Waves Mr Chambilo “pm”

Physics for
Ordinary Level
Book four

Mr. Chambilo “PM”

B.Sc.Ed (Physics & Mathematics) Udsm 2019

ISBN: 978 9976 59 648 5

Waves Mr Chambilo “pm”

Physics
for
Ordinary Level

ISBN: 978 9976 59 648 5

2
Waves Mr Chambilo “pm”

Chapter one

W a v e s
The SI – Unit is meter (m) and it is
Waves is a progressive disturbance represented by Greek letter lambda
propagated from a point in a medium on (λ)
space without the movement of point
 FREQUENCY ( )
themselves
 Waves involves transfer of energy
from one point to another.
 Example of waves includes light Is the number of crest or trough that
waves, sound waves, water waves passes in a given point per unit time.
etc.

TERMS USED IN WAVES The SI – unit is per second ( ) or

Hertz (Hz) and is represented by
 PERIOD. letter (f).
Is the time taken for the wave to
make one complete oscillation  WAVE VELOCITY
(cycle). Is the speed at which the waves
The SI – unit is second and it is move through a medium. It is
represented by letter (T) displacement of waves per unit time.
( ) ̅ (m/s)
Consider the diagram below.

 NODE
A node is a point along a standing wave where
( )
the wave has minimum amplitude. For instance,
in a vibrating guitar string, the ends of the string
 AMPLITUDE are nodes.
Is the maximum displacement of a
wave from an equilibrium position  ANTINODE
The SI – unit is meter (m) and it is Is the region of maximum amplitude between
represented by letter A two adjacent nodes in a standing wave.
 CREST AND TROUGH Antinode are divided into Crest and Trough
Crest is the positive antinode
CREST is the point of maximum
Trough is the negative antinode
positive displacement of the wave
from equilibrium position.
TROUGH is the point of maximum
negative displacement from the
equilibrium position.
 WAVELENGTH.
Is the distance between two
successive or adjacent crest or trough
Is the distance that the waves travels RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
in one complete oscillation (cycle). FREQUENCY, VELOCITY AND
WAVELENGTH.
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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

 Wavelength (λ) is the distance (b) Required frequency of the wave

travelled by the wave in one
complete cycle.
 Period (T) is the time taken by the But T is a periodic time, then from
wave to complete one cycle. the graph T = 0.2s
 Velocity of the wave is given by the
relation

(c) Wavelength of the wave.

But frequency f =

Example 2.
The sound waves travels with a speed of 340
𝟏 m/s in vacuum for 20 seconds. Determine
𝑽 𝝀 →𝑽 𝝀𝒇
𝑻 a) Frequency of the wave.
b) Wavelength of the wave.
This equation holds true for all types of
Solution
waves.

Example 1. (a)

Figure below shows a part of displacement –

time graph of wave travelling across water
at a speed of 20 m/s.
0.4

( )

0.2 0.4

0.1 0.3

0.4

Calculate

a) Amplitude of the wave. EXERCISE 1.1

b) Frequency of the wave.
c) Wavelength of the wave. 1. A wave of frequency 188Hz and period
5sec, what is the period if its frequency is
Solution
increased to 256Hz? (Ans. 4.7sec)
(a) The maximum displacement of the
graph is 0.4 m hence it is amplitude
of the wave.

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2. In the following diagram the waves move (vi) Calculate the wavelength of the sound pulse
from left to right and then stop. The motion when its frequency is 50 000 Hz.
of the waves lasts for 2 seconds (vii) Why is the speed of sound greater in water
than in air?

4. The diagram shows a transverse wave.

(a) What is the amplitude of the waves? (ans.

0.4m)
b) What is the wavelength of the waves? (ans.
(i) Name the distances labeled A and B.
2m)
(ii) 20 waves pass a fixed point every second.
c) So what is the frequency of the waves? What is the frequency of the wave?
(ans.1Hz)
(iii) Calculate the velocity of the wave if
d) What is the wave speed? (ans. 2 m/s ) distance A = 1.5 m.
(iv) Transverse waves can be polarized. Name a
3. (i) Describe, using diagrams, the difference type of wave that cannot be polarized.
between transverse waves and longitudinal
waves. 5. The diagram shows a waveform.
(ii) The speed of sound depends on the
medium through which the sound is travelling.
Explain how sound travels through a medium.
(iii) Describe an experiment to demonstrate
that sound requires a medium to travel.
(i) What is the name given to the distance X
(iv) A ship detects the seabed by reflecting a
and Y?
pulse of high frequency sound from the
(ii) What is meant by the frequency of a
seabed. The sound pulse is detected 0.4 s after
wave?
it was sent out and the speed of sound in water
is (iii)Explain the term natural frequency.

1500 m/s. (iv) If the natural frequency of a string is 250

Calculate the time taken for the pulse to reach Hz calculate the wavelength of the sound

the seabed. wave produced (speed of sound = 340 m s-1).

(v) Calculate the depth of water under the ship. (v) State the wave property on which the
loudness, the pitch, of a musical note depends.

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(vi) An opera singer, singing a high pitched

note, can shatter a glass. Explain why.
(vii) Describe a laboratory experiment to
demonstrate resonance

TYPES OF WAVES
MECHANICAL WAVES.
There are two mainly types of waves
Is a disturbance which require a material
 Electromagnetic waves.
medium to transfer energy.
 Mechanical waves.
Or
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES.
Is the disturbance which transported through
Is the disturbance propagated from electric
a medium due to particle to particle
and magnetic fields.
interaction.
OR

Is the disturbance which do not require  when a mechanical waves travel

material medium to transfer energy. through a medium the particle that

make up the medium are disturb from
 They can travel through vacuum. their rest or equilibrium positions
 The electric and magnetic field  Example of mechanical waves are
oscillates at right angle to each other
i. waves on a spring
and to the direction of propagation.
ii. water waves
 Example of electromagnetic waves are iii. sound waves
iv. Waves on stretched string (e.g. in
i. Visible light musical instruments
ii. Radio waves Mechanical waves divided into two types
iii. Infra-red radiation
(i) Transverse wave.
iv. Ultraviolet radiation
(ii) Longitudinal wave.
v. Gamma radiation
vi. X-rays TRANSVERSE WAVES.
 Electromagnetic waves propagate as
shown below Is a mechanical waves which makes a particles
of medium vibrate in a direction o perpendicular
to the direction of movement of wave.

OR

A transverse wave is the one that make the

particle of the medium to vibrate in a direction

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perpendicular to the direction of movement of DIFFERENCE BETWEEN

the wave. LONGTUDINAL AND TRANSVERSE
WAVE.

TRANSVERSE LONGTUDINAL
WAVES WAVES
The particle of the The particle of the
medium vibrate medium vibrate in
perpendicular to the the same direction in
direction in which the which the wave
waves advance advance.
 Water waves are an example of
transverse waves. The water particle
It consists of crest and it consists of
moves down and up while the wave troughs compression and
moves in horizontal direction. rarefaction
 That is why a boat on ocean moves up
and down while the waves move It can propagate only it can propagate in
towards the shore. in solid and at the all type of media
surface of liquids (solid, liquid and
LONGTUDINAL WAVES. gas)
Is a mechanical wave in which a particle There is no pressure The pressure and
propagate in a direction parallel to the direction variation density are
parallel to the direction of wave motion. maximum at
compression and
Longitudinal waves, also known as "I waves", minimum at
are waves in which the displacement of the rarefactions
medium is in the same direction as, or the
opposite direction to, the direction of travel of
the wave. Examples Sound wave.
BEHAVIOUR OF WAVES

WAVES ARE REFLECTED.

This takes place at the boundary of medium

through which it is travelling or at any point
where there is a change in wave velocity.
 Longitudinal waves have
When a wave encounter boundary for which
compression and rarefactions.
cannot pass, it will be reflected.
Compression; the particles are
packed closely together while they The reflection of wave depends on whether
spreads out in the rarefaction. Sound the end of string at boundary move or not. If
waves are example of longitudinal the end is fixed, the reflected wave is
wave. inverted

 Reflection involves a change in

direction of waves when they bounce off
a barrier. The reflection of waves can be
observed using a Ripple tank and
Stroboscope.

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Ripple tank is a shallow glass tank

of water used in schools and colleges
to demonstrate the basic properties
of waves

Straight waves in a ripple tank striking a straight APPLICATION OF REFLECTION OF

barrier observe the laws of reflection WAVES
 Stroboscope is an instrument for The following are some application of
studying periodic motion or determining reflection of waves
speeds of rotation by shining a
1. Reflection of light used in design of
momentary bright light at intervals so mirror
that a moving object appears stationary 2. Reflection of waves is used in
measuring distances.
3. Reflection of waves used in
designing the communication
equipment like (SONAR)

WAVES ARE REFRACTED

REFRACTION
Refraction of waves involves a change
in the direction of waves as they pass
from one medium to another. When
waves are refracted there is change in
the velocity of wave between the two
media and hence changes in the
wavelength of the waves

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The direction of the incident and the refracted Interference is a phenomenon in which two
wave fronts has simple relationship to the speed waves superpose to form a resultant wave of
of wave in two media. greater or lower amplitude
Suppose the glass plate placed at an angle. The
waves would be refracted and it can be shown This interference of waves is described as
that the water waves obey Snell’s la “ The ratio addition or superposition of two or more
of sin I and sin r is constant and equal to waves.
refractive index ( )
Principle of superposition of waves states
The relation between the direction of the wave
in two media is given by that

“The resultant displacement at any point is

equal to the sum of the displacements of
different waves at the point”
but the refractive index of the material is the
ratio of velocities of the waves such that There are two types of Interference
Constructive interference
 This occur when two waves of nearly
equal frequency and wavelength which
are also in phase and travel in the same
direction overlap
 Constructive interference gives a
resultant wave of large amplitude.
APPLICATIONS OF REFRACTION OF
WAVES

(i) Is used in optical instruments

which focus on light.
(ii) Used in the dispersion of light
waves.
(iii) Used to determine the eye’s
Destructive interference
refractive error.  This occur when two waves of nearly
equal frequency and wavelength which
WAVES ARE INTERFERED are out of phase and travel in the same
direction overlap
(INTERFERANCE)
 Constructive interference gives a
Interference is the phenomenon which resultant wave of amplitude equal to
occurs when two waves that are travelling zero.

along the same medium meet.

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Hence it cannot pass through a slit less than

its wavelength. That’s why it show little or
hardly diffraction with narrow slit.

APPLICATION OF INTERFERENCE

(i) Used in creating holograms.

Hologram is a photograph of an
interference pattern which is able APPLICATION OF DIFFRACTION OF
to produce a three-dimensional WAVES.
image when suitably illuminated.
(i) It is used in determining the
(ii) Destructive interference is used
crystal structure of materials.
in noise reduction systems such
(ii) Used in measuring the coefficient
as earphone
of thermal expansion, crystalline
WAVES ARE DIFFRACTED size and thickness of thin film.
(DIFFRACTION) (iii) Used in determining the types
and phases present in a
DIFFRACTION refers to the phenomenon specimens where the spacing of
which occurs when a wave encounters an obstacles is between 1 an 3nm
obstacle.

Diffraction involves a change in direction of

waves as they pass through an opening (slit) EXERCISE 1.2
or around a barrier in their path.
1. Explain three applications of the
 Diffraction of sound wave is affected following wave properties
mostly by the change in temperature. (i) Interference.
 Suppose the speed of sound wave at
(ii) reflection.
in air at is 340 m/s and if the
(iii) Refraction.
frequency is 1000Hz then the
wavelength can be calculated as (iv) Diffraction

2. (i) What is meant by (i) diffraction, (ii)

interference, of a wave?
(ii) In an experiment, a signal generator was
connected to two loudspeakers, as shown in
the diagram. Both speakers are emitting a
note of the same frequency and same
Therefore this wave has large wavelength amplitude.
compared to that of Light waves of (iii)A person walks along the line XY.
Describe what the person hears.

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(iv) What does this experiment demonstrate  The sound with frequencies below 20Hz
about the nature of sound? are said to be ultrasonic and that above
(v) What is meant by the amplitude of a
20000Hz are said to be ultrasonic
wave?
 Animals like dogs, cats, bats, and
dolphins detect ultrasonic sound with
frequencies as high as 100 000Hz

DETERMINING THE SPEED OF SOUND

BY USING ECHOES.
Suppose a person stands 500m from the foot of
the tall wall claps his hands and heard an echo
SOUND WAVES 1.5sec later. Calculate the velocity of sound.
Sound is the longitudinal mechanical waves that The total distance travelled is ( )
is produced by a vibrating objects such as tuning
and time taken to travel the distance is
fork. 1.5sec
 Sound waves are produced whenever air Then
is set into vibration by an oscillating
body such as stretched string, whistle,
stretched membrane, turning fork or
vocal cords of human being.
m/s
 Sound waves like all other mechanical
waves need a medium for their
THE HUMAN EAR
transmission, they cannot travel in
The human ear responds to vibrations in the air
vacuum.
caused by the vibrating bodies. Vibrating bodies
SOURCES OF SOUND WAVES
can make vibrations ranging from very low
Sound waves are almost produced by everything
frequencies to very high frequencies.
ranging from people, animals, plants and
The range the human ear can respond to are
machines.
called Audible range and is from 20Hz to
Musical instruments like guitars, violins, piano
20,000Hz. Judging by their reactions, animals
drum, marimba etc are made such that they can
like rats can hear frequencies below 20Hz and
produce a specific type of sounds
cats hear above 20,000Hz.
 The range of frequency which can be
Frequencies above audible range are
detected by human ear is called
ULTRASONIC while those below audible range
audibility range.
are called INFRASOUND.
 The average human ear can detect sound
of frequency ranging from 20Hz to MECHANISM OF HUMAN EAR.
20000Hz. Air vibrations impinging on the Pinna or Ear
lobe are directed through the Auditory canal to
the Ear drum. The vibrations of ear drum are
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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

taken up by the three auditory ossicles called An obstacle must be at least 17m away for a
Hammer, Anvil and Stirrup which are found distinct echo to be heard.
in the middle ear. The icicles cause the fluid in REVERBERATION; Is the repeating echo of
the cochlea(Inner ear) to oscillate. The fibres in sound heard in an enclosed space.
the cochlea are connected by nerves to the  When a sound is produced in an
Auditory nerve. When fluid oscillate the fibres enclosed space multiple reflection will
with different length also oscillate and each fibre occur..
can respond to different frequencies only.  Reverberation produced due to reflected
The message from the fibres are collected in sound reaches the ear is less than 0.1
form of electrical pulse and interpreted by brain. seconds
If some fibres are removed then a person will
become deaf to frequencies whose fibres are MUSICAL SOUND
removed. music is the organized sound which has some
patterns.
 A musical sound is that in which the
vibrations of the sounding body are
periodic, follow each other regularly and
rapidly, so as to produce a pleasing
effect on the ear without any sudden
change in loudness.
 Noise is an abrupt sound of a complex
ECHO AND REVERBERATION
character with an irregular period and
ECHO; is the reflected sound which is heard
amplitude, originating from a source in
distinctly from original sound.
non-periodic motion. The horn of a
 Echo occurs when the reflected sound
motor car, the sound of a hammer
reaches the ear more than 0.1 second
striking an anvil, the report of a gun, the
after the original sound heard.
sound from a motorbike or a flying
 Hence the sound travel to the obstacle
aeroplane and bursting of crackers are
and then return the same distance (2d).
examples of noise. Noises produce a
 At 25 the speed of sound in air is
jarring effect on the ear.
about 340 m/s.
Noise is considered as an undesired sound
Since the distance d , then the
whose effect is to disturb the normal work, sleep
minimum distance for an echo to occur is given
or peace of mind of human beings. Sometimes,
by
it produces strain, irritation and headache.

PROPERTIES OF MUSICAL SOUNDS

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properties of musical sound are sometimes different musical instruments in an

called the parameters of musical sound. These orchestra.
are  The quality depends primarily on the
 Loudness waveform of the sound. But most bodies
 Pitch or frequency vibrate in a very complex manner.
 Timbre or quality Besides the fundamental frequency f,
 Intensity. they consist of additional frequencies of
LOUDNESS 2f, 3f, 4f, etc. These additional tones are
Is the state of clear audibility. It depends on the called overtones or harmonics
frequency of sound and sensitivity of one ear.
The loudness increase on increasing the INTENSITY
 The Intensity of waves is defined as the
amplitude of the wave.
power delivered per unit area.SI-unit is
Is the intensity of sound as perceived by human
W/m2. It’s also defined as power density
ear.
PITCH OR FREQUENCY
STATIONARY WAVES
It is defined as that characteristic of sound by
Stationary waves occurs when two waves
which the ear assigns it a place on a musical
which are travelling in opposite directions
scale. When a stretched string is plucked, a
having the same speed, wavelength and
sound of a certain pitch sensation is produced.
frequency are superposed.
 Pitch is the property of sound according
 The travelling waves must have
to which sounds can be ordered on a
approximately the same amplitude.
scale from the high to low. Pitch is
Suppose two transverse waves with equal
determined by the frequency of the
amplitude, wavelength and speed travelling
sound wave.
in opposite direction in a string as shown
 The higher the frequency the higher the
below.
pitch.

QUALITY(TIMBRE)
 It is that characteristic of a musical
sound which enables us to distinguish
between the sounds produced by two
different musical instruments or two
different persons although their pitch
 If a crest of wave A combine with a
and loudness may be same. It is because
trough of wave B, the two amplitude
of this characteristic that we are able to
cancel out and the net displacement of
recognize the voice of a known person
the medium particles will be zero.
over the telephone or to distinguish
between the sounds produced by

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FUNDAMENTAL FREQUENCY,
HARMONICS AND OVERTONE. 𝒗
𝒇𝒐
𝟐𝐋
Fundamental frequency is the lowest
frequency which a vibrating string or pipe This is the equation of finding fundamental
can produce. frequency for the first harmonic.
 The corresponding note is called  For the first overtone (second harmonic)
fundamental note.
 The note whose frequency is times is
called harmonic.
 The first harmonic is called fundamental
note and the corresponding frequency is
called fundamental frequency.
The relation between fundamental frequency,
length of the string, velocity and the
wavelength of the string is shown below
Consider the string to be fixed between two
points

𝒗
𝒇𝟏
𝐋

 For second overtone (third harmonic)

Let be a fundamental frequency and be

corresponding wavelength

( )

𝟑𝒗
𝒇𝟐
𝟐𝑳

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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

The general formula for finding frequency for a string is directly proportional to
any harmonic is given by the relation the square root of the length L.

𝒏𝒗 √
𝒇𝒏
𝟐𝐋 (iii) Mass of the string
The velocity produced is inversely
Where is the number of harmonic
proportional to the square root of the
mass of the string.

Hence the velocity of the vibrating string

depends on the velocity, length of the string and
SONOMETER the mass of the string
Sonometer is an instrument used to study Combining the equation
properties of waves for stationary waves.
√
 It is made up of a wire or string fixed on
top of box.
 If the mid-point of the wire is plucked,
√
the middle will form an antinode while
the two fixed ends will have node.

