RAIN
DEFINITION:- The rain which contains higher level of acid than normal.
CAUSES OF ACID RAIN
(A) Burning of fossil fuels for generation of thermal power is responsible for the
major source of acid forming pollutants.
(B) Human activities have been releasing pollutants in large quantities. Such
emissions are very high in industrial centres.
(C) Automobile exhausts are also responsible for acid rain.
(D) Volcanoes, fires, etc., are the natural causes for acid rains.
(E) Decomposing matter emitting pollutants is a cause for acid rain.
HARMFUL EFFECTS OF ACID RAIN
Burning of fossil fuels, power plants, automobile exhausts, industries, etc.
has distributed natural acidic balance and converted natural rains into acid rains
with several environmental implications.
ACID RAINS HAS SEVERAL ILL-EFFECTS
(A) Acid rains have ill-effect on vegetation. They cause change in the colour of
leaves.
(B) They cause acidification of lakes and streams, and affect aquatic life.
(C) They have ill-effect on soils. Soil gets acidified, and lead to loss of productivity
and damage to plant roots.
(D) They affect crop productivity.
(E) It has ill-effect on monuments, statues and buildings.
(F) Acid rain has ill-effect on man which is affected by increased respiratory and
skin problems. It also causes irritation to skin.
(G) Acid rains accelerate the delay of building materials and paints.
MEASURES FOR CONTROLLING ACID RAINS
(A) Reducing SO2 & NO2 emissions from the hot air or smoke from chimneys
through use of scrubbers and catalytic converts.
(B) Using electrostatics precipitators and bag house arrangements at the industrial
outlets.
(C) Use of low sulphur coal.
(D) Switching over to renewable sources of power like nuclear energy, hydro-
electric power, wind power, solar energy, geothermal energy, etc.

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(E) Modifying the automobile engines to reduce emissions.

(F) Pouring powered lime stone into water bodies for reducing acidity.
(G) Limiting of surrounding soil, provided the limit is acceptable and does not
cause any harm.
(V) ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS
Environmental laws are laws which provide the framework for regulating and
protecting the environment. Environmental laws help in regulating the use of
resources, protecting the biodiversity, environment, prohibiting activities which
affect the environment & punishing those who violate environmental legislation.
The constitution of India contains specific provisions for the protection of the
environment.
Article 48A of the constitution of India provides that the state shall endeavor
to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard forests & wildlife of the
country.
Article 51A of the constitution of India provides that it shall be the duty of
every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural environment including
forests, lakes, rivers & wild life of all living creatures.
Besides the constitution of India contains other laws of the country also
provide for the protection of India. Some of the other environmental laws of India
are;
(A) ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION ACT, 1986
1. The central Government has the power to take measures for protecting &
improving the quality of environment to prevent and control environmental
pollution.
2. Powers vested in the Central Government or the measures the central
government are;
(A) Planning & execution of a nationwide programme for the prevention, control of
environmental pollution.
(B) Laying down standards for quality of environment in the various aspects.
(C) Restriction of areas in any industries processes are carried out is subjected to
certain safeguards.
(D) Procedures & safeguards for the prevention of accidents which may cause
environmental pollution.
(E) Procedures & safeguards for the handling of hazardous substances.
(F) Examination of manufacturing processes, materials & substances that cause
environmental pollution.

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(G) Inspection of any premises, equipment, machinery, or other processes,

materials or substances & giving directions to authorities, officers or persons to
take steps for the prevention, control of environmental pollution.
(H) Preparation of manuals, guides relating to the prevention, control & abatement
of environmental pollution.
(I) Establishment of environmental laboratories to carry out the functions
entrusted to such environmental laboratories & institutes under this act.
(J) Other matters as the Central Government deems necessary for the purpose of
securing the effective implementation of the provisions of this act.
(3) The central government can constitute an authority for the purpose of
exercising and performing the powers & functions of the Central Government & for
taking measures.
(B) AIR (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT, 1981
Air (prevention and control of pollution) act, 1981 came into force 29th March,
1981.
OBJECTIVES OF THIS ACT
(A) This act empowers Central & State Pollution Control Boards to declare
pollution control areas, restrictions on certain industrial units, authority of the
Boards to limit emission of air pollutants, power of entry, taking samples &
analysis, penalties, offences by companies & government & cognizance of offences,
etc.
(B) Empowers state government to designate air pollution areas & to prescribe the
types of fuel to be used in the designated areas. Under this act, no person can
operate certain types of industries without the consent of the state board.
(C) This act empowers the central board to advise the central government on
matters of air pollution, coordinate the activities of the state boards, lay down
desirable air quality standards & trained human resources to monitor pollution.
(D) The state boards empowered to establish laboratories and appoint government
analysts for analyzing samples of air or emissions for purposes of implementing the
act.
(E) The state governments are empowered to declare any area within the state as
air pollution control area after consulting the state board. The government can
prohibit the use of certain fuels, materials or appliances which may cause air
pollution.
(C) WATER (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT, 1974

