What is Computer?

A computer is a programmable electronic device that accepts raw data as input and
processes it with a set of instructions (a program) to produce the result as output. It
renders output just after performing mathematical and logical operations and can
save the output for future use. It can process numerical as well as non-numerical
calculations. The term "computer" is derived from the Latin word "computare"
which means to calculate.
A computer is designed to execute applications and provides a variety of solutions
through integrated hardware and software components. It works with the help of
programs and represents the decimal numbers through a string of binary digits. It
also has a memory that stores the data, programs, and result of processing. The
components of a computer such as machinery that includes wires, transistors,
circuits, hard disk are called hardware. Whereas, the programs and data are called
software.
It is believed that the Analytical Engine was the first computer which was invented
by Charles Babbage in 1837. It used punch cards as read-only memory. Charles
Babbage is also known as the father of the computer.
The basic parts without which a computer cannot work are as follows:

● Processor: It executes instructions from software and hardware.

● Memory: It is the primary memory for data transfer between the CPU and
storage.
● Motherboard: It is the part that connects all other parts or components of a
computer.
● Storage Device: It permanently stores the data, e.g., hard drive.
● Input Device: It allows you to communicate with the computer or to input
data, e.g., a keyboard.
● Output Device: It enables you to see the output, e.g., monitor.

The characteristics of the computer system are as follows −

Speed
A computer works with much higher speed and accuracy compared to humans
while performing mathematical calculations. Computers can process millions
(1,000,000) of instructions per second. The time taken by computers for their
operations is microseconds and nanoseconds.

Accuracy
Computers perform calculations with 100% accuracy. Errors may occur due to
data inconsistency or inaccuracy.

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Diligence
A computer can perform millions of tasks or calculations with the same
consistency and accuracy. It doesn’t feel any fatigue or lack of concentration. Its
memory also makes it superior to that of human beings.

Versatility
Versatility refers to the capability of a computer to perform different kinds of
works with same accuracy and efficiency.
Reliability
A computer is reliable as it gives consistent result for similar set of data i.e., if
we give same set of input any number of times, we will get the same result.

Automation

Computer performs all the tasks automatically i.e. it performs tasks without
manual intervention.

Memory
A computer has built-in memory called primary memory where it stores data.
Secondary storage are removable devices such as CDs, pen drives, etc., which
are also used to store data.

Computer Parts or Components

Computer components are the essential building parts of developing a functional
computer system. The components that make up a computer are called computer
components. The processor (CPU), memory, and input/output devices are every
computer's three main building blocks. Initially computers were primarily used for
numerical computations because any information can be numerically encoded. The
ability of computers to interpret information for several purposes was quickly
recognized.
There are 5 main computer components that are given below:

● Input Devices
● CPU
● Output Devices
● Primary Memory
● Secondary Memory

Let's look a bit further at each of them.

Input devices
A computer system's input devices are important because they allow users to enter
commands and data. Keyboards, mice, scanners, and microphones are numerous
examples of input devices.

● The keyboard is the most commonly utilized input device for inserting text
and queries into a computer system.
● Mice are another common input tool used to move the cursor on a computer
screen.
● Scanners are used for inputting physical documents or images into a
computer system.
● Microphones are used to input audio data into a system for computing. They
can be used for various tasks, including recording audio for podcasts,
participating in video conferences, and creating voice memos for later use.

CPU
A computer machine's "brain" is its central processing unit (CPU). It executes the
calculations and commands required for functioning of the computer device. The
CPU comprises some components: the control unit, the arithmetic logic unit
(ALU), and registers.

● The CPU's control unit is a crucial component. It is in charge of reading and

decoding instructions from memory. The right part of the CPU receives and
executes these instructions from the control unit.
● The ALU, often known as the arithmetic logic unit, is another crucial CPU
part. The ALU operates addition, subtraction, comparison calculations, and
other logical and mathematical processes. These operations are carried out
using binary logic, which limits operations to the 0 and 1 digits.
● Registers are compact, high-speed data and instruction storage spaces within
the CPU. They are utilized to store data that is being processed by the CPU
momentarily. Registers are used to accelerate data processing because they
are much faster than other forms of memory, such as RAM.
 ● The CPU's clock speed is yet another crucial aspect that affects overall
performance. The clock speed, measured in GHz (gigahertz), controls what
number of commands the integral processing unit can process in a second.

Modern CPUs also have additional features like cache memory, virtualization
capability, and a couple of cores in addition to the abovementioned components. A
small, quick memory called a cache is used to store data and instructions that are
utilized frequently. A single CPU may run numerous operating systems thanks to
virtualization capability. The CPU can execute numerous tasks simultaneously
thanks to multiple cores, enhancing its performance and multitasking capabilities.
Primary Memory
The CPU has direct access to primary memory, sometimes referred to as random
access memory (RAM). The data and instructions that are currently being
processed are kept in primary memory. The data and instructions are accessed by
the CPU from primary memory when a computer programme is running. The
information is removed from primary memory once the programme is completed.