Factors affecting the frequency of the √

vibrating string in a sonometer

(i) Velocity
The experiment have shown that the √
velocity of the wave produced from
5………………………
a string is directly proportional to
𝑓 √
the square root of the tension T of 𝐿
the string.
The constant K is useless in solving problems
√
Since the frequency of the vibrating string is
(ii) Length of string
proportional to mass per unit length
The experiment have shown that the
velocity of the wave produced from

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is called linear mass density ( )

From equation 5

√
( )

𝑻
𝒇 √ Example 2
𝝁
Given that the velocity of the sound wave
This is very usefully equation in solving emitted from a string is 50m/s the Length of the
problem. string is 40cm and the mass of the string is
Example 1. 0.0004kg calculate the tension of the string.
A string has a length of 75cm and a mass 0f Solution
8.2g. The tension in the string is 18N. Calculate Information given
(i) Velocity of the sound wave in Velocity of the wave = 50 m/s
the string. Length of the string = 40cm =0.4m
(ii) Frequencies of the 1st and 3rd Mass of the string = 0.0004kg
harmonics Required tension (T)
Information given
√
Length of the string = 75cm
Mass of string = 8.2g
Tension in the string =18N
kg/m
√
√

kg/m

√ √

m/s Example 3.
(iii) the frequencies for 1st and 3rd A string has a length of 33 cm and mass of 1.42
harmonics g. it is pulled with a tension of 72 N. calculate
the frequency of first and second harmonics
Solution
Information given
Length of the string = 33 cm = 0.33 m
Mass of the string = 1.42 g = 0.00142 kg

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Tension in the string = 72 N

Required frequencies (i) The frequency of the wire is
inversely proportional to length

(ii) The unknown frequency

Where and are first and second

frequencies and and are
respective length.
NB: Suppose that a frequency a wave produced
Example 4
from a string or wire is varied with tension
A stretched wire vibrates at a fundamental
(length and the linear density of the string or
frequency of 220 Hz. Its length changed until it
wire are kept constant).
vibrates at 440 Hz without changing the tension.
Its length changed again so that it now vibrates
in unison with a wire of unknown frequency. If
√
the two lengths are 90 cm and 70.7 cm
respectively. Determine;
(i) The original length of the wire.
(ii) The unknown frequency. √

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( ) The frequency obtained from a plucked string is

400Hz when the tension is 2 N. Calculate;
𝑇 a) The frequency when the tension is
𝑓𝑜 √
𝐿 𝜇 increased to 8N
b) The tension needs to produce a note
( ) of frequency 600HZ.
Information given
√
Frequency (f1) = 400 Hz
Tension (T1) =2 N
√
Require frequency (f2) when tension (T2) =
( ) 8N
Tension (T2) when frequency is 600
√
Hz
(a) The frequency when tension is 8N
√

√ √

𝑛 𝑇
𝑓𝑛 √ √ √
𝐿 𝜇
√
√

When two experiment is conducted to show the (√

relation between frequency and tension; then
√ √

√
(b) Tension when frequency is 600 Hz
√
√
√ √
√
√
√
√ √
𝑓 𝑓 √
√𝑇 √𝑇

This is usefully equation for the problems √

involving the relation between Tension and ( )

frequency.
Example 5.

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EXERCISE 1.3 i) Fundamental note (ans. 1.2m,

1. The vibrating length of a stretched wire is 350 Hz)
changed at constant tension until the wire ii) Second overtone (ans. 0.4 m;
oscillates in unison with a tuning fork of 1050 Hz)
frequency 320 Hz. The length of the wire is iii) Fifth overtone (ans. 0.2 m;
again changed until it oscillates in unison with a 2100 Hz)
fork of unknown frequency. If the two lengths 7. A string is fixed two ends 50cm a part. The
are 90 cm and 65.5 cm, respectively. Determine velocity of a wave in a string is 600m/s.
the unknown frequency (ans. 440Hz ) Calculate;
2. A sonometer wire of length 50cm vibrate with 1. The first five over tone
frequency 384Hz. Calculate the length of the 2. The tenth five overtones
sonometer wire so that it vibrates with frequency 8. Given that the refractive index of glass is
of 512Hz. (ans. 37.5 cm) 1.52. The wavelength of the
3. A sonometer wire of length 40cm between radio waves in vacuum is 1.5 x 10 3 m .
two bridges produces a note of frequency 512Hz Calculate the wavelength of the radio waves in
when plucked at midpoint. Calculate the length glass. (ans. 986.8 m)
of the wire that would produce a note of
9. A string of length 3m has its two ends fixed.
frequency 256Hz with the some tension. (ans.
Find;
80 cm )
a) Wavelength of the fundamental
4. Given that the frequency obtained from a
b) Wavelength of third harmonic
plucked string is 800Hz when the tension is 8N.
c) If the velocity of sound is 340m/s.
Calculate;
calculate the fundamental frequency
a) The frequency when the tension is
doubled (ans.1131.2Hz) d) Frequency of fourth harmonic

b) The tension required when the 10. Example. A stretched string adjusted to a
frequency is halved. length of 48m produce the same note when
(ans. 1.41N) plucked as a fork of 256Hz. If the wire is then
5. Under constant tension the note produced by adjusted to 32m and tension kept constant. What
a plucked string is 300Hz when the will be the frequency of the fork which would be
length 0.9m; in time with the wire? (Ans 384Hz)
a) At what length is the frequency 200Hz? 11. The fundamental frequency of the certain
(ans. 1.35 m) string is 400Hz. Find in which mode of vibration
b) What frequency is produce at 0.3m ( the string is if it emits waves of frequency
ans. 90 Hz ) 1600Hz. Hence find the frequency of 6th
6. A string fixed between two supports that are overtone.
60cm a part. The speed of a transverse wave in a
string is 420m /s. Calculate the wavelength and 12. A distance between two successive crests of
the frequency for; water in ripple tank experiment is 3.2cm and

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their speed is 26cm/s. Determine the  The responding system is therefore said
wavelength, frequency and period of the ripples. to be in resonance with driving
frequency.
13. A drum at station A is connected to Station Resonance is the phenomena where by the
B with a wire. A man at A beat the drum while response of the system that a
the other man at B place his ear at the wire and set into forced vibration when the driving
hear two sounds separated by the time interval frequency is equal to the natural frequency of
of 0.5sec. If the velocity of the sound in air is the responding system.
340m/s and that in string/wire is 5280m/s. How NB:
far apart are the two men? A resonance is said to occur when a body or
system a set into vibration or oscillation at its
14. A vibrating string has tension of 400N and own natural frequency as a result of impulses
produces a note of 200Hz. If the length is received from another system which is
unaltered and the tension increased to 160N.
vibration at the same frequency
What will be the frequency?

Example
 A group of troupes was marching
FORCED VIBRATION AND RESONANCE towards bridge the bridge collapsed
Forced vibrations are vibration that occurs in a even before it s approached.
system as a result of impulses received from  If a very loud sound is produced near
another system vibrating nearby. the mouth of the glass bottle, the glass is
 When a turning fork is sounded and likely to break.
placed on a bench or hollow box, the  The buildings are likely to collapse
sound produced is quite loud all over the following the occurrences of the
room earthquake
 It is because the bench or box acts like
an extended source (or many point
sources) which are set into forced RESONANCE IN A CLOSED PIPE
vibrations by the vibrating fork. When a turning fork is sounded at the top of a
 The response of the system that is sent
tube with one end open and the other closed, the
into forced vibration is best when the
air in the tube vibrate freely (resonates) at a
driving frequency is equal to the
certain length of a tube.
natural frequency of the responding The resonance is observed as a loud sound
system. produced in the tube when the proper length
 In this case the driving frequency of obtained.
the system is equal to natural frequency
of the responding system.  The first resonance occurs when air
vibrates at its fundamental note or first
harmonic.

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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

The vibration at the open end of the pipe extend

into free air, the actual position of the associated
displacement antinode is a short distance is
called end collection ( )

The end correction C of a pipe is that small

𝟑
length of a stationary wave which protrudes 𝒍𝟐 𝒄 𝝀
𝟒
just outside the open end of a pipe instrument
where the air inside it is set into vibration.
Therefore the effective length for closed pipe is
given by ( )

( )
𝟏
𝒍𝟏 𝒄 𝝀
𝟒

If we need to show the relation with speed of

sound and frequency then
( )
𝟒
𝒗 (𝒍 𝒄)𝒇
𝟑 𝟐

 Third harmonic (second overtone)

When the length of the pipe is increased
𝒗 𝟒(𝒍𝟏 𝒄)𝒇
again result to the third resonance.

 The second harmonic (first overtone)

This is produced when the length of the
pipe increased to L2.

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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

( )

( )

( )
Velocity of sound ⁄
Example 2.

Example 1. A tuning fork of frequency 512 is sounded at the

mouth of the tube closed at one end with
A tuning fork of frequency 440 Hz is sounded at movable piston. It is found that resonance occurs
the mouth of a closed tube of adjustable length. when the column of air is 18 cm long and again
Resonance is first noted when the tube is 20 cm when the column is at 51 cm long. Calculate the
long, and next when the tube length increased to velocity of sound.
60 cm. use this information to the speed of the
sound in air at this length.

The information given.

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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

Example 3. b) The first overtone

In a closed pipe, the first resonance is at 23 cm

and second at 73 cm. determines the wavelength
of the sound and the end collection of the pipe.

( )

( )

( )
( )

( )

( )
Example 5.
The length of a closed pipe is 160mm. calculate
the wavelength and the frequency of;

( ) i) The first overtone.

ii) The third harmonic
Given that the speed of waves in air is
Example 4. A pipe closed at one and has a 320m/s
length of 10 cm. If the velocity of sound in air of
the pipe is 340m/s. Calculate the frequency of; ()
(a) The fundamental

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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

sound is 346m/s. Hence determine the

fundamental frequency of the pipe if it is closed
at one end.

( )
04. Determine the frequency of the lowest three
harmonics at which a closed-end air column
would sound out at 25 degrees Celsius (346m/s)
if its length is 135 cm
(iii) Frequency and wavelength for third
overtone RESONANCE IN OPEN PIPE
Open pipe have both open ends. An open pipe
has antinodes on both ends.
 The fundamental frequency for first
harmonic will be

( )

( )

(if has no end collection)

EXERCISE 1.4.
01. What is the wavelength and frequency of the ( )
( )
fundamental wave produced by an organ pipe
closed at one end if its length is 2m? velocity of  Fundamental frequency for second
sound is 340m/s. (Ans. 42.5 Hz) harmonic
02. A flute with both ends open has a ( )
fundamental frequency of 261.6Hz. Find
( )
a) The frequency of the fourth harmonic

b) If the velocity of sound in a flute is ( )

343m/s. Find the wavelength of this
sound and hence determine the shortest length ( )

of the air column in the flute.

03 An organ pipe has a length of 2.45 m and is
( )
open at both ends. Determine the fundamental
frequency of the pipe if the temperature in the ( )
room is 25 degrees Celsius and the velocity of

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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

( ) variable length. When the length is

increased from zero, a loud sound occurs at
( ) a length of 12 cm and again at 37 cm from
( )
Example 1. the mouth of the tube. If the velocity of

A tuning fork of frequency 250 Hz is used to sound is 342 m/s. determine frequency.

produce resonance in an open pipe. Given that (ans. 684Hz)

the velocity of sound in air is 350 m/s, find the

BEAT FREQUENCY
length of the tube which give
Beat frequency is a regular rise or fall of sound
(i) The first resonance
waves which have nearly equal frequencies. The
(ii) The 3rd resonance.
beat frequency or the number of beats is given as
the difference between two frequencies of sound

Example 1.
()
A 256 Hz tuning fork produces sound at the
same time with a 249 Hz fork. What is the best
beat frequency.

( )

Example 2.
EXERCISE 1.5 Two sounds are emitted at the same time with
1. On a cold day Mathews blows a toy flute frequencies 512Hz and 518Hz. Calculate the
causing resonating in an open and air beat frequency
column. The speed of sound through the air
column is 336m/s. The length of the air
sound is 300m. Calculate the frequency of
the 1 st, 2 nd , 3 rd , 4 th , harmonics. (Ans.
1120Hz, 1680Hz, 2240Hz, 2800Hz)
2. A flute is played with first harmonic of Example 3.
196Hz. The length of the air column is Given that the beat frequency is 4Hz. One of the
89.2cm. Find the speed of the wave sound waves has a frequency of 20Hz. Calculate
resonating in the flute (ans. 350 m/s) the possible values of the frequencies of the
3. A tuning fork of a certain frequency is other sound wave.
sounded at the open end of a glass tube of

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NB:
 Lightning also produce radio waves.
That is why radio programmers crackle
when there is a thunderstorm. The radio
The frequency of other sound is 16Hz waves have the longest wavelength .
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM  Radio waves are detected using
The electromagnetic spectrum is a continuous designed antenna
band of all electromagnetic waves arranged in
order increasing or decreasing frequencies or Properties of electromagnetic spectrum
wavelength change All forms of electromagnetic radiation have the
 They are produced when electrically following properties;
charged particles oscillate or change 1. They are all transverse waves traveling in free
energy. space at m/s.
 In vacuum electromagnetic waves 2. They can be refracted , diffracted and exhibit
propagate at the speed of light. the phenomena if
 The electromagnetic spectrum includes interference.
wavelength such as; 3. They do not need material media for travel ,
1. Visible light they can even pass
2. Infrared radiations through vacuum.
3. Radio waves 4. They carry no electric charge.
4. Ultraviolet radiations 5. They obey wave equation
5. X – rays 6. They transfer energy from a source to a
6. Gamma rays receiver in the form of
7. Microwaves oscillating electric and magnetic field
NB All the transverse waves traveling at the
speed of m/s and can travel through ULTRA VIOLET RADIATIONS (U V)

vacuum are the members of the electromagnetic ● Ultra violet radiations are just beyond the

spectrum. These waves are characterized by violet of the visible

different frequency and wavelength. spectrum. They have longer wavelength than
those of x-rays. UV
radiations provide vitamin D from the sun.
Excessive UV radiation can be harmful to the
eyes and skin (recall albino). They are also used
to detect forged bank notes .
 Detection
RADIO WAVES
They are detected by using photographic
Radio waves are produced by electrical
fils and fluorescent materials
oscillations in the circuit. They are used for
communication purposes.

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APPLICATION OF ULTRAVIOLET.  Source

1. Stimulate vitamin D in human skin They are produced by electron
which is essential in prevention of transitions within an atom.
cancer and ricket.  Detection
2. Used in treatment of skin condition such They are detected using the eye’s
as psoriasis photographic films and photocell.
3. Used in banks to detect forged EXERCISE 1.6
documents and fake currencies.
1. Explain why it is not advisable for soldier to
match across a bridge in rhythm?
INFRARED SPECTRUM
2. About 50% of the radiation emmited by the
● Infrared radiation is a band of radiations
sun is visible light. Within this visible light,
characterized by warmth. These heat radiations
the wavelength that the sun emits most of is
are produced from hot bodies such as, electric
approximately m. what is the
fires. The infrared radiations can be detected by
frequency of the light.
thermophile and thermometer . All bodies
3. How long does it take for a radio signal sent
emit infrared radiations.
from the earth to reach the moon? The
distance from the earth to the moon is
 Source
m
Infrared radiation is produced by the
4. Matter expands when heated and contract
vibration of atoms and molecules due to
when cooled. Explain why a musician must
their thermal energy. (all hot bodies
re-tune a stringed instrument if its
emits infrared radiation).
temperature changed?
 Detection
5. A string A is 2 m long and has a linear mass
They are detected by the devices such as
density 9 g/cm . string B has a linear mass
black bulb thermometer, photographic
density of 18 g/cm. If the tension in both in
film, thermistors and phototransistor.
both string is the same, how long must string
B be for it to be at resonance with string A?.
APPLICATION OF INFRARED RADIATION
1. Used to cook food in conventional oven.
2. Used in remote control, night vision
REVIEW EXERCISE
device, telecommunication and security
system  Speed of sound in air
=340m/s at 15◦C
 Refractive index of glass=1.5
VISIBLE SPECTRUM
● Visible spectrum is a narrow band of radiation 01 (a) What are the factors affecting the velocity
of sound waves in air?
of wavelength from pad to violet. The visible
spectrum can be detected by human eye, light (b) While the tension of a vibrating string
dependent resistor (LDR) such as photoelectric was kept constant, its length was varied
cell (solar cell and solar panels) in order to tune the string to a series of

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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

tuning forks. The results obtained were 04. A long tube open at both ends is immersed
as follows: in water with one end just projected from
the water .A loud speaker
producing a note of 512Hz is held above
Frequency of 256 288 320 384 512 the mouth of the tube. If the tube and speaker
fork(Hz) are gradually raised, find the length of the air
Length of 78.1 69.5 62.5 52.1 39.1 column in the tube
string (cm) (a) When resonance first occurs and
(i) By the appropriate use of the (b)When the next occurs. Ignore the
above readings, obtain a straight end correction in your calculations.
line graph of frequency(Hz) versus 05 .A stretched string is in unison with a tuning
length(cm). fork of frequency 384Hz.If the tension in the
(ii) Use the graph in b (i)to determine string is increased by 2% ,what is the
the relationship between the frequency of the of the beats heard when
frequency of vibrations and length of the fork and the string are now sounded
the stretched string. together?
06 .(a) What is the speed of light in glass if
(iii). Determine the frequency of an unmarked
travels at 3x108m/s in a vacuum ?
fork which was in tune with
(b)If the light in (a) above has a wavelength
41.7cm of the string.
of 6.0x10-7m in vacuum enters the glass .What

02. (a) What is overtone? is its wavelength?

07 .(a)A ship using an echo –sounding device
(b) If the shortest length of the tube for receives an echo from a wreck 0.8sec
resonance is 0.12m and the next resonant after the second is transmitted .If the
length is 0.37m .What is the frequency of velocity of sound in sea water is 1500m/s ,what
vibrations? is depth of the wreck?