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The Water (prevention and control of pollution) act, 1974 came into force 23rd
March, 1974.
OBJECTIVES OF THIS ACT
(I) Prevention & control of water pollution.
(II) Maintaining or restoring the wholesomeness of water.
(III) Establishment of central & state boards for the prevention & control of water
pollution.
FEATURES OF ACT
(A) Provides establishment of central & state boards for the prevention & control of
water pollution.
(B) Under this act, the central & state boards are given powers to prevent water
pollution, take water samples & their analysis, discharge of sewage, trade effluents,
etc.
(C) The 1988 amendment to this act requires that there should be no discharge of
trade effluent or sewage without the permission of the state board. If any industry
contravenes this provision, it can be closed immediately.
(D) The state board can demand any information from any person in order to
ensure compliance with the provisions of this act.
(D) WILD LIFE PROTECTION ACT
The wild life (Protection) Act, 1972, as amended in 1983, 1986, 1991 & 2003,
provides the protection of wild animals, birds & plants to ensure ecological &
environmental security of the country. This act seeks to:
(I) Constitute a wild life advisory board for each state.
(II) Regulate hunting of wild animals & birds.
(III) Lay down the procedure for declaring areas as sanctuaries, national parks,
etc.
(IV) Regulate possession, acquisition or transfer or trade in wild animals, animal
articles, etc.
(V) Provide penalties for the contravention of this act.
(VI) Provide for captive breeding programme for endangered species.
(E) FOREST CONSERVATION ACT
The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, as amended in 1988 is concerned with the
conservation of forests.
OBJECTIVES
(I) Protection & conservation of forests.
(II) Ensuring judicious use of forest products.

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FEATURES
(I) It covers all types of forests, including reserved forests, protected forests or any
forested land irrespective of its ownership.
(II) This act as amended in 1988, provides leasing of forest land to persons or any
authority, corporation, agency or any other organization are not owned, managed
or controlled by government & clearing of trees which have grown naturally in any
forest land for the purpose of using it for re-afforestation will require prior approval
of the central government.
(III) This act contains a punitive provision for the enforcement machinery.
(IV) The 1992 amendment to the forest (conservation) act allows some non-forest
activities in forests without cutting trees or limited cutting with prior approval of
central government. Those activities are setting of transmission lines, exploration,
drilling & hydro-electric projects.
(V) Wild life sanctuaries, national parks, etc., are totally prohibited for any
exploration under this act without the prior approval of the central government,
even if no tree-feeling is involved.
(VI) Cultivation of the coffee, species, rubber & plants which are cash crops are
included in non-forestry activity is not allowed in reserve forests.
(VII) Even cultivation of fruit-bearing trees, oil-yielding plants or plants of
medicinal value in forest areas has to be first approved by the central government.
(VIII) Mining is a non-forestry activity & so for mining in a forest area, prior
approval of the central government is mandatory.
(VI) INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS
(A) MONTREAL PROTOCOL
It is an international treaty designed to protect ozone layer.
OBJECTIVE:- “To protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of
numerous substances that are responsible for ozone depletion.”
SIGNED:- 26 August 1987
LOCATION:- Montreal [City in Southern Canada]
EFFECTIVE:- August 1989
SIGNATORIES:- 46 States
CONDITION:- Ratified by 197 states.
DEPOSITORY:- US
LANGUAGES:- Arabic, English, Chinese, French, Russian & Spanish