03. (a) Describe with the aid of diagram what (b) Two boys at 200m apart on one side of a

happens when plane waves are high vertical cliff at the same perpendicular

incident on the gap between two distance from it. When one fires a gun, the

obstacles as in a ripple tank if other hears the sound 0.6s after the flash
and the second sound 0.25s after the first
(i) The gap is wide sound .Calculate
(ii) The gap is narrow (i) The velocity of sound in air.
(b) A student standing between two vertical (ii) The perpendicular distance of
cliffs and 480m from the nearest cliff, shouted. the boys from the cliff.
She heard the first echo after 3s, and the second 08. A pipe closed at one end has a length of
echo 2s latter. Use this information to calculate 10cm.calculate the frequency of:
(i) The velocity of sound in air (a) The fundamental
(ii) The distance between the cliffs.
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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

(b) The first overtone (ii) Resonance

(c) Give reason why the frequency (iii) Reverberation time
of the fundamental may alter (iv)Audibility range
during the day. (v) Infrasonic sound
09. The shortest length of the air column in (vi)Ultrasonic sound
resonance tube with one end open which (vii)Loudness
resonates to a note of frequency 500Hz is found (viii) Pitch
to be 160mm. (ix)Timbre
(a)What is the wavelength of this (x) Music
sound in air? (b) Guitars have strings of varying thickness
(b)What is the shortest length of the .Which of the strings (thickest or thinnest)
column of air which resonates in similar produces the highest frequency of musical
conditions to a note of frequency 800Hz? notes? Explain your answer.
(c)What assumption made in your 12. A plucked string of length 30cm has a
calculation? Explain in brief. mass per unit length of 0.5Kg/m .If the tension
10. Explain why in the string is equal to 40N .Find
(a)Strings of different thickness are (a)The fundamental
used on a stringed instrument such as a violin. frequency
(b)Notes of the same pitch played (b)The first overtone
on a violin and flute sound different. frequency
(c)The lowest pitched note played (c)The second overtone
on a flute is lower than that played by on a frequency
piccolo. ANSWERS: 13. The results obtained by tuning a string of a
(a)Since frequency depends on the varies lengths using different of varies lengths
thickness (mass per unit length), so varying the using forks was such that when frequency of
thickness of the string enables the violinist to 512Hz was tuned the length was 156.2cm .What
obtain a greater range of pitch. was the frequency when the length was 139cm.
(b)Because, Overtones of string 14.If the shortest length of the tube for
instruments are different from those of a wind resonance is 0.14m and the next resonance
instruments which determine the quality of a length is 0.42m .What is the frequency of
note. vibration?
(c)Reason, The length of the pipe 15. When tuning fork of 512Hz is sounded at
producing the lowest note is greater on a flute the top of the measuring cylinder which contains
than the piccolo, since frequency is inversely water. The first resonance are observed when the
proportional to the length, so a flute will have length of the air column .If the distance from the
low frequency or pitch. mouth to the level of water is 50cm and the
11.(a)What is meant by second resonance is observed when the air
(i) Fundamental frequency

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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

column is 80cm.Using these observations , wire and hears two sounds , separate by a time
calculate the velocity of water in air. interval of 0.5seconds .If the velocity of sound
16.An old woman sitting in a gorge between two in air is 330m/s and in the wire string is 5280m/s
large cliffs gives a short sharp sound. She hears how far apart are the two men?
two echoes ,the first after 1 second and the next 22. (a)(i)List down four main parts of a ripple
after 1.5seconds .What is the distance between tank.
the two cliffs? (ii) What role does a stroboscope play in
17.A guitar wire fixed between two supports a ripple tank experiment?
60cm a part produced wave of frequency 500Hz (b) (i) Explain why there are four strings of
calculate :(a) The frequency of a wave when the different thickness in a violin?
length of the guitar wire is reduced to quarter? (ii) What does a violinist do to change the
(b) The length of the guitar wire note emitted by a particular string?
when the frequency of the wave produced is (c) Briefly explain how resonance tube
2000Hz. works.
18.T he frequency obtained from a plucked (d) Calculate the frequency of vibration in a
string is 800Hz when the tension is 8N resonance tube of shortest length of 0.22m when
.Calculate the frequency when the tension is the next resonance length is 0.47m.
doubled.
19.(a)A certain wave has time period of
0.04second and travels at 30 x107m/s. Find its
wavelength.
(b)The wavelength of signals from a radio
transmitter is 1500m and the frequency is 200
KHz. What is speed of the wave?
20. (a)Explain ,why Sound waves heard clearly
in hall with many people.
(b) A wheel has 50 spokes and rotates at
8rev/sec.
(i)Calculate the frequency of the
note obtained by holding a card slightly against
the spokes as they rotate. If a tuning fork of
frequency 384Hz was set to vibrate near the
card.
(ii)What beat frequency would be
obtained?
21. A drum at station A is connected to a wire
string at station B. A man at A beats the drum
while another person at B places his ears at the

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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

DIRECTION OF CURRENT AND

MAGNETIC FIELD ALONG A
CONDUCTOR

Magnetic field is the region around the magnet

in which a electromagnetic force is experienced.

 When a potential difference is applied

along the conductor carrying current,
magnetic field in a conductor move in
the same direction with the direction of
current.
 The direction of magnetic field along
the conductor carrying current is
governed by using two rules;
 Right hand grip rule
 Maxwell’s right hand
screw rule.

Right hand Grip rule.

This rule is applied to a conductor or solenoid

carrying an electric current. The rule explain the
direction of current and direction of magnetic
field. For conductor the rule state that

Chapter 2

Electromagnetism is the effect produced by the

interaction of an electric current with magnetic “Imagine the wire currying current is gripped
field. by the right hand with the thumb pointing in
the direction of convectional current (from
Electromagnetism deals with the study of
relationship between magnetism and electric positive to negative), the fingers will curl

current. This is the group of phenomena around the wire pointing in the direction of

associated with magnetic fields. magnetic field”

 The interaction results a force causing a Or

conductor carrying the current to move.

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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

“Wrapping right hand around a

conductor your fingers point the
direction of magnetic and the thumb
point direction of current”

FORCE ON THE CURRENT CARRYING

CONDUCTOR

The direction of force on the current – carrying

For solenoid the right hand grip rule state that conductor in a magnetic field can be determined
using Fleming’s left – hand rule
“Wrapping right hand around a solenoid
Fleming’s Left Hand Rule
your fingers point the direction of current It describe the direction of force produced by
and the thumb point direction of magnetic conductor carrying current, which state that
north pole” “The right hand is held with the thumb,
first finger and second finger of left hand
mutually perpendicular to each, The
Thumb represents the direction of
force/Motion of the conductor, The First
finger represents the direction of the
magnetic Field and the Second finger
represents the direction of the Current

 Solenoid is usually along a coil

containing a large number of close turns
 The magnetic field produced by a
current carrying solenoid is the same as
that produced by the bar magnet.

Maxwell’s right hand screw rule

“When screw rotate advanced it moves in

the direction of current and rotate in the The direction of the magnetic field is
perpendicular to the direction of current.
direction of magnetic field”

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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

 The direction of current of the field is up Electromagnetic Induction

and down while the direction of the Electromagnetic induction is the production of
current is in the orientation of the free electromotive force whenever there is change in
rod horizontal. the magnetic flux (lines) linking a conductor
Or
FORCE DUE TO TWO PARALLEL
Electromagnetic induction is the production of
CONDUCTOR CARRYING CURRENT.
an electromotive force across a conductor when
 When the current are flowing in it is exposed to a varying magnetic field.
opposite direction, the conductors repel
 The e.m.f produced is called induced
each other.
emf and the resulting current induced
 When the currents are in opposite
current
directions, the magnetic fields between
 The motion of the wire on the
the conductors add up hence they cancel
galvanometer relative to the direction of
out
conductor affect the current induced
 The field between them is stronger than
on the outside. See the illustration below.
 The resultant force is towards the
outside each conductor.

 When the current are flowing in the

same direction, the conductors attract
each other.
 When the currents flow in the same Case I: upward motion
direction, the magnetic field between the
conductors cancel out, hence reduce the  Whenever there is a relative motion

magnetic field. between the conductor and magnetic

 The resultant force pushes the field, an induced current is produced.

conductors towards each other.  This is because there is a change in the

magnetic flux linking a conductor.

Case II: Downward motion

 The current produced by the movement

is one direction reverses when the

135
Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

direction of motion is reversed. Hence  When the N-pole of a magnet is moving

current is induced. out of the coil, the magnetic flux
decreases which induce an emf in the
Case III: Horizontal motion.
coil.
 When the motion is such that the  The induced current move in the
conductor is parallel to the field lines, diection to oppose decrease in the flux
no current is produced.
 This is because flux linking the
conductor does not change

LAWS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC
INDUCTION

Lenz’s law of electromagnetic induction.

This law explain the direction of induced emf.

The law state that

The direction of induced e.m.f is such that

the resulting induced current flows in such
a direction that oppose the change that
cause it”

NOTE:
CASE III: When the south pole of a magnet is
CASE I: When the north pole of a magnet is moved into the coil
moved into the coil.
CASE IV: When the south pole is moved away
 When the N-pole of a magnet moving from the coil
into a coil the magnetic flux decreases,
hence induce an emf on the coil.
 The current produced move in direction
tom opposes the increase of flux.

NOTE: Lenz’s law can similarly be applied

when a wire is being moved in a magnetic field.

FARADAY’S LAW

Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction

CASE II: When the north pole is moved away relates the magnitude of induced emf and the
from the coil

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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

rate of change of the magnetic flux linking the SELF INDUCTION AND MUTUAL
conductor. INDUCTION.

The law state that Self-induction is the production of e.m.f in a

conductor as a result of varies current in the
“The induced e.m.f in a conductor in a
same conductor
magnetic field is directly proportional to the
rate of change of the magnetic flux linking the  When the current flowing through a
conductor” conductor varies (increase/decrease), it
creates varying magnetic field that cuts
FACTORS AFFECTS INDUCED E.M.F across the conductor.
MAGNITUDE  The voltage produced is called back
Magnitude of Induced e.m.f depend on the emf this voltage tend to reverse the
follows factor original current.
i. The strength of magnetic field
Back electromotive force is the induced
ii. The rate of change of magnetic flux (speed
electromotive force in the conductor which
of motion)
flows in the opposite direction to the original
iii. Cross section Area of the conductor
voltage.
iv. Number of turns (N)
Self-induction therefore is the production of
 The Strength of Magnetic Field electromotive force in a conductor when the
When the magnetic field strength increased, it Current flowing through it varies with time
also increases deflection of galvanometer. (Increases and decreases).
 The Rate of Change of Magnetic
Flux i. If current increased results increase
Increase in motion (speed) result high the rate in induced current (back e.m.f)
at which magnetic flux change in which which subtract the original current
produce high magnitude of induced e.m.f result the resultant current be
 Cross Section Area of the smaller than original current
Conductor
Increase in Cross section Area of the
conductor results high magnitude of induced
e.m.f
 Number of Turns (N)
Increase in Number of turns results high
magnitude of induced e.m.f. From ohm’s law
( )

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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

Suppose that two coils are place near to each

other a varying current in the first coil induces
the current in the second coil. This process is
called mutual induction.

ii. current decreased results decrease

in induced current (back e.m.f)
which add to the original current
result the resultant current be
larger than original current
 If the current in coil 1 (primary) is
increasing, this produces an increasing
magnetic flux in the coil 2 (secondary
coil). Thus an induced electromotive
force in the secondary coil produces a
current that in turn produces magnetic
flux in opposition to primary coil.
 If the current in the primary coil
decreases, this produces a decreasing
iii. In constant current no induced
current magnetic flux in the secondary coil thus
an induced electromotive force in the
secondary coil produces a current that in
turn produces a magnetic flux in the
same directions as the primary coil.
NOTE: Mutual induction therefore is the
production of electromotive force in one
conductor when the current flowing in another
(iv) Back e.m.f is the voltage induced in the
conductor varies with time (increase and
coil due to variation of electric current flowing
decrease)
in the same coil
iv. Self-induction can be minimized
Eddy Current
by using non-inductive coil Eddy current Are induced current loops
circulating within a conductor.
MUTUAL INDUCTION
Mutual induction is the production of e.m.f
in one conductor as a result of changing
current in another conductor.

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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

allows the current to flow in the primary coil

again. This process repeats itself automatically.
Every time the current is broken the magnetic
flux in the core which links the secondary coil
decreases suddenly so that an electromotive
force is induced in the secondary coil. Since the

INDUCTION COIL. secondary coil, has very large number of turns as

compared to the primary coil, the induced
Induction coil is an electrical instrument which
electromotive force is sufficiently high to causes
consists of two coils (primary coil and secondary
the spark across the adjustable spark gap. A
coil) wound one over the other on an iron core.
large capacitor C prevents small charge which is

An induction coil is used to produce high likely to form a cross the contacts B due to self

voltage alternating current (ac) from low induction of the primary coil. When the soft iron

voltage direct current (dc) . The primary coil armature vibrates to and from, a process

has fewer numbers of turns than the secondary switches the current on and off hence alternating

coil which is wound on top of the primary coil. current (ac).

THE USES OF THE INDUCTION COIL

1. The induction coil is used in the ignition
system of the internal combustion engines e.g.
Petrol engine and diesel engine.
2. An induction coil is used to trigger the tubes
in cameras (depending on the lightning

Mode of action conduction).

The current in the primary circuit is switched on 3. An induction coil is used for operating X –ray

and off by a make break mechanism. This tube.

produces changes in current and magnetic field

A.C GENERATOR
which are necessary for electromagnetic
induction to occur in secondary coil. When the A generator is an electrical device which
current in the primary coil is switched on the converts mechanical energy into electrical
induced magnetism in the iron core attracts the energy.
soft iron armature which creates a gap between  A device which produces electricity on
the two contacts (which break the primary coil the basis of electromagnetic induction
circuit). This switched off the current. As the by the continuous motion of either a coil
induced magnetism disappears away, the soft or magnet is called GENERATOR.
iron armature springs back, closes the contacts  Dynamo is an example of alternating
and completes the circuit gain. This current generator.

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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

ADVANTAGE OF A.C GENERATOR

 They are expensive and easy to
construct. Because commutator are
complex and costly to construct they are
replaced by a.c generator with electronic
rectifiers.
Rectifier is an electronic device that
control current to flow in one
direction only.
ac generator consist of armature made up of
several turns of insulated wound on a soft iron APPLICATION OF A.C GENERATOR
core.  Most generators are designed to produce
alternate current. The generators are
 By Fleming’s left hand rule when the
often called alternators. In the car
coil is rotated between the poles of a
alternate the armature is rotated by a belt
magnet an inducing electromotive force
which is moved by a crank of the
is created. The induced current flows to
engine.
an external circuit when the coil is
 In H.E.P, large alternators generate the
connected by slip rings2 which are made
alternate current mains electricity, the
of copper. The ring is connected to side
energy to rotate such armature is obtained from
of the second coil.. When the side of the
sources like falling water from a dam ,
second coil moves upwards the current
compressed from steam, from a nuclear reactor
flow from one point to another. Half a
or from steam underground (Geothermal
revolution later, will be in the position
electricity).
previously occupied by the coil the
D.C GENERATOR
direction of the current is reversed The
A direct current generator is constructed by
direction of the induced electromotive
replacing the slip rings in alternate current
force and the current change every half
revolution. The magnitude of the generator with commutator.

induced electromotive force varies as

the coil rotates, hence alternatively
current.
NOTE:
The induced electromotive force is a maximum
value when the coil is perpendicular to the
magnetic flux and the induced electromotive MECHANISM
force is a minimum value when the coil is The two carbon brushes are connected to the
horizontal. outsides circuit resting against the rotating
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communication. The commutators rotate with a 2. Step up transformer

loop of wire. When the loop is rotated in the
magnetic field, the induced electromotive force
STEP UP TRANSFORMER
creates. However after a rotation of 180 0 , the
connections to the external circuit reverse but When a number of turns in secondary coil ( )
the direction of the current does not alter. Hence is higher than the number of turns in the primary
direct current. coil ( ), the secondary voltage will be higher
than the primary voltage. This is called set – up
TRANSFOMER. transformer.
transformer is the device uses mutual induction
to convert a.c voltage to large or low or
Transformer is an electrical device that transfers
energy between two or more circuits through
electromagnetic induction.
The coil connected to the source is called
Set – up transfomer
primary coil and the coil e.m.f induced is called
secondary coil
When the number of turns in the secondary coil
 The most common and useful
is less than the number of turns in primary coil,
application of the production of an
the primary emf is greater than the secondary
induced electromotive force by varying
emf.
the current in another coil is the
transformer. The transformer depends This is known as step down transformer.
on the use of A.C (alternating current).
The center of the transformer consists of
a terminated core of magnetic material
which is easily magnetized and
demagnetized. Around this core a
primary coil and secondary coil are
wound.

TYPES OF TRANSFORMER

There are two types of transformers:

Step down transformer
1. Step-down transformer

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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

TRANSFOMER EQUATION
This expression shows that when the voltage in a
 The emf produced in the coil depends on
transformer is stepped up, the current is stepped
the number of turns in the coil.
down and vce versa.
The emf in the coil is directly proportional to the
number of turns in the coil. EFFICIENCY OF TRANSFORMER.
Transformer efficiency is the ratio of power in
Suppose
secondary coil to the power in primary coils

APPLICATION OF TRANSFORMER
1. Used in power station to set up voltage
for transmission from the station to the
area of consumption.
2. Is used as electrical safety device for
stepping down the excess current
Example 1:
A transformer is used to step down 240V mains

𝐕𝒑 𝐍𝒑 supply to 12V for laboratory use. If the primary

𝐕𝒔 𝐍𝒔 coil has 600 turns, determine the number of

turns in the secondary coil.

 Assume that the loss of power in the

transformer is negligible, the power in
the primary coil is equal to the power in
the secondary coil

Example 2.
A current of 0.6 A is passed through a step-up
transformer with a primary coil of 200 turns. A

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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

current of 0.1A is obtained in the secondary coil.

( )
Calculate the number of turns in the secondary
coil and the voltage across if the primary coil is
connected to a 240 V mains.

( )

( )
Example 3. Example 4
A set up transformer has 10 000turns in the Msangani electric bell operates at 12V. A step
secondary coil and 100 turns through the down transformer is to convert the 240V mains
primary coil. An alternating current of 5 A flows power to the 12V needed for bell. Calculate the
in the primary circuit when connected to a 12V ratio of secondary to primary circuit for this
a.c supply. transformer.
(a) Calculate the voltage across the
secondary coil.
(b) If the transformer has an efficiency of
90% calculate the current in the
secondary coil.

EXERCISE
1. When a p.d of 60V applied across the
primary circuit of a transfomrmer, the current is
3.7A. find the p.d across the secondary circuit if

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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

the current is 0.15A. the transformer has an

efficiency of 95%. (ans. 1406V)
2. a transformer is used to step up 240 V to
4800V. the primary circuit has 75 turns.
Determine the number of turns in the secondary
circuit. (ans. 1500 turns)
3. Eplain the function the cummutator in a d.c
electric generator.
4. find the ratio of primary to secondary turns in
atransformer required to step down the main
power from 11 000V to 240V.
5. a transformer step down the main supply
from 240V to 6V. there are 1200 turns in the
primary circuit. A light bulb of 36 W is
connected to the secondary circuit. Given that
the efficiency of transformer is 100% determine
(a) the number of turns in the secondary circuit.
(b) the current in the primary circuit
6. A 20 Watt lamp with a resistance of
uses a power supply from the secondary coil of
transformer. If the primary coil is connected to a
120 V a.c outlet,
(i) what is the current in the lamp when it is
switched on?
(ii) What is the secondary voltage.
(iii) What is the ratio of the number of turns
on primary to the number of turns on the
secondary?
(iv) What type of a transformer is it?

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Chapter 3

Radioactivity
Radioactivity comes from the Greek word  Matter is the anything that occupies
“Radio” which means radiation and “active” space and has weight. For Example,
which means emission. water, iron, meat, wood.
 It has been found that nucleus of Elements
heavy element with above Z > 82 are  Element is a pure substance that is
unstable. They become stable by made up of only one kind of atom and
emitting particle/radiation by the cannot be broken down into simpler
phenomena called Radioactivity. parts by a chemical means. For
 Radioactive substance are stable heavy Example, helium (H), hydrogen (He),
element whose nuclei emits iron (Fe)
particle/electromagnetic radiation in Atom
order to become stable example  Atom is the smallest particle of an
Uranium, Thorium, Thorium, Radon element that has all the chemical
and Radium characteristics of the element. For
Therefore Example, helium (He), hydrogen (H)
Radioactivity is the process of spontaneous Molecules
disintegration of nuclei of heavy elements  molecule is a group of atoms. For
with the emission of a certain type of Example, water molecule (H2O),
radiation. hydrogen molecules (H2)
Radioactivity is the process by which Binding Energy
unstable nuclei emits radiation (or  Binding energy is energy hold protons
disintegrate). and neutrons present in the nucleus
Radioactivity is the process in which an oppose and overcome repulsion
unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by between protons.
emitting radiation in the form of particles or Structure of an atom
electromagnetic wave. Matter is made up of chemical materials
NOTE: known as element.
i. Radioactivity also called radioactive decay Element is a pure substance that is made up of
ii. Disintegrated atom is called parent nuclide only one kind of atom and cannot be broken
iii. New formed is called Daughter nuclide down into simpler parts by chemical reaction.
 An atom is the smallest particle of an
TERMS USED IN RADIOACTIVITY element that has all chemical
Matter characteristics of the element.