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• The montreal protocol on substances that delete the ozone layer. It is an

international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the
production of numerous substances that are responsible for ozone depletion.
• It was agreed on August 1987 and entered into force on 26 January 1989,
followed by a first meeting in Helsinki May 1989.
• Climate projections indicate that the ozone layer will return to 1980 levels
2050 and 2070.
• The ozone depletion challenge, there was global regulation already being
installed before a scientific consensus was established.
EFFECTS
• Montreal protocol came into effect, the atmospheric concentrations of the
most important chlorofluorocarbons and related chlorinated hydrocarbons have
either leveled off or decreased.
• The concentration of the HCFCs increased drastically at least partly because
for many uses CFCs were subtitled with HCFCs.
• The Montreal protocol has often been called the most successful
international environmental agreement to date.
• The most recent scientific evaluation of the effects of the Montreal protocol
states. “The Montreal Protocol is working.”
• The Montreal protocol is also expected to have effects on human health.
• The Montreal protocol currently calls for a complete phase out of HCFCs by
2030, but does not place any restriction on HCFCs.
• Policy experts have advocated for increased efforts to link ozone protection
efforts to climate protection efforts.
(B) KYOTO PROTOCOL
It is an international treaty which extends the 1992 of UNFCCC [United
Nation Frame work Convention on Climate Change] that commits to reduce the
green house gas emissions. It applies 6 green house gases like CO 2, CH4, N2O,
CFC, HFC & SF6.
OBJECTIVE:- “To reduce the global warming by reducing green house gases
concentration in atmosphere. ”
SIGNED:- 11 December 1997
LOCATION:- Kyoto [City in Japan]
EFFECTIVE:- 16 February 2005
SIGNATORIES:- 45 States

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CONDITION:- Ratified by 55 states.

DEPOSITORY:- UN
LANGUAGES:- Arabic, English, Chinese, French, Russian & Spanish
• The Kyoto protocol is an international treaty that commits state parties to
reduce green house gas emissions, based on the scientific consensus that global
warming is occurring and it is extremely likely that human made CO 2 emissions
have predominantly caused it.
• The Kyoto protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to reduce the
onset of global warming by reducing green house gas concentrations in the
atmosphere to a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference
with the climate system.
• The Kyoto protocol applies to the 6 green house gases like carbon di oxide
CO2, Methane CH4, Nitrous oxide N2O, Hydrofluorocarbons HFCs, Perfluorocarbons
PFCs and sulphur hexafluoride SF6.
• The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated
responsibilities.
• It acknowledges that individual countries have different capabilities in
climate change, owing to economic development and ego puts the obligation to
reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are
historically responsible for the current levels of green house gases in the
atmosphere.
(C) CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY (CBD)
The convention on Biological diversity is an international treaty that aims to
conserve biodiversity or protect the biodiversity
OBJECTIVE:- CBD involves 3 main goals
• Conservation of biodiversity
• Sustainable use of biodiversity
• Equitable sharing of the use of resources
SIGNED:- 5 June 1992
LOCATION:- Rio de Janeiro [City in Brazil]
EFFECTIVE:- 29 December 1993
SIGNATORIES:- 168 States
CONDITION:- Ratified by 30 states.
DEPOSITORY:- United Nation
LANGUAGES:- Arabic, English, Chinese, French, Russian & Spanish

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(VII) NATURE RESERVES

A natural reserve is a protected area of importance for wildlife, flora, fauna or
features of geological or other special interest which is reserved and managed for
conservation and to provide special opportunities for study/research.
Nature reserves may be designated by government institutions in some
countries by private landowners such as charities and research institutions,
regardless of nationality. Nature reserves fall into different IUCN categories
depending on the level of protection afforded by local laws. Normally it is more
strictly protected than a nature park. In India there are some bio-reserves the
important bio-reserves are-
(a) Nanda Devi Biosphere in Uttar Pradesh
(b) Nokrek Bio-reserves in Meghalaya
(c) Manas Bio-reserves in Assam
(d) Sundarbans Bio-reserves in West Bengal
(e) Gulf of mannar Bio-reserves in Tamil nadu
(f) Nilgiris Bio-reserves spread in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu & Kerala
(g) Great Nicobar Bio-reserves in Andaman & Nicobar islands
(h) Simlipal Bio-reserves in Orissa

(VIII) TRIBAL POPULATION

• A tribe is a human social group. In general use, the term may refer to people
perceived by a population to be primitive and may have negative connotations. The
concept is often contrasted with other social group’s concepts.
• Though only 8.2% of the total population the scheduled tribes constitute
55% of the people displaced, since independence due to the construction of dams,
mines, industrial development and the creation of wild life parks and sanctuaries.
• Poverty and landlessness is rampant amongst the STs 51% of all ST are
below the poverty line compared to 40.2% for the national average and 65% of STs
are landless as per 2011 census. Therefore this group has disproportionately
borne the burden of economic development.
• The fifth schedule designates tribal majority areas in ten tribal minority
states with peninsular India including Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Gujarat,
Jharkhand, Chattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa & Rajasthan.
• The sixth schedule designates such tribal majority areas in north eastern
states including Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram & Tripura. Of these Meghalaya &
Mizoram are tribal majority states.