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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

 Atom is made up of three particles ISOTOPY

 Protons Isotopes are atoms of the same element with
Protons is the positive charged particle located the same number of protons but different
at nucleus. It denoted by small letter p. its numbers of neutrons.
charge and his mass is +1.6 x C and  Isotopes of the same element have the
1.6726 x kg respectively same atomic number but different
 Neutrons mass numbers. Example hydrogen
Neutrons is the neutral charged particle have three isotopes which are
located at nucleus. It denoted by small letter n.  Deuterium →
its charge and his mass is 0C and 1.6749 x  Tritium →
kg respectively Isobars
 Electrons Isobar is the different elements having the
Electrons is the negative charged particle same mass number but different atomic
revolves around the nucleus. It denoted by number. For Example,
small letter e. its charge and his mass is -1.6 x n
Ym and nXd.
C and 9.1094 x kg respectively
 Proton have positive electric charge STABLE AND UNSTABLE ATOMS
while electrons are negatively charged. Stable atom is the atom in which binding
 Neutrons has no charge at all energy is strong enough to hold nucleus of an
atom together. Stability of atom decrease as
the atomic number increase.
 The electrostatic force of repulsion
between the like – charged protons
cause the nucleus to break part of
Structure of atom
atom. A strong force opposes and
Protons and electrons are collectively called
overcome the force of repulsion
subatomic particle.
between the protons and holds the
nucleus together. The energy
ATOMIC NUMBER AND MASS NUMBER
associated with strong force is called
Consider an element X with mass number A and
Binding energy.
atomic number Z, generally the nuclide notation
 Binding energy is strong enough to
of this element will be written as
→ hold the nucleus of an atom together.
→
The atom is said to be stable.
Atomic number is the number of proton in an
atom.
unstable atom is the atom in which binding
Mass number is the total number of neutrons
energy is not strong enough to hold nucleus of
and protons in an atom
an atom together.
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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

 If binding energy is not strong Alpha particle is the particle emitted by

enough to hold the nucleus together, radioactive material which is equivalent to
the nuclei of such atom is said to be helium nucleus particle.
unstable nuclei. Alpha particles they are helium in nature and
 Unstable nuclei loose neutrons and they are represented by
protons to become stable. EFFECT ON NUCLEUS
 Hence stability of an atom decrease as  When radioactive nucleus emits an
the atomic number increase. alpha particle, its atomic number
decrease by 2 and the mass number by
TYPES OF RADIOACTIVITY 4.
There are two types includes Consider the process below
i. Natural radioactivity →
ii. Artificial radioactivity Example 1,
Uranium-238 undergoes an alpha decay to
NATURAL RADIOACTIVITY
produce thorium-234
Natural radioactivity is the spontaneous
Solution
disintegration of unstable atoms (nuclei). For
Example, unstable isotopes such that carbon-
14 and heavy elements such as lead and
Example 2,
uranium
Radium-222 undergoes an alpha decay to
Elements which exhibit radioactivity are
produce radon-218
referred as radioactive elements
Solution
Radioactive decay is the process in which
unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by
emitting radiation in the form of particles or
electromagnetic waves.
Example 3
 When the radioactive material
disintegrate they emits three types of
particles which are;
PROPERTIES OF ALPHA PARTICLES
 Alpha particle ( )
 They are massive particle.
 Beta particle ( )  They carry positive charge.
 Gamma rays ( )  They can slightly be detected by
magnetic field and electric field.
 They have low penetration power
ALPHA PARTICLE  It is helium in nature
 Very high ionizing power since it the
heaviest particle

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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

 They deflects toward negative charge

Iodine-131 emits beta particles to produce
xenon-131

Example 3.

 8. Deflected toward south pole

PROPERTIES OF BETA PARTICLE

i. It is electrons in nature
ii. It has relative charge of -1

BETA PARTICLE (β) iii. It has negatively charged particle

Beta particle is an electrons ejected from a iv. high kinetic energy electrons
radioactive nucleus that has an excess of v. Moderate penetration due to its low mass
neutrons vi. It can stopped by a few mm of metals like
They are represented by aluminium, Plastic, glass, light metals etc
When the nucleus of an atom emits β – particle vii. Moderate ionizing power due to its low
the mass number mass
Will remain to be the same but the atomic
viii. It emitted up to speed of 0.9C where C =
number of the nucleus left behind will increase
3 x 108 m/s
by 1 unit.
ix. It affect/blackens photographic plate (film)
EFFECT ON NUCLEUS
x. Cause some material to fluorescence i.e. to
When a radioactive nucleus emits beta particle
its atomic number decrease by one and mass give out light

number remain constant. The effect tend to form xi. smaller mass and charge than the alpha
other element particle
example xii. Deflected toward positive plate

Example 1.
Carbon-14 undergoes beta decay to produce
nitrogen-14
Solution
xiii. Deflected toward north pole

Example 2.
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 Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

Example 2,
Iodine-131 emits beta particles to produce
xenon-131 and gamma rays.
EXERCISE 3.1
Solution
1. (a) Uranium U decay to polonium by alpha
emission at each stage via
𝑥 𝑦R 𝑧R following this process
PROPERTIES OF GAMA RAYS
𝑞
decay to 5 R by emitting beta particle
i. It electromagnetic wave in nature
only. Write balanced equation of the stage by
ii. They neutral in charge
𝑞
state decay process from U to 5 R and hence
iii. Have zero relative charge
determine the values of 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 (ans. x =
iv. very high frequency electromagnetic
90, y = 88, z = 86
radiation
(b) Name isotopes and isobars obtained in the
v. Very highly penetrating since have no mass
decay process as shown in (a) above
vi. Can be stopped by a thick layer of steel or
concrete, Dense metal, concrete, but even a
few cm of dense lead doesn't stop all of it
GAMMA RAYS ( ) vii. The lowest ionizing power since have no
Gamma ray is the ray emitted by radioactive
mass
material which equivalent to electromagnetic
viii. It have no mass since is ray(radiation)
wave. it released during emission of an alpha
or a beta particle (γ). It also called gamma ix. It emitted with speed of 3 x 108 m/s

radiation x. It affect/blackens photographic plate (film)

EFFECT ON NUCLEUS xi. Cause some material to fluorescence i.e. to
When a radioactive nucleus emits an alpha give out light
particle its atomic number and mass number xii. Cannot Deflected toward negative plate
remain constant. The effect tend to form other xiii. Cannot Deflected toward south pole
element
DETECTION OF RADIATION FROM
RADIO ISOTOPES
Example 1, Radiation from radioactive can be detected by

Cobalt-60 by emitting a beta particle to several methods. Some of these methods are:

produce nickel-60 and gamma rays. 1. Photographic film

The radiation exposes the film

Solution
2. Gold leaf electroscope

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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

Charged leaf of the electroscope collapses when The Geiger Muller tube is an instrument which
a radioactive source is brought nearby. When a is used to detect the ionizing properties of
radioactive material is brought closer to the radiation .
metal cap of a charge gold leaf electroscope, the
electroscope is slowly discharged this is because
the radiation from radioactive material causes
ionization of air so that the air becomes a
conductor and the charge on the electroscope is
emitted through the air.
When ionization enters a Geiger Muller tube
through mica window some argon atom are
ionized. The negative ions produced are
attracted toward the anode wire and the positive
ions are attracted toward the cathode.
A small current in the form of pulse is then
produced in the circuit which is amplified and is
then sent to the rater meter. The rater meter will
count and record the average count rate in count/
3. Spark counter
sec or counts/min.
This is an instrument consisting of thin wire a
Sometimes a small loud speaker is incorporated
few millimeter away from the plate or is an
in the circuits which give pulse for a series.
instrument consist of two parallel electrode 1mm
5. Diffusion cloud chamber
apart. The wire is kept at high positive potential
This is an instrument which is used to detect the
relative to the plate and almost on the point of
individual particles by providing a record of
sparking.
their track. The instruments consist of glass
envelope containing air saturated with mixture
of water and ethanol vapor. The appearance of
the cloud tracks in the cloud chamber depends
on a particle concerned and it can be used as a
mass of identification.

HALF – LIFE OF RADIOACTIVE

-If ionization radiation is passed between the NUCLEUS.
plate and the wire it breaks the insulation of air Half – life of radioactive material is the time
and spark will be observed. required for one half of a nuclei present to
-The number of spark produced depends on the decay.
number of particle produced. Each radioactive material has its own half-life
4. Geiger Muller tube Activity of radioactive decay

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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

is the rate of disintegration of radioactive

material with time. 𝟎 𝟔𝟗𝟑
 Is the number of an atom decayed per 𝝀
𝒕𝟏
𝟐
unit time.
 It is also called count rate and the SI – THE HALF LIFE EQUATION
unit is Becquerel Let NO be initial / original number of atoms
 It is denoted by letter A. present in the radioactive sample at time t = 0
( )
Let N be number of atoms remaining undecayed
( )
after time t, where t is total time for
( )
disintegration.
If is the half-life of the period of the

radioactive sample then the relation between

at a given time is given by
NOTE: 𝒏
𝟏
𝐍 𝐍𝒐
Activity of radioactive material is directly 𝟐
proportional to the original number of atoms
present.
Let N be the original sample of atom 𝒕
𝟏 𝒕𝟏
𝐍 𝐍𝒐 𝟐
𝟐

This is called decay equation

In the relation above, N is any sample which you
may be given in the question.
The constant “k” is called decay constant ( ) The relation between initial activity Ao of the

𝐍 sample and the final activity A of the sample is

𝝀𝐍
𝒕 given also by the relation;

The decay constant is characteristic of a

radioactive substance. The decay constant and The value of is given by the relation
half-life are related as follows
𝒏
𝟏
𝐀 𝐀𝒐
𝟐

Example 1,
A sample of a radioactive contains 120 nuclei.
Calculate the number half-life it takes for the
sample to decay so that there are only 15 nuclei
left undecayed

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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

Data given
Initial mass, No = 120 nuclei EXERCISE 3.2
Final mass, N = 15 nuclei (a) Define the term
Number of half-lives, n = ?
(i) half-life
(ii) atomic number
(b) Name the three fundamental particles of
which atoms of an element are composed.
How these particles are distributed in atom of
an element whose atomic number is 3 and
mass number is 7
(c) A radioactive nucleus is denoted by the
symbol X88226 . Write down the
Composition of the nucleus at the end of the
following stages of disintegration
Example 2, i. Emission of alpha (α) particle
The half-life of iodine-131 is 8 days. A sample
ii. Emission of beta (β) particle
contains 800g of iodine-131. How much of the
iii. Emission of gamma (γ) radiation
sample will remaining undecayed after 40
days
Example 3,
Data given
The half-life of thorium - 234 is 24 days. The
Initial mass, No = 800 nuclei
physics department of the West Indies in
Half-life, t12 = 8 days
Jamaica bought a sample of this thorium from
Time taken, t = 40 days
Final mass, N = ? England on the day of dispatch its activity was
5
4 . What was the activity of source
when it arrived in Jamaica 72 days later?

Data given
Half-life, t12 = 24 days
Time taken, t = 72 days
5
Initial sample, No = 4 Bq
Sample remained undecayed, N = ?
5
Solution

The relation between initial activity A o and the

activity after time (t) is given by the formula

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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

(i) The activity when arrive in

Jamaica after 72 days will be

( )

5 Example 5.

5
8 atoms of Radon were separated from
Radium. The half-life of Radon is 3.82 days.

The activity when arrive in Jamaica was How many atoms will disintegrate after 7.64
days?
Bq
Data:
Example 4.
Initial number of atom, N 0 = 8 x 10 8
The half-life of a radioactive element is 10 min.
Half-life period T 1/2 = 3.82 days
calculate how long it will take for 90% of a
Total time for disintegration, t = 7.64 days
given mass of element to decay
Data given
Half-life, = 10 min

Initial sample, No = 100%

Element decayed, Nd = 90%
Sample remained undecayed, N = 10%
Time taken, t = ?

Example 6.

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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

The half-life of the Bismuth is 20min what seconds, determine the number of atoms that
fractions of a sample of this radioactive bismuth will have decayed after 6 seconds.
Solution
remain after 2 hours? Let initial number be
Data Required N given that and t = 6
Half-life period of Bismuth, T 1/2 = 20 min
sec
Time for disintegration, t = 2h = 2 x 60 = 120
min

The total number of decayed atoms is

( ) ( )
atoms
Example 9.

A radioactive nucleus is denoted by the

symbol . Write down the composition of
Example 7.
the nucleus at the end of the following stages
A student accidentally swallows g of
of disintegration
iodine-131. What mass of iodine -131 remains
i. Emission of alpha (α) particle
24 days later? (the half-life of iodine is 8 days)
ii. Emission of beta (β) particle
Solution let be initial ,mass = g
iii. Emission of gamma (γ) radiation
Require final mass N
solution

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

g
THE DECAY CURVE
This is the graph drawn with the number of
Example 8.
atoms N present at any time in the vertical axis
The initial number of atoms in a sample is
and the time taken for disintegration in the
. if the half-life of the sample is 3
horizontal axis.

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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

Normally radioactive material never varnishes (ii) If the initial number of atoms in
and hence their graphs with time are asymptotic another sample is , how
in nature. many atoms will have decayed in 50
hours? (ans. )
2. A rate meter record a background count rate
of 2counts per second when a radioactive
source is held near the count rate is 162
counts per second. If the half-life of the
source is 5minute what will be the recorded
Example 10, count rate be 20min later? (ans.12count/sec)
Isotope has a half-life of 1min and 1000 nuclei 3. A Geiger Muller tube connected to a rate
initially present, after 1min will decay to 500 meter is held near a radioactive source. The
nuclei, next 1min will decay to 250 nuclei, and correct count rate allowing for background
next 1min will decay to 125 nuclei and so on count is 400 counts per second. 40 min later
the corrected count rate is 25 counter rates
per second. What is the half-life of the
source? (ans. 10minutes )
4. A radioactive material has a half-life of 16
days. How long will it take for the count rate
to fall from 160 counts /min to
20counts/min? (ans. 48 minutes )
5. a) What is meant by half-life of a
radioactive element?
b) A radioactive element was an initial
count rate of 1200 counts per minutes
measured by a scale and this falls to 150
counts per minute in 15hours
i. Determine half-life of the element
EXERCISE 3.3 (ans. 5hsr)
1. A radioactive element has an initial count ii. If the initial number of an atom in
rate of 2400 count per minute on a scale another sample of this element is 3 x
meter. The count falls to 300 counts per 1020. How many atoms will have
minutes in 30 hours. decayed in 25 hours? (ans.
(i) Calculate the half – life of the count/sec)
element (ans. 10hrs)

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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

6. The half-life of thorium - 234 is 24 days.

The physics department of the West Indies ARTIFICIAL RADIOACTIVITY.
in Jamaica bought a sample of this Artificial radioactive decay is the type of

thorium from England on the day of disintegration which occurs in stable nuclides

dispatch its activity was 4 5

5c.p.s
when stable nuclide is destabilized or is the
disintegration.
i. What was the activity of source
Artificial radioactivity is the radioactivity of
when it arrived in Jamaica 72 days
isotopes that are artificially produced through
later?
bombardment of naturally occurring isotopes
ii. What safety precaution should be
with subatomic particles.
suppliers have taken to ensure that of
When stable nuclides are destabilized they
dude workers would be harmed
become unstable and they can disintegrate like
radioactive nuclide. Artificial radioactive decay
is done by bombarding the nucleus of a stable
nuclide by particle such as proton or neutron
APPLICATION OF RADIOACTIVITY
1. In medicine. Radioisotopes are extremely METHODS USED TO INDUCE
used in the diagnosis and treatment of illness RADIOACTIVITY IN MATERIALS
radioactive isotopes is particularly used as (i) Neutron activation
tracers in certain diagnostic procedures. (ii) Photonuclear reactions
2. In industry. Radioisotopes are used to NEUTRON ACTIVATION.
measure and control the thickness or density This is the process in which neutron radiation
of metal and plastic sheets, to stimulate the induces radioactivity in materials.
cross linking of polymers and to preserve It occurs when nuclei capture free neutrons,
certain kinds of foods by killing becoming heavier and less stable.
microorganisms that cause food spoilage.  The unstable nuclei can decay by
3. In agriculture. Radioactive materials are emitting particles to produce equal
used to induce mutations in plants in order mass.
to develop superior varieties that are harder
and more resistant to diseases. PHOTONUCLEAR REACTIONS
4. In science. Research in the earth science has This is radioactivity induced by bombarding the
benefited greatly from the use of radio target nucleus with high energy X-rays or
metric dating techniques, which are based gamma rays.
on the principle that a particular radio
isotopes in geological material decays to NUCLEAR FUSSION AND NUCLEAR
daughter isotope at a constant known rate. FISSION
Also in carbon-14 dating used to determine Nuclear Fission
the age of rocks and rock formation

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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

Nuclear fission is the process whereby Nuclear fusion of deuterium and tritium yield
unstable nucleus of an atom split into two or helium, neutron and heat energy
more smaller nuclei

Nuclear fusion is the joining (fusing) of two

lighter nuclei to form heavy nucleus with
Nuclear fission is the splitting up of heavy
emission of neutron followed by energy release.
nucleus into two lighter nuclei
The fusion of two hydrogen isotopes (Deuterium
Example
atom ) to give an isotope. Example

Nuclear energy is the energy released when the

nucleus of an atom undergoes disintegration
 Nucleus fission of heavy element is a NOTE
highly exothermic reaction thus why  Nucleus fusion of heavy element than
used as a source of energy iron or nickel is endothermic reaction
 If neutron bombarded with atom the
 Nucleus fusion of lighter element is
decay will continue until stable atom
exothermic reaction
form since neutron decrease to Finnish.
 Nucleus fusion occur naturally in stars
This chain is called chain reaction
 Nucleus fusion occur artificial in
Example
human enterprises

APPLICATION OF NUCLEAR FUSION

 It is used in nuclear power plants to
generate electricity

 It is used in making nuclear bombs.

APPLICATION OF NUCLEAR FISSION For Example, hydrogen bomb.
 It is used in nuclear power plants to
generate electricity
HAZARDS OF NUCLEAR RADIATION
 It is used in making nuclear bombs
 Skin
 Nuclear fission is used to produce
Radiation can cause various types of
nuclear energy in nuclear power plant
injury to the skin depending on the
Nuclear Fusion
dose and conditions of exposure.
Nuclear fusion is the process whereby lighter
 Infections in reproductive organs
nuclei joining together to form heaver nucleus.
Immature sperm forming cells are
Example,
among the most radiosensitive cells in

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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

the body. Rapid exposure of both isotope B has a half-life of 18 sec and
testes to a dose may interrupt sperm decay by emission to isotope C which
production temporarily a high dosage is stable. A sample initially contains
exposure may cause permanent 120mg of pure isotope A. after 72sec;
sterility in men. (a) What mass of isotope A
 Infections in eyes remains?
Irradiation can cause opacification of (b) What mass of isotope B has been
the lens, the severity of which increase produced?
with the dose (c) If the mass of isotope B
 Infections in brain and sensory produced, how much remains?
organ. (d) What mass of isotopes C has
Small dose of radiation can produce been produced?
phosphine, a light sensation on a dark- (e) After what time would there be
adapted retina. The mature brain and less than 1mg of isotope A
nervous system are relatively resistant remaining?
to radiation injury, but the developing 2. Complete the following decay equations
brain is radiosensitive to damage. (a) →
 Effect on the growth and (b) 5
→
development of the embryo. (c) →
The tissues of the embryo, like others (d) →
composed of rapidly proliferating (e) ______ →
cells, are highly radiosensitive. When 3. Write the nuclide notation of the
exposure occurs while an organ is following isotopes
forming, malformation of organ may (a) Sulphur – 34
results (b) Silver – 107
(c) Thorium – 230
4. Describe three particles that made up an
REVIEW EXERCISE
atom.
1. An isotope A has half-life of 36 sec and
5. Explain the meaning of the following
decays by emission to isotope B.
terms
a. Atomic number e. Nuclear energy
b. Mass number f. Binding energy
c. Atomic mass g. X-rays
d. Half-life
6. State three hazards of radiation from 7. A sample of radium emits 240 radiations in 5
radioactive materials sec. what is the activity of the sample.