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(IX) TRIBAL RIGHTS

The scheduled tribes and other traditional forest dwellers (recognition of forest
rights) act, 2006 was enacted by the parliament of India in December 2006.
• Right to hold and live in the forest land under the individual / common
occupation for habitation.
• Right to self cultivation for livelihood by a tribe member or members of a
forest dwelling scheduled tribe.
• Right to ownership, access to collect, use and dispose of minor forest
produce which has been traditionally collected within / outside village boundaries.
• Rights in over disputed lands under any nomenclature in any state where
claims are disputed.
• Rights of settlement and conversion of all forest villages.
• Right to protect, regenerate or conserve or manage any community forest
resource.
• Rights which are recognized under any state laws.
• Right of access of biodiversity and community right to intellectual property
and traditional knowledge related to biodiversity and cultural diversity.
• Any other traditional right customarily enjoyed by the forest dwelling
scheduled tribes.
(X) HUMAN WILD LIFE CONFLICTS IN INDIAN CONTEXT
Human wild life conflicts refer to the interaction between wild animals and
people and the resultant negative impact on people or their resources or wild
animals or their habitat. It occurs when growing human populations overlap with
established wild life territory creating reduction of resources of life of some people
of wild animals.
The conflicts takes many forms ranging from loss of life or injury to humans
and animals both wild and domesticated, competition for scarce resources to loss
and degradation of habitat.
Conflict management strategies earlier compressed lethal control,
translocation, regulation of population size and preservation of endangered species.
Recent management approaches attempt to use scientific research for better
management outcomes such as behavior modification and reducing interaction. As
human wild life conflicts inflict direct, indirect and opportunity costs, the migration
of human-wild life conflict is an important issue in the management of biodiversity
and protected areas.
CAUSES OF HUMAN WILD LIFE CONFLICTS
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• As human population expand wild animals habitat is displaced.

• Food and sheltered interference and potentially destructive threat for both
man and animals.
• Threatens to other species of concern etc.
OUTCOME OF HUMAN WILD LIFE CONFLICTS
Human wild life conflict occurs with various negative results. They are as follows;
• Injury & loss of life of humans and wild life.
• Crop damage, live stock prediction
• Damage to human property.
• Destruction of habitat.
• Collapse of wild life populations and reduction of geographic ranges.
MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES
• Aim to stop, reduce/minimize conflict by controlling animal populations in
different ways.
• Measures to reduce interaction between humans and wild life.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………

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UNIT-7
HUMAN COMMUNITIES AND THE ENVIRONMENT

MEANING OF POPULATION:- Population is the number of people living in a

particular area, region, country or the world at a particular point of time.
MEANING OF POPULATION GROWTH:- Population growth is increase in
population in the same area, with the birth rate exceeding the death rate.
CAUSES FOR POPULATION GROWTH
Several factor or causes are responsible for population growth. They are as follows;
• High birth rate
• Universal marriage
• Early marriage
• Mass Poverty
• Climatic factors
• Low death rate
(A) HUMAN POPULATION & HEALTH
Health is a state of physical, mental and social well being and not only a
merely an absence of diseases.
The environment and the human health are directly related to each other.
Environment plays a key role in the formation of good health of living beings, but
as the environment goes on degrade due to the human activities, it affects directly
on the human health. For example, mining process leads to the environment
degradation which causes effect on the human beings.
The effects of the environment on the human health can occur in two ways;
(A) DIRECT WAYS & (B) INDIRECT WAYS
(A) DIRECT WAYS:- The direct effects like causing diseases, psychological
changes brought by the environment are directly related to human health effect.
Such effects are called DIRECT EFFECT.

(B) INDIRECT WAYS:- The indirect effects are those secondary effects on the
human health which cause due to the degradation of the environment.
Some of the indirect effects which lead by the degradation of the
environment are as follows:

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(I) DEPLETION OF NATURAL RESOURCES:- The unhealthy environment may

reduce the productivity of the natural resource leading in the usage of more and
more natural resource causing rapid depletion of natural resources.
(II) DEPLETION OF BIODIVERSITY: The degradation of the environment lead to
the depletion of biodiversity.
(III) UNSUSTAINABILITY IN BIODIVERSITY: The deterioration of the environment
will create conflicts and wars.
(IV) STARVATION: As the degradation of the environment leads in the loss of
productivity in the agricultural lands causing starvation.
(B) CARBON FOOT PRINT
DEFINITION: A carbon foot print is the amount of green house gases produced by
a particular human activity. It is the total amount of CO2 and other green house
gases emissions for which an individual / organization is responsible.
Green house gas emissions can be classified into 3 main types: they are as
follows;
(A) DIRECT EMISSIONS: Most commonly direct emissions will result from
combustion of fuels which produce CO2 emissions. Eg: Some chemicals produce
methane CH4 and the use of fertilizer leads to nitrous oxide N2O emissions.
(B) EMISSION FROM ELECTRICITY: Use electricity for lighting and equipment.
In UK around 75% is produced through the combustion of fuels, electricity is
indirectly responsible for the release of CO2
(C) INDIRECT EMISSIONS: Each product / service that is purchased by an
organization is responsible for the emissions. Eg: A company that manufactures
a product is indirectly responsible for the carbon that is emitted in the preparation
and transport of the raw materials.
CALCULATING A CARBON FOOT PRINT
• Calculation of a basic carbon foot print is a quick exercise. A basic foot print
is likely to cover direct emissions. The major emission sources are;
• Onsite fuel usage
• Onsite electricity usage
• Use of electricity which is owned.
Once the basic carbon foot print has been established, it is then possible to
take steps to manage the emissions.
• Set and agree efficiency/emission reduction targets
• Identify likely opportunities for efficiency or emissions reduction.

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• Priorities based on environmental or financial criteria.

• Monitor the performance of the actions taken and improve as necessary
PRODUCING CARBON FOOT PRINT
Accurate calculation of carbon foot print requires systematic approach.
• Define the methodology
• Specify the boundary and scope of coverage
• Collect emissions data and calculate the foot print
• Verify the results & Disclose the foot print
USING A FOOT PRINT FOR CARBON MANAGEMENT
There is little point in establishing foot print unless the organization then acts to
reduce emissions and improve the efficiency. Carbon foot printing can be a useful
exercise as part of a complete “environmental management system.
(C) RESETTLEMENT & REHABILITATION OF PROJECT AFFECTED AREAS
GENERAL FEATURES OF DISPLACEMENT OF PEOPLE
• Displacement of people is more than a question of sheer numbers i.e the
number of people affected.
• Generally, the number of people affected directly and indirectly by
displacement is under estimated.
• The people affected by displacement are under privileged tribal communities
and rural communities.
• There will be psychological pressure on the displaced people.
• Displacement results in loss of land, property, facilities etc., for the
displaced persons.
• Displacement causes loss of work and income to the displaced people.
• Displacement causes environmental degradation and loss of precious and
natural resources.
FEATURES OF RESETTLEMENT & REHABILITATION OF DISPLACED PEOPLE
(I) Generally, the displaced person to be resettled and rehabilitated may not receive
any meaningful information on the project.
(II) Generally there will be delay in relocation and resettlement of displaced people.
(III) There will be denial of development opportunities to those relocated.
(IV) In most cases, infrastructure facilities may not be provided in the relocated
areas.
(V) Very often temporary camps for the displaced become permanent shelters.
(VI) Often the compensations paid to the displaced persons are very meagre.

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(VII) Most of the resettlements are involuntary and forced.

RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH RESETTLEMENT & REHABILITATION OF
AFFECTED PEOPLE
• Resettlement and rehabilitation programs are predominantly focused on the
process of physical relocation rather than on the economic and social development
of the displaced people.
• Loss of livelihood affects house hold food security and leads to under
nourishment.
• Displacement is often associated with high incidence of diseases, high
incidence of diseases results in increased mortality of displaced persons.
MAIN PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH RESETTLEMENT & REHABILITATION
(1) Effective resettlement & rehabilitation is hampered by problems like
institutional weaknesses, lack of co-ordination between various departments, etc.
(2) Generally, the participation of displaced people is considered unimportant or
the execution of the project.
(3) Most resettlement programmes have failed to encourage successful self-
employment strategies, skills & capacity building, etc for the displaced.
(4) As a result of displacement & replacement, large families & communities are
broken up & resettled over a wide area.
(5) Most re-settlement & rehabilitation programs are long-drawn programs, & the
completion of resettlement & rehabilitation work takes a long time.
(6) In most cases, the resettlement sites are under-developed in terms of essential
infrastructure facilities & amenities for decent living.
(7) The house sites allotted to the displaced persons in the areas of resettlement
are often temporary structures & not permanent structures.
ESSENTIALS OF SUCCESSFUL RESETTLEMENT & REHABILITATION
PROGRAMME
(A) Resettlement & rehabilitation should not be mere physical relocation or
restoration of incomes. It should be a planned, integrated & comprehensive
development project.
(B) It should be based on the principle of participative development, & should not
be a forced relocation.
(C) The people must be governed by law & should not be left to the discretion of
the executives concerned with the administration of the programme.
(D) There must be restoration of environment.