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8. A 100g sample of radioactive protactinium-233

( ) reduced to 12.5g after 81 days.
a. Determine the half-life of sample.
b. If the sample decay by beta
emission, what is the mass number
and proton number of sample?
9. Calculate the values of in the nuclear
equation below. →

10. Explain the meaning of the term activity

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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM
Chapter 4

Thermionic Emission
Cathode ray tube (CRT)
Thermionic emission is the discharge of electrons Cathode ray are produced in a cathode ray tube
from the surfaces of heated materials. (CRT).
Or  Cathode ray tube (CRT) is a vacuum tube
Thermionic emission is the phenomena of metals containing an electron gun with a source of
to emit electrons when they are heated. electrons and fluorescent screen.

or  CRT have electron beam that is used to

form images in the fluorescent screen.
Thermionic emission is the thermally induced
flow of charge carriers from a surface or over a Why Cathode-Ray Tube Evacuated?
potential-energy barrier. This process takes place Cathode-Ray Tube evacuated to minimize air or
in a tube called cathode ray tube electric resistance in order to make electrons
At the room temperature, metal consist of electron travel without colliding with other particles.
which can move around a response to an applied
electromagnetic field. Under normal condition, the
negative charges of the electron are cancelled out
by the positive charges in the atom of the metal. If
metal is heated the electron gain kinetic energy and
can leap out of the metal surface to the
surrounding. This phenomena is referred to as
thermionic emission.
Types Of Thermionic Emission Cathode ray tube.
Components of the Cathode-Ray Tube
There are two types of thermionic emission, which
It consists three system include
are
1. Electron Gun
(a) Cathode rays 2. Deflection system
(b) X – rays 3. Fluorescent Screen

Cathode rays
1. Electron Gun
Cathode ray is a stream of fast moving electron. It consist Heater, cathode, control grid,
The electron move in a specific direction. accelerating anode and focusing accelerating
anode.
(a) Heater
It heating element used to heat cathode to
high temperatures from 800°C to several
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thousand degrees Celsius either directly to deflect the electron beam horizontally
by an electric current or indirectly (left or right). The beam is attracted to
(b) Cathode the positive plate and repelled from the
negative plate.
This is a metal filament such as tungsten (b) Vertical Deflection Plates
heated by electron gun resulting metal Are metal plates carrying equal but
electrons attains enough kinetic energy opposite charges (signal). They are used
than a Work Function of a metal and to deflect the beam vertically (up or
escape the cathode by thermionic down).
emission NOTE:
(c) Control grid The horizontal and vertical deflection plates can
The control grid functions as a "gate" to direct the beam towards any point on the screen.
control the number of electrons in the In some devices, the electrically charged plates
beam reaching the anode. A more are replaced by poles of electromagnets.
negative voltage on the grid will repel
3. Fluorescent Screen
the electrons back toward the cathode so
This is the display component of the CRT where
fewer get through to the anode. A less
image displayed. It is phosphor coated so that it
negative, or positive, voltage on the grid
emits light wherever the electrons strike it
will allow more electrons through grid.
(d) Accelerating anode
Operation of the Cathode-Ray Tube
This is a metal disk maintained at a high
Cathode is heated indirectly by a heater (electric
positive voltage of 5 000 V to 50 000 V
gun) until thermal electron emission. The
used to pull electrons from cathode to
electrons emits is controlled by grid towards
focusing anode
anode. After travelling through the hole in the
(e) Focusing anode
anode the electrons hit the luminescent screen,
This is a metal disk maintained at a high
causing them to slow down and excite the
positive voltage of 5 000 V to 50 000 V
phosphor in the screen to fluorescence
used to pull electrons received from
accelerating anode to deflection Production of cathode rays

The electrons produced from the cathode ray tube

are accelerated towards the anode. Electrons strike
2. Deflection system
the metal target cause the image to be formed. The
It consists horizontal deflection plates and
horizontal and vertical deflection plates position
vertical deflection plates
the beam on the screen.
(a) Horizontal Deflection Plates
Are metal plates carrying equal but Properties of Cathode Rays
opposite charges (signal). They are used Cathode rays have the following properties:
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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

(a) They travel in straight lines. Operation of black and white television
(b) They carry negative charges. The signal is first amplified and then applied to

(c) They cause fluorescence (glow) when the vertical deflection plates to deflect the beam
they strike materials. vertically. At the same time, a voltage is applied

(d) They have energy and momentum. to the horizontal deflection plates thus causing
the beam to be deflected horizontally. The image
(e) They are deflected by electrical (toward
is formed on the screen by varying the brightness
positive charge) and magnetic fields
at thousands of points on the screen. The
(toward South Pole).
brightness of a point on the screen depends on
(f) Cathode rays can ionize gas atoms if the
the number of electrons that strike it.
potential difference is large and the gas
pressure is not high.
The Computer Displays
(g) They can penetrate thin sheets of paper
Computer displays work in the same way as the
or metal foils depending on their energy.
television
(h) They affect photographic plates.
(i) They produce X-rays when stopped
The Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)
suddenly
 The cathode-ray oscilloscope is typically
used to display signals in wave forms. It
Applications of the Cathode-Ray Tube
operates in a way similar to a television.
The cathode-ray tube is used in
The cathode ray oscilloscope is typically
 computer display (Monitor)
used to display signal in the waveforms.
 Televisions (TV)
 The signal is first amplified and then
 cathode-ray oscilloscopes (CRO) applied to the vertical deflection plates to
deflect the beam vertically. At the same
Televisions (TV) : time, a voltage is applied to the
In a black and white TV, the image is formed in horizontal deflection plates thus causing
the screen by varying the brightness. The the beam to be deflected horizontally at a
brightness of the point on the screen depends on uniform (constant) rate. The signal
number of electrons that strike it. applied to the vertical plates is thus
displayed on the screen as a function of
time. The horizontal axis serves as a
uniform time scale. The screen of the
CRO is covered with a grid to facilitate
measurements

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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

X-Rays
X-rays are rays produced when fast moving
electron strikes a metal target. Its electromagnetic
radiation similar to light but with much higher
frequency (3 - 3 ) Hz and short
wavelength that ranges from 6 1m to m.

 X – rays are produced when fast moving

electrons strike a target releasing energy
Cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO)
which is converted to X – rays. This takes
place in X – ray tube.
Properties of cathode ray oscilloscope
1. Travel in a straight line and they cast shadow. The X-Ray Tube
2. They carry a negative charge.  The X-Ray Tube is the highly evacuated
3. They have energy and momentum. glass bulb contains cathode and anode
4. They causes fluorescence (grow) when they made of platinum and tungsten or heavy
strike a materials. metal of high melting point
5. They are deflected by electric field and magnetic
field.
6. They ionize the gas if potential difference is high
and gas pressure is
not high.
7. They penetrate in thin sheet of paper or metal foil
depend on their
energy.
8. They affect photographic film.
X – ray tube.
Application of the cathode ray tube
Production of X-Rays
 The cathode rays tube is used in computer
 X-rays are produced when filament or a
display, cathode television and cathode ray
cathode which emits fast-moving
oscilloscopes
electrons into a vacuum; fast-moving
 It can be used as a voltmeter to measure
electrons accelerate from cathode to
voltage
strike a target with an anode which some
 Display waveform
of kinetic energy converted to X-ray.
 to measure time intervals
 To measure phase relationship Types of X-Rays
 Comparison of frequencies
There are two types of X-rays includes
i. Soft X-rays

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ii. Hard X-rays  To treatment cancer

Soft X-Ray 2. Crystallography:
 Soft X – rays are rays of longer Experimental study of the arrangement
wavelengths. They are on the lower of atoms in solid (study of arrangement
range of frequencies of crystals)
 Soft X-ray is the kind of X-ray produced 3. Astronomy:
by lower accelerating potential with
X-rays emitted by celestial objects are
longer wavelength, lower range of
used in observational astronomy
frequency. They have less energy and
4. X-ray microscopic analysis:
less penetrating power.
This involves the use of electromagnetic
 They are produced by lower accelerating
radiation in the soft X-ray band to
potential and have less penetrating
produce image of very small objects
power.
5. X-rays fluorescence:
Hard X-Ray
Technique in which X-rays are generated
 Hard X-ray is the kind of X-ray produced
within a specimen and detected. The
by high accelerating potential with short
outgoing energy of the identify the
wavelength, higher range of frequency.
composition of the sample
 They have higher energy and are
6. Security installation:
therefore high penetrating power.
It used for non-invasive security searches
Properties of X-Rays at airports and seaports
(a) viii. travel in straight line at the velocity
7. Industries:
of light
It is used to inspect metal-casting and welded
(b) ix. they cannot be deflected by electric or joints for hidden faults
magnetic field Effect of X – Rays to Human Beings
(c) x. they can produce fluorescence  Destroy body cells and can cause cancer
(d) xi. they affect photographic film  Can cause mutation due to destroy of
(e) xii. they penetrate matter but depend on genitals
density of matter
(f) xiii. they ionize gases REVIEW EXERCISE
(g) xiv. can be diffracted by crystals
1. (a) State one way in which cathode rays differ
from electromagnetic waves and describe an
Application/Uses of X-Rays experiment which illustrates this difference
1. In the medical field soft X-rays are used (b) Draw a labeled diagram of a longitudinal

 To detect broken or fractured bones or section view of the cathode ray oscilloscope tube

some disease in soft tissue showing its main features (Necta 1997)

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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

5. (a) (i) explain why cathode ray tube (CRT) are

2. (a) (i) What are the two types of X – rays? evacuated
(ii) X – Rays are said to have harmful effect to (ii) What happens to the CRT when a gas is
human beings when used for a long time. Explain maintained?
the effect that X – rays cause to human beings (iii) If gas is maintained in a CRT, will the
(b) Describe how X – rays are produced in X – ray image be formed onto the screen? Explain
tube (b) In the production of X – rays what are role of:
(c) Show the three main parts of cathode ray (i) Low voltage
oscilloscope on a well labeled diagram (Necta 2002) (ii) High voltage?
(iii) Tungsten target?
3. (a) Write two properties of (c) How is hard X – rays produced? (Necta
(i) X rays 2007)

(ii) cathode rays

(b) (i) give any four uses of cathode ray 6. (a) (i) Define thermionic emission

oscilloscope (CRO) (ii) What is X – rays?

(ii) State two ways in which x – rays differ from (iii) Mention two uses of X – rays

gamma rays (b) With the aid of a diagram, explain how

(c) A particular radioactive has a half-life of 2.0 X – rays are produced

hours. A sample gives a count rate of 2400 per (c) Draw a well labeled diagram of a

second at 11:00 am When will the count have cathode ray oscilloscope (Necta 2009)

dropped to approximately 300 per second in the 7. describe how cathode rays are produced in in a

same counting system? (Necta 2003) cathode ray tube.

8. Write five difference between X-rays and

4. (a) Explain briefly the following Gamma rays.

(i) Thermionic emission

(ii) The production of a stream of electrons
in cathode ray oscilloscope (C.R.T)
(iii) The principle of transistor
(b) What method in a device using the thermionic
emission principle ensures that the electrons
produced?
(i) Do not accumulate at the source?
(ii) Reach their range undecayed?
(iii) Travel without meet other forms of
particles on their way to the target? (Necta
2004)

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be no flow of charges and an electric

current cannot arise.

Chapter 5

Electronics is the branch of physics which deals  Example of insulators is glass, mica,
with the emission and effects of electrons in paraffin, hard rubber and plastics.
materials.
Conductors.
 Electronic system or circuits are made up
are materials that allow an electric current
of various components connected to each
to pass through then.
other. They are used to perform many tasks
 Such material have large number of free
 electronic component may be passive or
electrons which move in the material
active
carrying charge.
Passive component  When p.d is applied along a conductor, the
mobile charges within the conductor are
 are electronic components which consume
forced to move.
but do not produce energy. These includes,
 Example of conductors are metals, and
battery, generator, resistor, capacitor and
some non-metals such as graphite.
inductor.
Semiconductors;
Active component.
Are materials with an electrical
 Are those that have direction and have a
conductance which intermediate between
capacity to produce gain. These include
insulators and conductors.
diodes, transistors and integrated circuit.
 Semiconductors behaves as insulators at
CONDUCTORS, INSULATORS AND
low temperature
SEMICONDUCTORS
 Example of semiconductor materials are
An insulator is the material or object which resists silicon, germanium, cadmium sulphate and
the flow of electric charges through it. gallium arsenide.

 They have no movable electric charge ENERGY BANDS

because the electrons in the material are
According to the band theory which proposes the
strongly bounded to the atoms
existence of continuous ranges of energy values;
 When potential difference is applied across
the electric insulator no free charges are
exposed to electric field and so there will

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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

The energy-band structure (or simply band (i) For Conductors:

structure) of a solid is the series of “allowed”  In conductors the valence band and the
and “forbidden” energy bands that it contains. conduction band are actually overlap.
 In conductors the valence band is
VALENCE AND CONDUCTION BANDS
complete filled with valence electrons
Valence band: while the conduction band is only
partially filled at low temperature.
The valence band is the highest range of
electron energies where electrons are
normally present at the absolute zero
temperature

Conduction band

Conduction band is the range of electron

energy, higher than that of the valence
band, sufficiency to make the electrons free to
accelerate under the influence of the applied
electric field

The lowest energy band is called valence band, is

at most completely filled with Electrons. The upper
band is called conduction band and contains few
Electrons. The gap between these two bands is the Figure 5.2: conduction band
forbidden gap.
 In conductors no conduction forbidden
gap between valence band and
conduction band they are almost overlap.
(ii) For semiconductors
 In semiconductor material, there is a
a band gap (forbidden gap) between
valence band and conduction band.
 For semiconductor forbidden energy
gap less compared to that of
insulator.
 The energy required to move
electrons from valence band to

Figure 5.1 illustration of flow of energy in in conduction band for semiconductor

martials

114
Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

materials is less compared to that of  Hence no conduction occurs.

insulators.

Figure 5.4: flow of energy in insulator

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON A
CONDUCTIVITY OF METALS.
figure 5.3: flow of energy in
semiconductor 1. Effects of temperature in insulated
The temperature has no effect on the conductivity
EFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON property of the insulator since the forbidden energy
CONDUCTIVITY OF SEMICONDUCTOR gap is very large.
MATERIALS 2. Effects of temperature in a conductor
The conductivity of the conductor decrease as the
 The conductivity of the semiconductor
temperature increases. Since when the temperature
increase as temperature rises, when the
increase, It rises the amplitude of vibration of
electrons jump from valence band to the
Atoms and more collision with atoms are made by
conduction band they leave behind them
drifting electrons and this slows the free electrons
spaces or holes in the valence band.
and hence conductivity decrease.
These holes are effectively positive in
3. Effects of temperature in semiconductors
pure semiconductor; there are two charge  At absolute zero temperature.
carrier which are electrons and holes. At this temperature the valence band is fulfilled
(iii) For insulators and there is a large energy gap between valence
 The band gap in insulators is large and conduction's band. There is no valence electron
 It require high energy given to an can reach the conduction band to become free
electron in the upper level of valence electron, thus the material behaves like an
band insulator.
 Hence the energy supplied is always  Above absolute zero temperature,
much smaller compared to the value of as the temperature rises some valence electrons
the forbidden energy gap. acquire sufficient energy to enter into the

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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

conduction band and this becomes free elections. metals whose conductivity decreases with
Thus the conductivity increases as the temperature increase in temperature.
increase.
EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
Is the semiconductor which is formed by the
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CONDUCTOR AND
addition of impurities atom to the pure
SEMICONDUCTORS
semiconductors.

CONDUCTOR SEMICONDUCTOR  The introduction of impurity is referred

The charge carrier are The charge carrier are to as doping and the impurities are called
free electron both holes and electrons dopants.
The conductivity Their conductivity FACT: Why semiconductor is used in
decrease with increase increase with increase in electronic circuits? Because their
in temperature temperature. electronic properties are greatly change in a
controllable way by adding small amount of
There is forbidden gap
There is no forbidden impurities
between valence and
gap
conduction band. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EXTRINSIC AND
INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTORS INTRINSIC EXTRINSIC

Intrinsic semiconductors Is an impure form of
Is the pure form of semiconductor
semi-conductor
Extrinsic semiconductors
INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS It has equal number of It has unequal number
Is the pure semiconductors in which there is no holes and electron of holes and electron
any external impurities has been added to it.
It has conductivity It has conductivity
depends on depend on both
It Is the pure semiconductor in which the
temperature only temperature impunities
conduction of electricity takes place by the
promotion of electrons from the valence band to It has low conductivity It has high conductivity
the conduction band.

 The conductivity intrinsic semiconductor

DOPING
increases with the increase in
Doping is process of adding impurity atoms to
temperature
intrinsic crystal to produce an extrinsic
 In intrinsic semiconductor, the number of
semiconductor.
free electrons and hole are exactly equal.
OR
NOTE: the electrical conductivity of an intrinsic This is the process of adding an impurity to

semiconductor increase with increase in increase the number of free electrons or holes in

temperature. This is contract with the behavior of the semiconductor.

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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

 The purpose of adding impurities is to N-type semiconductor is the type of

increase the number of free electrons or semiconductor with electron carriers.
holes in the semiconductor in order to The purpose of n-type doping is to
increase the conductivity of the produce an abundance of mobile or
semiconductor. carrier electrons in the material
 The impurities are called dopant.

MECHANISM OF DOPING WITH N – TYPE

Consider the silicon with four valences (with
Terms Used In Doping four electrons in their outer most shell)
 Acceptor atoms are atoms which receive combine with Dopant of more than four
electrons from other atoms electrons they will share the four valences
 Donor atoms are atoms which supply results the extra electron from Dopant (group V)
electrons to other atoms remaining as extra (free electrons). This extra
 Dopant is the element/impurity which electron is only weakly bound to the atom and
added to modify the conductivity of an can easily be excited into the conduction band,
atom since the silicon atoms with five valence atoms
NOTE: have an extra electron to “donate”, they are
 Conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor called donor atoms
increase as temperature increases
 Heavily doping a semiconductor
increases its conductivity. Thus why
heavily doped silicon is often used as a
replacement for metals
 Silicon and Germanium are the best
semiconductors as they are used to make
the most common electronic
devices/components such as transistors Fig 5.5: n-type semiconductor: silicon doped with antim
P-Type Semiconductor
and diodes
P-type semiconductor is the type of
semiconductor with holes carriers. The purpose
TYPES OF DOPED SEMICONDUCTOR
of n-type doping is to produce an abundance of
Doping produces two types of semiconductors,
holes in the valence band.
namely
i. N-type semiconductor MECHANISM OF DOPING WITH P-TYPE
ii. P-type semiconductor Consider the silicon with four valences (with
four electrons in their outer most shell) doped
 N-Type Semiconductor with boron of less than four electrons in their
outer most shell they will share the three
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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

electrons results the semiconductor with less

electrons (holes) to attain stable, since the silicon MODE OF ACTION OF P-N JUNCTION
atoms with three valence atoms have an less A p-n junction is made in such a way that n-type
electron to “acceptor”, they are called acceptor material moves toward hole (+ve) in th p-type
atoms material and the p-type move towards electrons
(-ve) in the n-type as a result n-side become
positive charged and the p-type become negative
charged, hence creating a potential barrier across
the boundary. This potential barrier stop flow of
electrons and holes. The p.d across the potential
barrier is called junction voltage (0.6V) for
silicon and 0.1V for germanium
Fig 5.6 P-type semiconductor: silicon doped with
Boron
THE P-N JUNCTION
p-n junction is made by combining a p-type
semiconductor and an n-type semiconductor in a
single continuous crystal.
 The term junction refers to the region Fig 5.8 Depletion layer and junction voltage in p-n
where the two types semiconductors meet. junction

FORWARD BIAS OF A P-N JUNCTION.