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(E) There must be a national policy on resettlement & rehabilitation of displaced

persons.
(D) DISASTER MANAGEMENT
Disaster management is a process that covers the following activities;
• Prediction of potential disaster in a place
• Identification of vulnerable areas of potential disaster
• Adoption of an efficient early warning system
• Preparation and implementation of action plans
• Rehabilitation of affected people from disaster
• Mobilization of resources
OBJECTIVES OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT
• Evolving suitable strategy for disaster
• Mitigating the impact of natural disaster
• Rehabilitation of the people affected by disaster
• Development of the disaster affected areas.
(I) FLOODS
DEFINITION:- “Excess flow of water in the rivers resulting from excessive and
incessant rains, overflowing the river banks.”
CAUSES OF FLOODS
(A) Floods occur when there is excessive rainfall. For instance, floods occur in
India when there is excessive rainfall caused by monsoons.
(B) Heavy & sudden rainfall by cyclones also causes floods.
(C) Incessant rains & poor drainage are also responsible for floods.
(D) Melting of snow also causes floods.
(E) The occurrence of high tides at the time when the rivers are in spate.
(F) Earthquakes also cause floods.
(G) Deforestation is also one of the causes of floods.
(H) Lack of check dams across the rivers is also one of the causes of floods.
EFFECTS OF FLOODS
(A) Floods destroy standing crops. If the floods destroy standing crops over a vast
area, they may be even famine in the flood affected areas.
(B) Roads & railway lines are breached due to floods. Traffic is suspended for days
together.
(C) Floods damage houses, particularly in rural areas. Floods ruin stored food
grains.

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(D) Floods damage sewage system; as a result, drainage system is affected and
there is outbreak of serious epidemics.
(E) Floods cause soil erosion, especially on sloping lands.
(F) Floods uproot the trees on sloping lands.
(G) Floods uproot telephone & electric poles.
(H) Floods change the course of rivers.
(I) Floods result in silting of lakes, loss of wild animals & human life.
(J) Floods force the government to spend huge amounts on relief & rehabilitation
measures in the flood affected areas.
CONTROL OF FLOODS
(I) Construction of dams across rivers.
(II) Construction of embankment on river banks.
(III) Drainage channels in areas which suffer from Poor Drainage & Water-Logging.
(IV) Desilting of river channels.
(V) Afforestation, i.e., growing of trees on sloping lands.
(VI) Improvement of weather forecasting techniques.
(VII) Quick relief & rehabilitation measures to provide relief to people affected by
floods.
(II) EARTH QUAKE
DEFINITION:- The sudden movement of earth crust caused by endogenic forces of
the earth’s interior is called earth quake.
CHARACTER OF EARTH QUAKE
• It occur within the depth of 50 km
• It remain only for shorter time – 40 sec average
CAUSES OF EARTH QUAKE
• Sudden slips of creap blocks of earth’s crust.
• Tectonic plate movement in the earth’s interior.
• Volcanic activity.
• Mining creates a external pressure.
• Landslides .
EFFECTS OF EARTH QUAKE
• Physical changes of land.
• Changes in the beds of river.
• Loss of property and life.
• Accumulation of collapsed in the river basin.

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• Changes in the underground water drainage system.

CONTROL MEASURES
• People should be educated.
• Construction of earthquake resistant building.
• Prohibition of construction of multi stored building.
• Identification of seismic zones.
(III) CYCLONES
Cyclones, hurricanes and typhoons though named differently refer to the
same type of natural disaster. The intensive storms in the Indian Ocean are called
as cyclones. The same intense storm in North Atlantic Ocean is called Hurricanes
and the Typhoons in Pacific Ocean.
Cyclones refers to large scale closed circulation system in the atmosphere,
which combines low pressure and strong winds that rotate counter clockwise in the
northern hemisphere. In other words, when the wind is spirally moving towards a
low pressure area is known as cyclone. A cyclone has a low pressure at the center
and is surrounded by high pressure
NATURE OF CYCLONES
Cyclones flow at indefinite periods and indefinite directions. Therefore cyclones are
also known as accidental winds. They blow in a circular movement unlike other
winds.
CAUSES OF CYCLONES
Depressions in the seas are the main cause of cyclones.
EFFECTS OF CYCLONES
• Heavy rains
• Floods
• Damage to crops and property
• Results in epidemics
• They link the ships
CYCLONE PRONE AREAS IN INDIA
Coastal regions of Tamil nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Orissa
MITIGATIONS OF CYCLONES
• Effective early warning system
• Cyclone withstand property should be constructed
• Proper cropping strategy should be evolved for cyclone prone areas
• Relief and rehabilitation measures from the government

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(IV) LANDSLIDES
DEFINITION:- Landslides are falling down of huge blocks of lands particularly
rocks in mountains or hilly regions.

CAUSES OF LANDSLIDES
(A) Mining and quarrying in mountainous or hilly regions is one of the factors for
landslides.
(B) Removal of vegetation cover, i.e. deforestation of the slopes of hilly regions
(C) Construction of dams & reservoirs for generation of power in hilly or
mountainous regions
(D) Deep excavation on hill or mountain slopes for construction of roads, railway
lines is responsible for landslides.
(E) Deep cutting of slopes of hill or mountain slopes for construction of buildings
required for human settlement.
(F) Agricultural activities undertaken on hilly regions without proper safeguards.
(G) Overgrazing on hill slopes is one of the causes for man-induced landslides.
(H) Diversion of surface water onto sensitive slopes.
(I) Over-irrigation of slopes for farming results in landslides.
(J) Dumping of materials at the top of the slopes.
EFFECTS OF LANDSLIDES
(I) Landslides damage roads and railway lines and cause disruption of road and
railway transport in mountainous regions.
(II) Huge landslides obstruct the flow of water and even result in change in the
course of streams and rivers.
(III) Landslides increase the turbidity of nearby streams and thereby reduce their
productivity.
(IV) Landslides cause uprooting of trees on hill slopes.
(V) Landslides cause loss of animals & even loss of human life.
CONTROL OF LANDSLIDES
Landslides cannot be controlled completely; but the severity of their effects can be
minimized.
(I) Control of deforestation on hill or mountains slopes.
(II) Afforestation on hill slopes.
(III) Control of reckless mining and quarrying.
(IV) Adoption of proper safeguards in the construction of road and railway lines
across hill slopes.

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 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

(V) Control of over-grazing on hill sides.

(VI) Avoiding reckless cultivation on hill slopes.
(E) ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENTS
(I) CHIPKO MOVEMENT
It is the most famous people’s movement in 1973 in Tehri-Garhwal district of
Uttaranchal against deforestation in the hill area of the region. This movement
took place in 1973 over five years and spread to many districts of Uttaranchal.
This movement was started to protest against the denial of permission to co-
operative society to fell ash trees for preparation of tool handles & against
permission given to private company for large-scale felling of trees for commercial
purposes.
They tied sacred threads around the trees & hugged the trees preventing axe
men of the private contractor from felling of trees. Finally succeeded in preventing
the private company from felling of trees in their region.
FAVORABLE EFFECTS OF THE MOVEMENT
(1) Uttar Pradesh Forest Department Corporation was formed for the conservation
of forests & for the welfare of the people of the hill areas of this region.
(2) The Contract Labor system for the exploitation of the forests of this region was
abolished by the Government.
(3) Co-operative sector has been established by the local people for the
conservation of the forests.
(4) The rate of deforestation in this region declined.
(5) People of this region got enlightened about importance of environment &
ecological balance.
(6) This movement created awareness in other areas about the importance of forest
& environment.
(II) SILENT VALLEY MOVEMENT
It is another important environmental movement against Silent Valley Project in
Palghat District in Kerala.
This movement of intellectuals was for protection of the bioreserves of the
Silent Valley, which was threatened by the Government’s plan to construct a dam
in the valley for the generation of hydro-electric power.
On the advice of the then Prime Minister, Government’s plan of constructing
hydro-electric project in the Silent Valley was shelved & the bioreserves of Silent
Valley was protected.