 Forward bias occurs when p-type block of
the p-n junction is connected to the
positive terminal of a battery and the n-

Fig 5.7 A p-n junction type block is connected to the negative

terminal
TERMS USED IN P-N JUNCTION  As the electrons and holes pushed towards
 diffusion of charge is spread out of the junction, the distance them decreases.

charge (holes and electrons) which can This reduce the width of depletion layer

result repelling and attraction of charge and lower a potential barrier

 Potential Barrie is the maximum

voltage at the junction when there is no
further diffusion of charge
 Depletion layer is an electric field at the
junction of the p-n junction when barrier
potential is reached
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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

This is the reverse voltage at which p-n

junction breakdown with the sudden rise in
reverse current.
Knee voltage
This is the forward biased voltage at which
the current through the junction starts to
increase rapidly

Fig 5.9 Forward bias of a p-n junction

DIODES
 When a voltage increases, a depletion layer
Diode is an electrical device that allows current
become thin so that the electrons can pass
across the barrier. to move through it in only one direction.
The n-region is called the cathode and the P-

REVERSE BIAS OF P-N JUNCTION. regions is the anode.

 Reverse bias occurs when p-type region
connected to negative terminal of the
battery and the n-type region connected to
positive terminal of the battery
Figjunction
The symbol for 5.11 A silicon
diode isjunction diode.

Fig 5.12 symbol for junction diode.

Types of Diode
 Due to reverse of connection,Figthe width
5.10 ofbias of p-nThere
reverse junction are different types of diodes used in
depletion layer increase hence the electronic circuits. The following are the most
electrical resistance increase as a result common ones:
there will be minimum flow of charge  Semiconductor diode
carriers.  Metal semiconductor diode
 When the electric field increase the
 Light-emitting diode
junction breaks down and the voltage at
 Zener Diode
which p-n junction breaks down is known
as breakdown voltage. Junction is
Semiconductor Diode
intended to operate below the junction.
Most semiconductor diodes are made up of
Breakdown voltage silicon or germanium.

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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

 The most commonly used materials for

visible LEDs are gallium phosphide and
gallium arsenic phosphide
Fig 5.13 A germanium diode. Zener Diode
USES OF SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE Zener diodes are specially manufactured diodes
(i) The main uses of semiconductor designed to be operated in the reverse
diode is rectification breakdown voltage. Every Zener diode is
Metal Semiconductor Diode manufactured for a specific reverse breakdown
These types of diodes are formed by the voltage called the Zener voltage.
deposition of a metal on the surface of a metal Its symbol:
conductor.

Fig 5.16 symbol of zener diode.

NOTE:
 Zener diodes are used as voltage
regulator devices. It allow required
Fig 5.14 Metal semiconductor diode.
voltage to pass through.
USES OF METAL SEMICONDUTOR DIODE.
The metal-semiconductor diode is used for very
RECTIFICATION
fast switching and microwave applications. Rectification is the process of converting
alternating current to direct current
Light-Emitting Diode Or
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor Rectification is the process of obtaining direct
diode that emits light when an electrical current current from alternating current.
is applied in the forward direction of the diode.
Its symbol is HALF-WAVE AND FULL-WAVE
RECTIFICATION
HALF WAVE RECTIFICATION

The voltage at point A does the opposite of that

Fig 5.15 symbol of LED at point B when A is increasing in a positive
direction, is increasing the negative direction.

 LEDs are made from a variety of

semiconductor materials depending on
the wavelength of the light required.

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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

Fig 5.19 center tap full-wave rectification.

Fig 5.17 half-wave rectification.  In the positive half cycle, A is positive

with respect to O. Diode D1 contact while
During the half cycle of the sinusoidal of the D2 do not contact since it is reversed
waveform, A is positive and B is negative. biased. The current pass through D1 C, R
and back to O.
During the second half cycle, A is negative, B is
 In negative half cycle point B is positive
positive. The diode reversed biased and no
with respect to O. diode D2 conducts but
current flows.
diode D1 is reversed. The current pass
The capacitor is charged during positive half through D2, C, R and back to O.
cycle of the a.c and discharge through the load in
the negative half cycle. This action is called
smoothing.

Fig 5.20 Bridge circuit for full-wave rectification.

Fig 5.18 circuit for the half wave rectifier with a smoothing TRANSISTOR
capacitor.
Transistor is a semiconductor device used to
FULL-WAVE RECTIFICATION. amplify or switch electronic signals and

 In full wave rectification, both halves of electrical power.

the a.c cycle are transmitted but in the

Terminal of Transistor
same direction.
It composes semiconductor material with at least
 By using transformer whose output has
three terminals for connection includes
center tap, that is its output can be taken at
i Emitter (E)
two points
ii Collector (C)
iii Base (B)

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Emitter (E)  Bipolar transistors Is the transistor in

Emitter is terminal used to remove charge from which require a biasing input current at
transistor their control leads. It require both
Collector (C) positive (holes) and negative (electrons)
Collector is terminal used to receive charge carriers to operate
repelled from emitter terminal
Base (B)
Base is terminal between emitter terminal and
collector terminal

Types of Transistors
There are two broad categories of transistors
include;
i. Bipolar transistors
ii. Field-effect transistors (FETs) Fig 5.21 symbol of transistor fig 5.22. block diagram
of transistor
Field-Effect Transistors
Types of Bipolar Transistors
Field-effect transistors Is the transistor in
There are two types of bipolar transistors
which require a biasing input only a voltage and
includes
practically no current. It require only one
(i) n-p-n transistor
charge carrier
(ii) p-n-p transistor
 Is transistors that require only a voltage NOTE:
and practically no current. The field effect i In transistor whether PNP or NPN, emitter and
transistors require only one charge carriers base form forward bias while collector and
base form reverse bias

Bipolar Transistors OPERATION OF N-P-N TRANSISTOR

 Is a three terminal active device that act as In the NPN transistor, electrons are repelled from
insulator or a conductor by the application the negative battery terminal and injected into the
of small signal voltage? Bipolar junction base- emitter junction, overcoming the potential
transistor require both holes and electrons barrier there. Since the P region is lightly doped
carriers to operate. and very thin, most of the electrons diffuse through
 Transistor is made from three layers of P the base and reach the collector.
and N semiconductors.
 Bipolar transistors are three-terminal
devices that act as electrically controlled
switches or as amplifier controls

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ensure that only an alternating signal from

the input is superposed on the bias and
passes into the base.
 Capacitor prevent any undisireble
feedback of amplified signal to the base
emmiter circuit.
Fig 5.23 n-p-n transistor
 Capacitor this filters the output signal
and it block d.c output and give a.c signal
to the out circuits. Also this capacitor is
used to allow an alternating potential
across to appear across the output
terminals but prevent any d.c component
via load resistor.
Fig 5.24 symbol of n-p-n
 An emmiter resistance stabilize the
Few electrons combine with the holes present in P
circuit to excessive temperature rise
region and are lost as charge carriers. Many
prevent transistor from getting burnt due to
electrons reach the collector and they are swept up
phenomena called thermal run away.
the positive collector voltage . For each electron
that flow out of the collector and enter the positive NOTE:
battery terminal of the collector, an electron enters
NPN transistors are used in high frequency circuit
the emitter from negative battery terminal.
where the carriers are required to respond very
quickly to the signal.

OPERATION OF P-N-P TRANSISTOR

p-n-p transistor work essentially the same as n-p-n

transistor but the majority carrier in p-n-p transistor
are holes.

Increase in forward bias voltage of the transistor

Fig 5.25. operation of n-p-n transistor reduces the emitter – base junction barrier. This
Each part in this transistor circuit play its important allows more charge carriers to reach the collector,
function causing an increase in current flow from emitter to
the collector and through the external circuit. Vice
 A potential divider provide
– versa is true.
necessary base bias
 Load resistor provide out protection In the basic connection of PNP transistor, the
agaist current circuit emitter is forward biased since holes are repelled
 Capacitor input capacitor is used to from the positive emitter battery bias because
broke off any d.c omponent of input and
holes are flowing away from the collector
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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

towards the negative collector battery terminal

(VCB

holes are repelled from the positive terminal of the holes move easily through the p-type
VBE and injected into the emitter junction as material and return to the negative terminal of
emitter current (IE), overcoming the potential the collector supply battery (VCB) as collector
barrier current (IC)
Since the N region (base) is only lightly doped viii holes conduction thus takes place
and very thin, most of the holes diffuse or continuously in the direction shown as diagram
recombines through the base and reach the below.
collector junction
A few holes (about 5%) combine with the
electrons present in the N region
Each holes that recombines with electrons in bas
region, another holes moves out through the base
as base current (IB) and returns to the emitter
battery (VBE)
Fig 5.26. operation of p-n-p transistor .
The remainder (majority) crosses into the
collector region NOTE;

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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

The base is thin and lightly doped, in order to converted from some physical form to an
recombine with few holes from the emitter electrical signal by device known as transducer.
forming neutral charge and some holes cross to
Transducer is a device that converts an input
the collector. To compensate electrons at the
signal of one form into an input signal of another
base recombine with the holes from the emitter
form.
low current called base current IB is allowed to
leave from the base so as to inlet electrons

USES OF TRANSISTORS
Transistors are said to be the base elements of
modern electronics. They are used in virtually all
electronic devices such as calculators,
televisions, radios, computers, etc. Transistors Fig 5.27 analogue signal waveform.
 It used in switching circuits
Digital Signals
 It used in amplifier circuits.
Digital signals Analogue signals are electrical
 It used in oscillator circuits.
signals that convey or store information by
 It used in current source circuits.
means of variation in anon-continuous wave
 It used in voltage regulator circuits
 It used in power supply circuits form.
 It used in digital logic integrated
circuits
 It used in any circuit that uses small
control signals to control larger
currents

INFORMATION SIGNALS

Information is usually transmitted in electronic

devices in form of signals. Information signals Fig 5.28. Digital signal waveform.
are divided into two broad classes, namely
 Digital signals have only two amplitude
i. Analogue signals
levels, usually called nodes.
ii. Digital signals
 The values are specified as 1 or 0, TRUE
or FALSE, or HIGH or LOW.
Analogue Signals
 The main advantage of digital signals
Analogue signals are electrical signals that
over analogue signals is that the signal
convey or store information by means of
level or value need not be precise
variation in a continuous wave form.
 It can be approximated within a fixed
Electrical signals may present information by number of digits or bits
changing factors such as their voltage, current,
frequency and charge. The information are

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 The process of approximating the precise the collector- base junction is reverse-biased by
value within a fixed number of digits is VCC
called quantization

ELECTRONIC AMPLIFIER
Amplification is the process of increasing the
magnitude of a variable quantity especially
voltage, power or current without altering any
other quantity.
Amplifier
Is a circuit that increases the amplitude of a given fig 5.29. common collector amplifier
input signal. The relationship between the input circuit.
and output of an amplifier is called Transfer
The emitter base junction is forward biased by
function.
the emitter power supply VEE while the collector-
The magnitude of transfer function is refers to as
base junction is reversed biased by Vcc the
gain
transistor therefore remain in the active region.

TYPES OF AMPLIFIER C1 and C2 are coupling capacitors to provide

i. Single stage amplifier Direct current isolation at the input and output of
ii. Multiple stage amplifier the amplifier.
Single-Stage Amplifiers
Single-stage amplifier is the type of amplifier in Common-Base Amplifier
which consists only one amplifying device. It The emitter terminal serves as the input, the
consists of transistor (amplification stage) which collector as the output, and the base is common
is connected to a load resistor through which a to both. The emitter-base junction is forward-
load current flows. biased by the power supply VEE while the
collector base junction is reverse-biased by VCC.
Types of Single-Stage Amplifiers
We have three types include
i. Common-collector (CC) amplifiers
ii. Common-base (CE) amplifiers
iii. Common- emitter (CE) amplifiers

Common-Collector Amplifier
The base terminal of the transistor serves as the
input, the emitter the output, while the collector
Fig 5.30 Common base amplifier.
is common to both. The emitter-base junction is
forward-biased by the power supply VEE while

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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

The emitter base junction is forward-biased by REVIEW EXERCISE 5.0

the power supply VEE whereas the collector base
1. The p-type semiconductors are made from
junction is reversed biased by VCC
pure semiconductors by process known as
“doping”
 The input signal is fed to the emitter-base
a. What is meant by doping?
circuit while the output signal is tapped
b. Explain how doping produces an
from the collector-base circuit
n-type semiconductor.
 C1 and C2 are coupling capacitors to
c. Name two materials used for
provide Direct current isolation at the
doping.
input and output of the amplifier.
2. Use energy band theory explains the
Common-Emitter Amplifier difference between semiconductors and
The base terminal of the transistor serves as the conductors materials.
input, the collector is the output, and the emitter 3. Explain how temperature affect the flow of
is common to both. The emitter-base junction is electrons in
forward-biased by power supply VBB while the a. Semiconductors.
collector-base junction is reverse-biased by b. Conductors.
power supply VCC. c. Insulators.
4. Explain why n-p-n transistors are more
usefully in daily electronic activities than p-
n-p transistor?
5. Why are radio waves used in television and
radio transmission?

Fig 5.31 Common emitter amplifier.

 The input signal is fed to the base-emitter

circuit and the amplified signal is tapped
from the collector terminal with respect
to the ground emitter circuit
 C1 and C2 are coupling capacitors to
provide direct current isolation at the
input and output of the amplifier.

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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

The word astronomy is derived from the Greek 2. It was used to develop calendars that made
astron, meaning "star" and nomos, meaning it possible to predict the seasons. The
"laws or cultures". The literal meaning of the season was very important in agriculture as
word astronomy therefore is "law of the stars". they dictated the planting time and the
The term astronomy literally means the science of harvesting time.
stars. 3. It was used in both land and sea navigation
based on the knowledge of the position of
Astronomy is the branch of science that deals with the sun during the day and the stars at
study of the origin, evolution, composition, night.
distance and the motion of all bodies (objects) and 4. Today, astronomy helps us to understand
scattered matter in the universe. where the earth and the life it supports
originated from and how it evolved.
Or
5. Astronomy presents a new frontier for

Astronomy refers to the scientific study of exploration.

material objects occurring naturally in space or the

Solar system.
universe. The objects includes stars, planets, the
sun, the moon and lumps of rocks
The solar system is made up of the sun and the
celestial objects bound to it by gravity. The objects
People who are involved in astronomy are known
include the eight planets and their known moons
as astronomers. Astronomers study the objects
and billions of small bodies that include asteroids,
that compose the physical universe, stars, planets,
comets, meteoroids and interplanetary dust.
moons, galaxies and nebulae

Importance of astronomy in every day life.

Astronomy has been an important tool for

thousands of years. The following are some ways
in which astronomy is important;

1. It was the earliest method of measuring

time. A day was the duration between
sunrise and sunset while a month was
derived from phases of the moon. The year Fig 6.1 The solar system.

was derived from the changing position of

A star is a large celestial body made up of hot
sunrise.
gases as known as plasma.

Plasma refers to an ionized gas in which a certain

Chapter 6
proportion of electrons are free rather than bound
to an atom or molecule. Stars radiate energy

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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

derived from the thermonuclear reactions in the 2. It is massive enough so that its own gravity
interior region. The sun is the largest star. causes it to assume a spherical shape.
3. It has cleared the neighborhood around its
 The sun is also the closest star to the earth orbit.
at a mean distance of 149.60 million
kilometers. This distance is known as the NOTE: Why Pluto is not a planet anymore?
astronomical unit and is used to measure Because Pluto resides in an area of space populated
distances across the solar system. by numerous other objects, it is no longer
considered a planet. Pluto is now designated a
dwarf planet. A dwarf planet does not meet the
third characteristic, i.e. has not cleared the
neighborhood around its

Differences between stars and planets

st Pla
ars nets
Emit own light. Do not emit their own light.
Twinkle at night. Do not twinkle at night.
Fig 6.2 The structure of star. Appear to be moving Planets move around the
from east to west. sun from west to east.
A galaxy is a giant collection of stars, gas and dust. Their temperatures depend
Their temperatures
on their distances from the
are usually very high.
sun.
 Most stars in the universe are in the
There are eight in the solar
Countless in number.
galaxies. Nearly all of the stars visible in system.
the night sky are within our own galaxy, Very big in size but
they appear small Very small in size as
our galaxy is called the Milky way galaxy. because they are very compared to stars.
far away.
A planet is a major (large) object which is in orbit
around a star. Asteroids, sometimes called minor planets, are
small solar system bodies in orbit around the sun,
 There are eight such objects which are in especially in the inner Solar System. Asteroids are
orbit around the sun. These are commonly smaller than planets but larger than a speck of dust.
referred to as "the planets". They are
Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, A comet is a solid body orbiting the sun typically

Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. composed of rock dust, or ice. Most comets were
formed from condensed interstellar gas and dust
clouds in the early stages of the creation of the
universe
The following are the three defining
characteristics of a planet: Gravitational force
1. It is a celestial body that orbits a star.

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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

Gravitational force is the attractive force existing  Gravity denotes the gravitational force
between any two objects that have mass. that occurs between the earth and other
Gravitational force pulls objects together bodies. Gravity is the force acting to pull
objects towards the earth. Gravity is the
Newton’s Law Of Universal force that holds us on the ground and
Gravitation
causes objects to fall back to the ground
Since gravitational force acts on all matter in the after being thrown up in the air.
universe, from the largest stars to the smallest  The measure of the force of gravity on an
atoms, it is often called universal gravitation. Sir object on the earth's surface is the weight
Isaac Newton was the first person to fully of that object Weight is measured in
recognize that the force holding any object to the Newton’s (N). The weight of an object
earth is the same as the force holding the moon, the changes depending on its location in the
planets, and other heavenly bodies in their orbits. universe.

According to Newton's law of universal Constellations

gravitation,
A constellation: is a group of stars that form a
Every single point mass attracts every other definite shape or pattern when viewed from the

point mass by a force directed along the line earth.

joining the two masses.

 Constellations are usually named after
mythological characters, people, animals
The force is proportional to the product of the two
and things.
masses and inversely proportional to the square of
 There are about 88 known constellations.
the distance between the point masses:
The various constellations are visible
during a particular period of the year.

Where F is the magnitude of the attractive Some examples of the known constellations are
gravitational force between the two point masses; shown, in the table below;
G is the universal gravitation constant; m1is the
mass of the first point mass; m2 is the mass of the
second point mass; and r is the distance between
the centers of the two point masses.

Gravitational force is actually a very weak force.

The pull is too weak to be felt between two people.
It is only when one of the masses is very large to
the size of a planet that the force of gravity can be
felt.