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 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

(III) BISHNOIS OF RAJASTHAN

• Bishnoi also known as Vishnoi is a hindu religious sect is a peoples of 29
rules i.e., (Meaning of BISH -20, & NOI - 9 as told by guru Jambeshwar (Spiritual
leader of Bishnois)
• Bishnois is a community in India living mostly in the states of Rajasthan,
Haryana, Punjab and Uttar Pradesh.
• Bishnoi population in Rajasthan is around 6,40,000 population for adapting
to the harsh conditions of Thar Desert.
• The Bishnoi 29 rules are divided into-
(A) Rules about protecting the animals & trees.
(B) Rules about social behavior.
(C) Rules about personal hygiene & health
(D) Rules about spiritual life.
• The famous bishnoi tribe story is the one of Amrita Devi.
• She was a young girl who sacrificed her life in order to save the Kheri trees
(State tree of Rajasthan & also famous Bishnoi Tree)
• When she saw that the soldiers sent from the Jodhpur court to cut the trees
down for their wood. She went and hugged a tree.
• The soldiers didn’t get intimidated by the girl’s gesture; as such they killed
her as they were cutting the tree she was hugging.
• 363 Bishnois loss their lives and it is from this story the bishnios are called
“tree huggers”
• The love the bishnoi community shown for nature has proven to ecologists
that sometimes human presence and intervention can benefit nature.
(F) ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS
MEANING OF ETHICS:- Ethics is a branch of philosophy. It deals with morals
and values and lays down the principles which help us to decide whether our
action is good or not.
MEANING OF ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS:- Environmental ethics is the ethics
that govern man’s relationship with environmental values. In other words,
environmental ethics refers to the issues, principles and guidelines relating to
human interactions with their environment.
SIGNIFICANCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS
• Environmental ethics inculcates a precious code in the individuals and the
society.

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• Environmental ethics requires the individuals to give up the human centric

thinking and adopt earth – centric thinking.
• It also emphasizes the principle that nature exists not for human beings
alone but for all the forms of life.
• It highlights the principle that resources on the earth are limited and they do
not belong only to people of current generation. So they should be used wisely and
conserved for the future generation.
ISSUES INVOLVED IN ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS
• Green house effect and the resulting global warming and climate change
• Acid rain
• Ozone layer depletion
• Degradation of environment
• Reckless exploitation of limited natural resources
• Causes effects of wild animals and plants
• Low environmental ethics to the people
POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS IN ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS
(A) The environmental ethics of people today are not appreciable. So,
environmental ethics should be inculcated in people, & they should be properly
guided on environmental ethics on sensitive environmental issues like
environmental degradation, depletion of natural resources, etc.
(B) Creation of safe environment & conservation of natural resources are possible,
only when environmental awareness is created among the people.
(C) Green, clean & safe environment can be maintained.
(D) Man must have love for nature & care for its conservation & restoration
through reforestation, afforestation, game sanctuaries, parks, etc.
(E) Human beings should not harm other living beings just for satisfying their
needs.
(F) Human beings should not control, manipulate, modify or interfere with the
normal functioning of the natural ecosystems for satisfying their needs.
(G) ROLE OF RELIGIOUS ETHICS ON ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION
The practical purpose of environmental ethics, they maintain, is to provide
moral grounds for social policies aimed at protecting the earth's environment and
remedying environmental degradation. One of the finest examples of traditional
practices in India based on religious faith which has made a profound contribution
to nature conservation has been the maintenance of certain patches of land or
forests as "sacred groves' dedicated to a deity or a village God, protected, and
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 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

worshiped. Basically, we found that nations whose inhabitants are less religious
tend to use more resources and produce more emissions; yet, they are also better
prepared to deal with resulting environmental challenges, because they are
wealthier. Further, the study looks into the role of religion in shaping human
behavior. The world's religions have made a contribution to environmental
conservation and sustainable development through faith-based non-governmental
organizations. The partnerships with faith groups might be valuable because these
groups can enhance public support for conservation and development. Faith-based
organizations play a significant role at the global, regional and local level in
addressing climate change, biodiversity loss and pollution. Respect for nature is
inherent in many religious faiths. Many Hindu gods and goddesses are shown to
use animals as mounts. Sacred groves or sacred forests preserved with reverence
have been part of Hindu and Buddhist culture.
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