Uses of constellations

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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

The following are some uses of constellations: The earth and its moon form a unique pair in the
solar system. The moon of the earth is the sixth
1. Religious largest in the solar system. It has a diameter of
 In early days, people thought that the gods 3476km and a mass of 7.35 x 1022 kg.
lived in the heavens and that the gods
created the constellations. Many cultures
believed that the positions of the stars were
their god's way of telling stories. Indeed,
the Greeks named the constellations after
their mythological heroes and legends. For
example, to the ancient Greeks, Orion was
a great hunter. He was the son of Neptune
Fig 6.3 the earth and its moon.
(god of the sea).

Besides the earth, the moon is the only other body

2. Agricultural.
in the solar system upon which humankind has

 Before there were proper calendars, people walked.

had no way of determining when to sow or

harvest except by the stars. Constellations
made the patterns of the stars easy to
remember. The ancient peoples knew, for
example, that when the constellation Orion
started to be fully visible, winter was
coming soon. The constellations allowed
farmers to plan ahead.

3. Navigation
Fig 6.4 Astronout Buzz Aldrin on the moon with the Apollo 11
spacecraft
 It is fairly easy to spot Polaris (The North
Star) once you have found Ursa Minor  Like the earth, the moon has an iron core
(Little Dipper constellation). One can surrounded by a rocky mantle and crust.
figure out his or her latitude (North or Unlike the earth, no part of the moon's iron
South) just by looking at how high Polaris core is molten so it does not have a
appears in the night sky. This allowed for magnetic field. Surface gravity on the
ships to travel across the globe. It allowed moon is about 1/6 that on the earth. An
for the discovery of America, the spread of object weighing 120 kg on the earth would
European culture and civilization only weight 20 kg on the moon.
 The moon revolves in an anticlockwise
The earth and its moon.
direction around the earth in an elliptical
orbit. The moon's orbit is tilted at 5°

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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

relative to the earth's orbit around the sun.

The distance between the earth and the
moon varies from perigee (nearest the
earth) where it is 356,000km to apogee
(furthest from the earth), where it is
406,000km. The average distance is 384
000 km. It takes the moon 27.3 earth days
to complete one orbit, a period of time
called the Sidereal month.

Surface features of the moon

Fig 6.5 A photograph of the moon’s surface showing
There are two primary types of terrain on the
highland and maria
moon. These are the heavily cratered very old
lunar highlands and the relatively smooth and The Maria, which makes about 16% of the moon's
Younger Maria. surface, are huge impact craters that were later
flooded with molten lava. Most of the Maria {s
 From the earth, the moon's surface appears covered with regolith, a mixture of fine dust and
to have bright and dark regions when rocky debris produced by meteor impact
viewed with the unaided eye. The bright
areas are the lunar highlands that have Ocean tides
many craters and are covered with a highly
reflective layer of fine dust. The highlands Tides are periodic rises and falls of large bodies of

are geologically the oldest parts of the water. Tides are caused by the gravitational

moon's surface. interaction between the earth and the moon.

 The dark regions are low areas similar to

 The earth and the moon are attracted to
ocean basins on the earth. They are filled
each other, just like magnets are attracted
with dark solidified lava and are less
to each other. The moon tries to pull at
cratered than the highlands. Galileo called
anything on the earth to bring it closer. But
these areas Maria, the Italian word for
the earth is able to hold onto everything,
seas, because their dark smooth surfaces
except the water. Since the water is always
appeared to be large bodies of water.
moving, the earth cannot hold onto it and
the moon is able to pull at it. This results in
ocean tides. Each day, there are two high
tide and two low tides.

The ocean is constantly moving from high tide to

low tide, and then back to high tide. There is a time
interval of about 12 hours and 25 minutes between
the two high tides.

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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

How tides occur spring high tide and a spring low tide, respectively.
Spring tides are especially strong tides.
The gravitational attraction of the moon causes the
oceans to bulge out in the direction of the moon.
Another bulge occurs on the opposite side since the
earth is also being pulled towards the moon (and
away from the water on the far side). Ocean levels
fluctuate daily as the sun, moon and earth interact.
As the moon travels around the earth and as they
together travel around the sun, the combined
gravitational forces cause the world ocean water
Fig 6.7 Spring tides
levels to rise and fall Since the earth is rotating
while this is happening, two tides occur each day. Proxigean spring tide is a rare unusually high
tide. The Proxigean spring tide occurs when the
moon is both unusually close to the earth (at its
closest perigee, called the-proxigee) and in the new
moon phase' (when the moon is between the sun
and the earth). The proxigean spring tide occurs at
most once every 1.5 year.

Neap tides
When the sun and the moon are not aligned, the
Fig 6.6 Oceanic tides. gravitational forces cancel each other out, and the
tides are not Very high or very low, these are
Types of tides called neap tides.

There are two main types of tides. These are

 Spring tides
 Neap tides.
Spring tides

Spring tides occur during the full moon and the

new moon. During this time, the earth, the sun and
the moon are in a line. The gravitational forces of Fig 6.8 Neap tides

the moon and the sun both contribute to the tides.

Neap tides occur during quarter moons. During this
At these times, the high tides are very high and the
time, the gravitational forces of the moon and the
low tides are very low. These are known as a
sun are perpendicular to one another (with respect
to the earth). This causes the bulges to cancel each

133
Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

other. The result is a smaller difference between 4. Explain five importance of studying
high and low tide and is known as a neap tide. astronomy.
Neap tides are especially weak tides.
5. Explain how winter occurs in;

Chapter summary
(a) The Northern hemisphere

1. Astronomy is the study of the origin evolution,

(b) The southern hemisphere.
composition, distance and the motion of all
objects and scattered matter in the universe.
2. In early times, astronomy was used to measure
time, predict seasons and in navigation.
3. The solar system is made up of the eight
planets, the sun, thousands of asteroids and
countless comets and meteoroids.
4. Stars are giant spheres of hot gases called
plasma.
5. A galaxy is a large group of stars, dust and gas
held together by mutual gravitational forces.
6. Gravitational force is the attractive force that
exists between any two objects that have
mass.
7. Gravity is the gravitational force that exists
between the earth and other bodies.
8. A constellation is a group of stars that form a
definite pattern in the sky when viewed from
the earth.
9. Constellations are used in religion, agriculture
and in navigation.
10. The earth has one moon. The moon of the earth
is the sixth largest in the solar system.
11. Interaction between the sun, the earth the moon
and the ocean waters results in ocean tides.
12. There are two main types of ocean tides. These
are spring tides and neap tides.

Geophysics
Is the branch of science that is concerned
REVIEW EXERCISE
with the physical, chemical, geological,

1. (a) explain how tides occurs astronomical and other characteristic properties of

(b) explain what a tide is. the earth.

It deals with geological phenomena such as the
2. (a) What is the constellation? temperature distribution of the earth's interior, the

(b) List down three constellation. source, configuration and the geomagnetic field.

3. Explain the force that keeps the earth in its Interior structure of the earth
position.

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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

The structure of the earth is composed of three

major zones arranged in a concentric manner.
These are crust, mantle and core;

Fig 7.2 continental and oceanic crust

The dense oceanic crust floats at a lower elevation

forming oceanic basins. It is about 8km thick.

Fig 7.1 Interior structure of the earth. The boundary between the crust and the mantle is
The crust called Mohorovicic discontinuity or simply
The crust is the outer solid layer of the earth. It is Moho. It is a zone between one and several
extremely thin (5 to 15km) compared to the radius kilometers thick.
of the earth (6371 km).
There are two types of crust, namely The mantle
 Continental crust The mantle begins from the Moho and extends to a
 Oceanic crust. depth of 2900km below the earth's surface, up to
its boundary with the earth's core. This boundary is
Continental crust. called the Gutenberg discontinuity.
Is heterogeneous and of relatively low density (2 to
2.8 tones per cubic meter). It is composed mainly  The mantle contains about 70% of the

of granites and sedimentary rock. earth's mass. It is made up of rocks, both in

solid and in molten states. These rocks are
said to be in a plastic state. The upper part
of the mantle has a temperature of about
870°C. The temperature increases
Oceanic crust
downwards through the mantle to about
Chapter 7
2200°C near the core.
 Circulation of materials in the mantle is the
main mechanism of heat transfer from the
Is basaltic and has a. higher density (3.0 to 3.1
core of the earth to the outer regions of the
tones per cubic meter). Both the continental and
earth. It is the main force that drives the
oceanic crusts float on the denser mantle. Because
movement of continents as well as
of its low density, the continental crust floats on
volcanism and earthquakes.
the mantle at a higher elevation, forming the land
masses and mountains. The continental crust is 30 The core
to 70km thick. The core is the innermost part of the earth. It
extends from the Gutenberg discontinuity to the
geometric center. The core consists of two distinct
regions, namely the outer core and the inner core.

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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

The outer core is composed of a liquid of molten The line where two tectonic plates meet is called a
nickel and iron known as magma. It extends from boundary. There are three main types of
the mantle to a depth of about 5000km below the boundaries. These are destructive boundaries,
earth's surface. The inner core is solid; it is constructive boundaries and conservative
composed of iron-nickel alloys. boundaries.

The material of the inner core is solid because of Destructive boundary (convergent) is the kind of
the high pressure at this depth. boundary in which edges of two plates moving
toward each other. Is one found at the edges of
Tectonic plates
two plates moving towards each other.
Are the huge pieces of cracked earth’s
crust and mantle part which floats over
semi-molten rock. Also is called lithospheric
plate. Tectonic plates are in slow motion/speed.
This movement means continents are moving
apart and toward each other. This process in
which continents moving is called continental
drift fig 7.4

The earth’s crust and part of the mantle are cracked

Constructive (boundaries divergent)
into huge pieces called tectonic plates. These
 Are formed at the edges of two plates
plates float on top of the semi-molten rock
moving away from each other.
underneath. They move about at a very slow speed.
 Are formed when two plates slide past
The movements of the tectonic plates mean that
each other without moving apart or
some continents are moving apart and some are
towards each other.
moving towards each other. This process is
referred to as continental drift and has been going
on for hundreds of millions of years. Tectonic plate
movements have split the continents as- we, know
them today.

Fig 7.5 constructive boundary

Volcanoes and earthquake

 Volcanoes are the process hot magma,
volcanic ash and gases to escape from
the magma chamber below the surface.
Volcanoes found where tectonic plates
are diverging or converging.

Fig 7.3 Tectonic plates.

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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

 Are places where molten rock called When an ocean plate plunges under another plate,
magma leaks out through a hole or a crack the ocean plate rubs against the plate above it and
in the earth's crust gets hot. The rock melts resulting in magma under
Causes of volcanoes the upper plate. This pool of magma forces its way
 Volcanoes are causes by movement of through weak points in the crust. This creates a line

molten rock and heat energy inside the of volcanoes parallel to the boundary but off to one

earth. These movements is called side in the upper plate. Most of the world’s

subterranean movements volcanoes occur at destructive boundaries. Nearly

all the way around the Pacific Ocean is a line of
destructive plate boundaries whew ocean plates
slide under continental plates and other ocean
plates. These boundaries hare created a circle of
volcanoes around the rim of the Pacific. This circle
is called the Ring of Fire. It runs along the west
coasts of South America, and North America,
through Japan, the Philippines and New Zealand.

Fig 7.6 Volcano formation

Magma originates from the mantle where high
temperatures and pressure cause the rock to melt.
When a large pool of magma is formed, it rises
through the denser rock layer towards the earth's
surface. Magma that has readied the earth's surface
is called lava.

Fig 7.8 The ring of fire.

Hot-spot volcanoes
Volcanoes also erupt thousands of kilometers away
from tectonic plate boundaries. It is thought that
these eruptions occur over places in the mantle that
are hotter than normal. Magma from these hot-
Fig 7.7 Volcanic eruption
spots forces its way through the crust above and
Most volcanoes form along constructive and
onto the earth's surface. Nyamulagira Volcano in
destructive boundaries between tectonic plates.
Congo is a hot-spot volcano.

Volcanoes at destructive boundaries

Types of volcanoes
There are two main types of volcanoes, namely

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 fissure Active volcanoes-Are those that either erupt

 central volcanoes; constantly or have erupted in recent times. They
include the Ol Donyo Lengai Volcano.
Fissure volcanoes
Dormant volcanoes-Are those that have been
These occur along cracks in and between tectonic
inactive for some time (a few thousand years) but
plates. They can be many kilometers long. Lava is
can erupt again. An example is Mt. Kilimanjaro.
usually ejected quietly and continuously, forming
enormous plains or plateaus of basaltic volcanic
Extinct volcanoes-Are those that have not erupted
rock.
in recorded history. They will probably never erupt
again.

Effects of volcanoes

 Landscape
Volcanoes have a great effect on the
landscape. Much of the earth's surface is
covered with volcanic rocks. Volcanoes
are also responsible for the formation of
Fig 7.9 Fissure volcanoes many mountains and islands.
Central volcanoes  Vegetation and wildlife
These hare a single vertical main vent through Volcanic eruptions destroy vegetation. The
which magma reaches the earth's surface. They eruptions sometimes set the surrounding
usually develop a cone shape that builds up from vegetation on fire. Such fires consume
successive layers of lava and ash. huge tracts of vegetation that include
forests, woodlands and grasslands.
 Wild animals
Are also killed by being buried in the lava
or being burnt by the forest fires.
 Environment
Besides the destruction of vegetation,
volcanic eruptions emit harmful gases into
the environment. Such gases include
sulphur dioxide. Some of the gases
Fig 7.10 Central Volcanoes.
Classification of volcanoes. contribute to global warming and climate

Volcanoes are classified into three categories based change.

on their frequency of eruption. These are  Human life and property

(i) Active, Dormant Volcanic eruptions sometimes kill people

(ii) Extinct Volcanoes. and destroy property. People who monitor

volcanic activities usually warn people of

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an impending eruption so that people life Once the fault has locked, continued
can vacate such areas. However, some relative motion between the plates leads
eruptions happen unexpectedly. Such to increasing stress and therefore, stored
eruptions bury people, animals and strain energy in the volume around the
buildings in mountains of lava. fault surface. This continues until the
 Soil stress has risen sufficiently to break
Volcanoes help in soil formation by
suddenly allowing sliding over the
bringing important soil minerals from deep
locked portion of the fault and releasing
underground onto the earth's surface.
the stored energy. This energy is released
 Minerals
as a combination of radiated elastic strain
Volcanic eruptions also bring valuable
seismic waves, frictional heating of the
minerals to the earth's surface. The
fault surface, and cracking of the rock,
minerals are important economic
thus causing an earthquake.
resources.

Volcanic Eruptions.
Earthquakes Movement of magma in volcanoes, such
Earthquakes are the rumblings, shaking earthquakes can serve as an early
or rolling of the earth's surface OR warning of volcanic eruptions. Earthquake
Earthquakes is a sudden motion or swarms can serve as markers for the location
shaking of the earth caused by sudden of the flowing magma throughout the volcanoes.
release of energy that has accumulated These swarms can be recorded by
within or along the edges of the earth’s seismometers and tilt meters (a device
tectonic plates. that measures ground slope) and used as
 Earthquakes happen when rocks in the sensors to predict imminent or upcoming
earth's crust move suddenly, shaking the eruptions. earthquakes occur
earth.
 About 10,000 earthquakes happen, every Earthquake build-up

year but most are so small that they can

Pressure builds between them until the frictional
only be detected by very sensitive
force holding the plates together gives way. The
instruments.
plates move suddenly, releasing the pressure

Earthquakes also occur as a result of movement of (energy) and then hold together again. This sudden

magma at constructive boundaries, under jerk is what is felt as an earthquake.

volcanoes and where continental plates collide and

An earthquake is a sudden motion or shaking of the
push mountain ranges.
earth caused by a sudden release of energy that has
accumulated within or along the edges of the
Causes of earthquakes
earth's tectonic plates.
Movements of Tectonic Plates

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The point within the earth where an earthquake There are two types of surface waves. These are
begins is called the hypocentre or the focus of the  Rayleigh Waves
earthquake.  Love Waves.
Rayleigh waves create a rolling movement that
Earthquakes rarely occur along constructive plate makes the land surface move up and down.
boundaries.

Love waves make the ground shift from side to

Seismic waves
side.
Earthquakes release their energy in three waves of
It is the surface waves that do damage to surface
energy called seismic waves. These are
structure such as buildings and hydroelectric power
 Primary Waves,
plants.
 Secondary Waves
EARTHQUAKE SCALES
 Surface Waves.
The nature of an earthquake is usually described by
measuring two properties. These are the
Primary waves or p-waves
magnitude and intensity.
Are the-first waves released from the
hypocenter. Primary waves are felt as a The magnitude of an earthquake is a. measure of
sudden jolt. the energy it releases. It is usually measured on the
Richter scale. The Richter scale is based on the
Secondary waves or s-waves amplitude of the largest seismic wave recorded for
Arrive a few seconds later. They are felt as an. earthquake, no matter what type of wave was
a series of side-to-side tremors. the strongest.

The Richter scale magnitudes are based on a

logarithmic scale (base 30). This means that for
every whole number you go up on the Richter
scale, the amplitude of the ground motion goes up
ten times. Using the Richter scale, art earthquake
.of magnitude 7.0 would result in ten' times the
level of ground shaking as an earthquake of
magnitude 6·0.

The Richter scale can be used to describe

earthquakes so small that they are expressed in
negative numbers. The scale has no upper limit.

Fig 7.11 Seismic waves The intensity of an earthquake is a measure of its

strength based on the changes it causes to the
Surface waves radiate outward from a point on the
landscape. The intensity of an earthquake is usually
earth's surface directly above the hypocenter. This
measured on the Modified Mercalli scale. The
point is called the epicenter of the earthquake.

140
Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

scale is calibrated from 1 to 12. On this scale, level pendulum has a heavy mass fixed to the upper end
1 is a minor tremor that causes no damage whereas of a vertical rod pointed at its lower end, while the
level 12 causes total devastation. horizontal pendulum has a rod with a mass on its
end which is suspended at two points so that it
Note that: An earthquake can only have one swings on a horizontal plane.
magnitude. However, its intensity reduces as the
seismic waves spread out from the hypocenter, just
the same way the loudness of a sound changes as
you move away from the source.

The seismograph
The seismograph is an instrument used to record
ground movements caused by earthquakes. It
measures ground oscillations-by recording the
relative motion between a pendulum and the
ground. It is also possible to use the ratio between Fig 7.13 Vertical a pendulum seismograph
the deflection of the pendulum and the acceleration
of the ground to record an earthquake. The time of Recording the pendulum motion

Initiation of ground oscillations is recorded and The recording of the motion of the pendulum can

marked and are included on the graphs every be done, in various ways. The most common ones

minute and hour on the seismograph paper. are the mechanical method, the optical method and
the electronic method.

Mechanical method

In the mechanical method, a sheet of smoked paper

is wrapped around a rotating drum and mounted to
move with the earth. A moving pen connected to
the pendulum presses lightly on the paper. As time
passes, the drum rotates so that the recorded lines
are not superimposed on each other. Deflection of
the pendulum is commonly magnified

Fig 7.12 Seismograph mechanically by single or double multiplying

In order to measure ground motions, the levers so that the graph is easier to see.

seismograph must remain steady when the ground

This method is simple and economical. However,
moves. Various types of pendulums have been
the seismograph must have a heavy mass to
used to obtain this steady state. The simplest type
overcome the friction between the pen and the
of pendulum is a heavy mass suspended by a wire
paper. Consequently, some mechanical
or rod from a fixed point. , Other forms are the
seismographs weigh one tonne or more.
inverted and horizontal pendulum. The inverted

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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

Optical method
The optical method still uses a pendulum motion to
record the ground movements'. However, to
overcome friction, mirrors are used to reflect the
light onto photosensitive paper wrapped on a drum.
Electronic method
Technological developments have given rise to
high-precision seismometers and sensors of ground fig 7.14 Land slide caused by an earth quake
motion. In these electromagnetic instruments, a
coil is fixed to the mass of a pendulum and moves  Tsunamis
in a magnetic field. The electric current, generated If an earthquake happens in rocks under the sea
in the coil, operates a galvanometer In the .same or ocean, the shock waves disturb the water.
way a dynamo operates a motor. The voltages The ocean floor can also rise or fall causing the
.produced by motions of the pendulum is passed water to rise or fall too. These movements
through electronic circuits to amplify the ground create huge water waves called tsunamis that
motion for more exact readings. The seismograph travel across the ocean. When a tsunami
records both the magnitude and the intensity of the reaches shallow water, it slows down, its
earthquake. wavelength reduces and its height grows.
When the tsunami hits the shore it crashes
Earthquake hazards inland carrying everything in its way, including
 Landslides destroyed building.
The shaking caused by earthquakes can
cause unstable hillsides, mountain slopes
and cliffs to move downwards, creating
landslides. In massive landslides created
by earthquakes, soil and rock accelerate
down the slope, sweeping away everything
in their path. Landslides can fill valleys,
creating temporary dams. These dams
release floodwater when they collapse.
Earthquakes can also trigger avalanches on
snow slopes Fig 7.15 A Tsunami
 Collapsing buildings
Earthquakes do not actually kill people. It
is the hazards that are associated with
earthquakes that kill people. The majority
of people killed or injured in earthquakes
are trapped in

142
Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

buildings that collapse because of the ground,

underneath shaking. A strong earthquake can
flatten a whole city. An example is the Japanese
city of Kobe which was completely flattened by
an earthquake measuring 7.2 on-the Richter
scale. The earthquake occurred in January
1995. More than 6 000 people died and about
200,000 buildings collapsed or were
damaged.

Fig 7.17 Lift Valley.

Earthquake warning signs

The following are important signs that are
observed before an earthquake occurs:
Thermal indicator
A few months before the occurrence of an
earthquake, the average temperature of the area
fig 7.16 The aftermath of the Kobe
keeps increasing. On the day of the
earthquake
earthquake, the temperature of a place is
 Fire outbreak
about 5 to 9 degrees Celsius above the average
An earthquake can trigger a fire outbreak.
normal temperature for that day.
This happens when the earthquake causes
gas or oil pipes to break. It can also occur
Water indicator
as a result of the collapse of electricity lines.
About one or three days before an
earthquake, there is- a sudden rise or fall in
Backward rivers
water levels in wells. The rise can be as high
Tilting ground can also make rivers change
as one meter. The well water may turn
their course. This can result in the creation of
muddy/. At times a fountain appears inside the
earthquake lakes that cover huge tracts of
well. Sometimes a fountain may appear in
previously settled land.
the ground. This normally happens; a few
hours before the quake. There is also a sudden and
Earthquakes can form the rift valley as the plates
rapid increase or decrease of water flow in
move apart. The African rift valley is an example
the rivers. This happens about one to two days
before the quake.

Seismo electromagnetic indicator

Before the occurrence of an earthquake the
sub- surface temperature rises. As a
result of this, the geomagnetic field

143
Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

is reduced. The reduction in disturbed before an earthquake. They exhibit a

geomagnetic field adversely sudden rise in blood pressure, heart trouble,
affects the propagation of electromagnetic headache, migraine and respiratory disorders.
waves. This is experienced abundantly on Indeed, the number of outpatients in< hospitals
the radio, television and telephone. This is increases by five to seven times, some 10 to 20
a very reliable indicator. It is usually hours before the quake.
recorded about 10 to 20 hours before the
quake. The best human earthquake indicator’ is the
number of child deliveries in any hospital. On the
If a particular radio station is received at a penultimate day of the earthquake, the number of
frequency of 1000kHz, the same station will be deliveries goes up about three to five times, while
received in the potential epicenter area at higher on the day of the earthquake it is as high as seven
frequencies, about 10 to 30 hours before the to eight times the average.
earthquake. Similarly, reception of television
signals is affected.
Precaution to be taken during an
earthquake
The mobile telephone is one of the most reliable The following are some precautions that can be
indicators of an impending earthquake. About 100 taken to minimize injuries to or death of human
to 150 minutes before the occurrence of an beings, in the event of an earthquake:
earthquake, mobile telephones stop functioning or
become malfunction. 1. If you are indoors during an earthquake, drop,
cover and hold on. Get under a desk, table or
Note that all the above indicators are valid only bench. Hold on to one of the legs and cover your
when seen and manifested extensively. Failure of eyes. If there is no table or desk nearby, sit down
one or two instruments should not be taken as an against an interior wall. An interior wall is less
earthquake indicator. likely to collapse than a wall on the outside shell of
the building.
Animal indicator
Between 10 and 20 hours before the occurrence of 2. Pick a safe place where things will not fall on
an earthquake, the entire animal kingdom becomes you away from windows or tall, heavy furniture.
highly disturbed and restless. They move in a
directionless manner and in fear. Birds do not 3. Do not run outside when an earthquake happens

perch on trees but move about at a low height, because bricks, roofing and other materials may

emitting a shrill noise. Rodents like rats and fall from buildings

mongooses go into a panic. Domestic animals like during and immediately after an earthquake,

cows, dogs and cats struggle against being tied up injuring persons near the building.

and may even turn on the owner.

4. Wait in your safe place until the shaking stops,
Human indicator
then check to see if you are hurt. You will be better
Doctors and nurses have observed that some
able to help others if you take care of yourself first,
sensitive patients in hospitals become highly
and then check on the people around you.

144
Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

5. Move carefully and watch out for things that

have fallen or broken. Creating hazards. Be ready
for additional earthquakes called aftershocks.

6. Be on the lookout for fires. Fire is the most

common earthquake-related hazard due to
damaged gas and electrical lines. If you must leave
a building after the shaking stops, use the stairs and
not the elevator. Earthquakes can cause fire alarms
and fire sprinklers to go off. You will not be
certain whether there is a real threat of fire. As a
precaution, use the stairs. Fig 7.18 structure of the atmosphere.
Troposphere
7. If you are outside during an earthquake stay This is the region nearest to the earth. It extends to
outside. Move away from buildings, trees, an altitude of up to 10 km above the poles and 20
streetlights and power lines. Crouch down and km above the equator.
cover .your head. Bricks, roofing and other
materials can fall from buildings, injuring persons This region is the densest part of the atmosphere. It
nearby. Trees, streetlights and power lines may contains 80% by mass of the atmosphere. It
also fall, causing damage or injury. contains most of the atmosphere's water vapor. The
temperature in this region decreases with altitude at
an average rate of 6°C/km.
Structure and composition of the atmosphere
The earth is surrounded above it by a layer of gases The troposphere is well mixed. Air molecules can
containing numerous small suspended solid and travel to the top of the troposphere and back down
liquid particles. This layer is called the atmosphere. again in just a few days. This mixing encourages
The atmosphere consists largely of, a mixture of changing weather.
gases, extending to a height of many kilometers
Most weather phenomena occur in the troposphere.
above the earth. It has no outer boundary. It just
Clouds and rain are formed within this region.
fades into space. The dense part of atmosphere lies
within 30 km above the earth’s surface.
The boundary which separates the troposphere and
the stratosphere is called the tropopause. At the
Structure of the atmosphere
tropopause, the temperatures stop decreasing with
The atmosphere is divided into regions based on its
height and become constant. The tropopause has an
thermal characteristics (temperature changes),
average height of 10 km.
chemical composition, movement and density. The
five regions are the troposphere, stratosphere, Stratosphere
mesosphere, thermosphere and exosphere. The stratosphere starts from the tropopause and
extends to 50 km high. This layer is more stable,
drier and less dense compared to the troposphere.

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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

The temperature in the stratosphere slowly This layer starts just above the mesosphere and
increases with altitude. extends up to 690 km high. The temperature
increases with increasing altitude due to the sun’s
The temperature increase is due to the presence of heat. The temperature in this region can go as high
the ozone layer which absorbs ultraviolet rays from as 1 727°C. Chemical reactions occur much faster
the sun. The ozone layer lies in the middle of the here than on the surface of the earth. This layer is
stratosphere between 20 and 30 km. Ozone is a also known as the upper atmosphere.
triatomic (three-molecule) form of oxygen.
The lower part of the thermosphere, from 80 to 550
This layer plays the important role of absorbing km above the earth's surface, contains the
ultraviolet radiations which would otherwise reach ionosphere. This is a region containing a high
the earth's surface. Ultraviolet radiation is harmful concentration of charged particles called ions and
to both animal and plant life on earth. The stable free electrons. The large number of free electrons
air of the stratosphere also prevents large storms in the ionosphere allows the propagation of
from extending much beyond the tropopause. electromagnetic waves.

Planes also fly in the stratosphere. This is because The ionosphere also absorbs dangerous radiation.
it has strong steady horizontal winds which are The radiation absorbed in the ionosphere includes
above the stormy weather of the troposphere. hard and soft X-rays and extreme ultraviolet
(EUV) radiation.
The troposphere and stratosphere are collectively
known as the lower atmosphere. The ionosphere plays an important role in
communications. Radio waves can be reflected off
The boundary which separates the stratosphere and
the ionosphere allowing radio communications
the other layers is called stratopause.
over long distances.

Mesosphere
Exosphere

The mesosphere starts just above the stratosphere The exosphere is the outermost region of the

and extends to 85 km high. The temperature at this atmosphere. In this region, the atmospheric gas

layer decreases with altitude. The lowest pressure is very low. Light atoms such as hydrogen

temperature of the atmosphere (-90°C) occurs and helium may acquire sufficient energy to escape

within this region. the earth's gravitational pull

The mesosphere is the layer in which most meteors The upper part of the exosphere is called

burn while entering the earth's atmosphere. magnetosphere. The motion of ions in this region is
strongly constrained by the presence of the earth's
The boundary which separates the mesosphere and magnetic field.
the thermosphere is called the mesopause.
This is the region where satellites orbit the earth.
Thermosphere
Importance of the atmosphere

146
Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

The following are some ways in which the layers Or

of the atmosphere are important:
Greenhouse effect is the process whereby
1. The troposphere controls the climate and radiation reflected by the atmosphere to warms
ultimately determines the quality of life on the the planet’s surface.
earth.

2. The troposphere is important for life on the

earth. The layer contains gases which include
oxygen which is used for respiration by animals
How Greenhouse Effect Occurs
and carbon dioxide which is used by plants in
When a planet’s surface is heated by sunlight it
photosynthesis.
emits thermal (heat) radiation which is absorbed

The nitrogen found in this layer also provides an by the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The

inactive environment for many chemical processes atmosphere reflects (re-radiates) back thermal
to take place. The gases also support many radiation in all directions to the earth’s surface
important chemical processes such as combustion, and lower atmosphere. Over time, this increases
weathering and oxidation. the planet’s temperature due to presence of
greenhouse gases
3. The “Stratosphere prevents harmful ultraviolet
radiation from reaching the earth. Sources of greenhouse effect
The main greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide,
4.The mesosphere, thermosphere and exosphere methane, chlorofluorocarbons and Dinitrogen
also prevent harmful radiation such as cosmic rays oxide.
from reaching the earth's surface. Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide is the main greenhouse
5.Communication is also made possible by some gas. The gas contributes over 50% of the
layers of the atmosphere, specifically the greenhouse effect. The following are some
ionosphere. of the sources of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere:
The greenhouse effect
The greenhouse effect is the process in which the Clearing and burning of vegetation-Green

emission of radiation by the atmosphere warms the plants, especially woody plants, absorb

earth’s surface. carbon dioxide from the atmosphere as

they grow. When the wood dies, the
Greenhouse effect is the process whereby
carbon dioxide is released back into the
radiation reflected by the atmosphere to warms
atmosphere. Clearing of forests
the earth’s surface
(deforestation) and burning vegetation
Or
results in the release of carbon dioxide to
Greenhouse effect is the trapping back of Sun’s
the atmosphere. The loss of the forests also
energy by a planet from atmospheres

147
Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

means that there are fewer trees to absorb

carbon dioxide
Since the 1960s the amount of methane in the air
has increased by 1% per year, twice as fast as the
build-up of carbon dioxide. Methane molecules
have a lifetime of 10 years in the atmosphere.

Dinitrogen oxide
Dinitrogen oxide is produced from both natural and
human-made processes. Human activities which
produce, Dinitrogen oxide include combustion of
fossil fuels in vehicles and power stations, use of
nitrogenous fertilizers, and the burning of
Fig 7.19 Deforestation contribute global vegetation and animal waste.
warming
Chlorofluorocarbons
Burning of fossil fuels; Carbon dioxide is a by- Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are organic
product in the combustion of fossil fuels such as compounds made up of chlorine, fluorine and
coal and petroleum. These fossil fuels are burnt in carbon. The sources of CFCs in the atmosphere
cars, power stations and industries. include fridges, air conditioners and aerosols.
CFCs are extremely effective greenhouse gases. A
Methane
CFC molecule is 10 000 times more effective in
The main source of methane is- agricultural
trapping heat than a carbon dioxide molecule.
activities. It is released from wetlands, such as
rice fields and from animals, particularly cud-
Global warming
chewing animals like cows. The emission of
Is the increase of the average temperatures near or
methane gas, therefore, increases with, increase in
on the surface of the earth as a result of what is
agricultural activities. Methane is also produced
known as the greenhouse effect. The effect is
during the mining of coal and oil and when
caused by greenhouse gases. These gases are
vegetation is burnt.
produced from natural and industrial processes.
Global warming is the increase of the average
temperatures near or on the earth’s surface
caused by greenhouse gases
Or
Global warming is the increase in temperature
near or on the surface of the earth resulting into
greenhouse effect

Causes of global warming

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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

Global warming is mainly caused by greenhouse These include floods, droughts,' heal
gases waves, hurricanes and tornadoes.

Effects of the global warming

 Increase in the temperature of the
oceans
This causes the bleaching of corals.
Bleaching of coral reefs is the loss of
pigments and microscopic plant cells from
coral tissues. This results in the whitening
of the coral reefs.
 Rise in sea levels
Sea levels are rising due to thermal
expansion of the oceans and the melting of Fig 7.20 Hurricane winds
land ice. This may eventually lead to
Other effects of global warming include:
flooding of coastal lands.
 higher or lower agricultural yields,
 Change in world's climatic patterns
 Melting of Arctic ice and snow caps. This
The climatic patterns in most parts of the
causes landslides, flash floods and glacial
world have changed. It is becoming hard to
lake overflow,
forecast the weather accurately. Rain no
 extinction of some animal and plant
longer falls when expected. Sometimes the
species,
rains are heavier than expected, leading to
 Increase in the range of disease vectors,
flooding. Other times, the rains are far less
that is, organisms that transmit diseases
than expected, leading to drought.
 Acidification of the oceans
Solutions to Minimize Global Warming
The world's oceans soak up much of the
The major solution is to reduce the
carbon dioxide produced by living
greenhouse gases emission into the
organisms either in. the form of dissolved
atmosphere by:
gas, or from the skeletons of tiny marine
 Reduce the use of fossil fuels by use of
creatures that fall to the bottom to become
public transport which will minimize the
chalk or limestone. 'The carbon dioxide
dissolves in the water and forms a weak
number of vehicles in the roads

carbonic acid, thereby lowering the pH of  Use of fuel-efficient cars

the ocean waters.  Use of clearer alternative sources of

Increased acidity and temperatures of energy such as solar and wind.
ocean waters eventually lead to the  Afforestation
bleaching and death of coral reefs.  Countries to make a policy of
 Extreme weather events minimizing the emission of greenhouse
gases. Example, Kyoto protocol

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Nuclear physics Mr Chambilo PM

Check deforestation and replant trees 6. Volcanoes mainly form along destructive
(afforestation) that would absorb carbon dioxide. and constructive plate boundaries.
7. Hot-spot volcanoes form away from
tectonic plate boundaries
8. There are two main types of volcanoes,
namely central and fissure volcanoes.
9. Volcanic eruptions affect the landscape,
vegetation, wildlife, environment, human
life and property, soil formation and the
availability of minerals on the earth's
surface.
10. Earthquakes occur when rocks within the

Fig 7.21 Afforestation earth's crust move suddenly, shaking the

earth.
Countries should commit themselves to 11. Earthquakes occur on or near destructive
minimizing the emission of greenhouse gases into plate boundaries
the atmosphere. This is being done through 12. The point within the earth's surface where
agreements such as the Kyoto Protocol. an earthquake begins is called the
hypocenter or the focus of the earthquake.
13. Earthquakes release their energy in three
waves called seismic waves. These are
Chapter summary
primary waves, secondary waves and
1. Geophysics is the branch of science
surface waves.
concerned with the physical, chemical,
14. Earthquakes are usually described in terms
geological, astronomical and other
of their magnitude and intensity.
characteristic properties of the earth.
15. The magnitude of an earthquake is usually
2. The interior of the earth is composed of
measured, on the Richter scale. The scale
three main layers, namely the crust,
is .based on the amplitude of the largest
mantle, outer core and the inner core.
seismic wave recorded, no matter what
3. The earth's crust and part of the mantle are
type of wave was the strongest.
cracked into huge pieces called tectonic
16. The intensity of an earthquake is a measure
plates. The tectonic plates move about at
of its strength based on the changes it
very low speeds.
causes to the landscape. The intensity of an
4. The line where two tectonic plates meet is
earthquake is measured on the Modified
called a boundary.
Mercalli scale.
5. There are three main types of boundaries.
17. A seismograph is an instrument used to
These are destructive boundaries,
record ground-movements caused by an
constructive boundaries and conservative
earthquake.
boundaries.

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18. There are many hazards associated with 1. Explain why the inner core of the earth is solid
earthquakes. They include landslides, while the outer core is liquid even though the
tsunamis, collapsing buildings, fire temperature is high?
outbreaks and backward rivers. 2. Explain three effects of volcanic activity.
19. Earthquakes are usually preceded by a 3. (a) What is an earthquake?
number of signs. They include temperature (b) Explain the meaning of the following
changes, rise or fall of water levels in terms as used in earthquake.
wells, animals becoming highly disturbed (i) Hypocenter
and restless, and an increase in the number (ii) Epicenter.
of patients and child deliveries in hospitals. (c) Name the instrument used to measure
20. The earth's atmosphere is divided into earthquakes.
several vertical layers. They are the (d) Explain five hazards of associated with
troposphere, the stratosphere, the earthquakes.
mesosphere, the thermosphere and the (e) List three precautions that can be taken
exosphere. against earthquake hazards.
21. Global warming is the increase in the 4. (a) What is global warming?
average temperature on or near the earth's (b) Name four gases that contribute to global
surface as a result of the greenhouse effect. warming and give one source of each.
22. The greenhouse effect is caused by (c) Explain the effect of global warming.
greenhouse gases, which include carbon (d) Explain three measures that can be taken to
dioxide, methane, dinitrogen oxide, and control global warming.
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
5. Explain how volcanoes occur.
23. Global warming results in increase in the
temperature of oceans, rise in sea level,
change in the earth’s climatic patterns,
acidification of the oceans, and extreme “Goals are for a lifetime; they are our
weather events such as heat waves,
voluntary but yet are a mandatory
hurricanes and drought.
assignment”
24. Some of the measures that should be put
in-place to check global warming
include implementation of energy
conservation measures.

REVIEW EXERCISE

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