Primary memory is classified into two types: random access memory (RAM) and
read-only memory (ROM).

● RAM is the most common form of primary memory and is used to store data
and instructions that the CPU wishes to access frequently. RAM is volatile,
which means that its contents are lost when the computer is turned off. But
RAM can be effortlessly and quickly written to and read from, making it a
really perfect storage medium for temporary data and instructions.
● ROM is a form of memory this is used to store data and instructions that
don't change. ROM is non-volatile, which means that its contents aren't lost
while the computer is turned off. ROM is used to keep firmware and the
laptop's basic input/Output machine (BIOS), that are required for the
computer to boot up and function well.

Other primary memory types, including cache memory, are sometimes used in
computer systems. High-speed memory called cache saves information and
instructions, which might be utilized often. By lowering the time, the CPU has to
wait for data to be received from RAM or secondary storage devices, it is used to
speed up the processing of records.
Secondary Memory:
Secondary memory, also called auxiliary storage, is a type of computer memory
that is used to store data and programs that aren't currently being utilized by the
CPU. In contrast to primary memory, secondary memory is non-volatile, which
means that its contents are not lost when the computer is turned off.

There are several types of secondary memory devices, such as hard disk drives
(HDD), solid-state drives (SSD), optical disks (including CDs and DVDs), and
USB flash drives. These devices have varying storage capacities, read and write
speeds, and different capabilities that make them appropriate for different types of
applications.

● Hard disc drives are the most typical secondary memory tool in computing
devices and laptop computers. They come in various sizes and speeds and
keep data on magnetic discs. However, solid-state drives employ flash
memory to store data and are typically quicker and more reliable despite
being extra high-priced than HDDs.
● Optical discs are a secondary memory that reads and writes data to discs
using lasers. They are frequently used for data backup, distribution of
software, and other digital information. Small, portable storage devices
known as USB flash drives are connected to a computer's USB connection.

Users can store a lot of data and programmes in secondary memory, which is
useful since it makes them accessible fast and readily when needed. Users can also
protect crucial data from loss due to system crashes or other issues by using
secondary memory devices as backups.
Output Devices:
Output devices are hardware components of a computer system that are used to
show or send data from the pc to the user or any other device. They enable
customers to view and engage with the information and applications the computer
is processing. Speakers, projectors, printers, and monitors are a few examples of
output devices.
 ● Monitors are the most frequently used output devices used to show data on a
computer machine. They may be used to show photos, videos, and different
forms of data and exist in various sizes and resolutions.
● Printers are another form of output device this is used to print hard copies of
papers and other styles of data. They include inkjet and laser printers and are
available in various sizes and brands. While laser printers utilize toner to
make speedy, high-volume prints, inkjet printers employ liquid ink to
produce high-quality prints.
● Speakers are used to output sound from a computer system. They can be
connected externally or incorporated into the computer system. They enable
users to interact with other forms of multimedia material, view videos, and
listen to music.
● Projectors are output device that displays huge images and videos on a
screen or wall. They are frequently utilized in presentations and other
occasions that call for a sizable display.

Operations of Computer Components

The operations of computer components are given below:
Computer components collaborate to carry out the numerous tasks necessary for a
computer system to run. The following are some of the major operations carried
out by computer components:

1. Inputting: It is the process of entering raw data, instructions and

information into the computer. Keyboards, mice, and scanners are used as
input devices to help with the process. These tools are used to enter
information and instructions into a computer system. Data is transferred to
the CPU for processing after inputting by an input device.
2. Processing: It is the process of converting the raw data into useful
information. This process is performed by the CPU of the computer. It takes
the raw data from storage, processes it and then sends back the processed
data to storage. The CPU performs arithmetic computations, logical
operations, and data transport processes.
 3. Storing: The computer has primary memory and secondary storage to store
data and instructions. It stores the data before sending it to CPU for
processing and also stores the processed data before displaying it as output.
The primary memory, sometimes called RAM, is where the CPU processes
the data and instructions. Hard disc drives and solid-state drives, which serve
as secondary memory, offer long-term storage for data and programmes that
are not currently used.
4. Outputting: It is the process of presenting the processed data through output
devices like monitor, printer and speakers. These devices display or produce
the results of the processing performed by the CPU. The results are sent to
an output device for display or printing after the CPU has finished
processing the data and instructions.
5. Controlling: This operation is performed by the control unit that is part of
CPU. The control unit ensures that all basic operations are executed in a
right manner and sequence. The main circuit board connects all the parts of
the computer. It also regulates the data flow between them, ensuring they
function properly and connecting them all.

Input Devices
Input device enables the user to send data, information, or control signals to a
computer. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) of a computer receives the input and
processes it to produce the output.
Some of the popular input devices are:

1. Keyboard
2. Mouse
3. Scanner
4. Joystick
5. Light Pen
6. Digitizer
7. Microphone
8. Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)
9. Optical Character Reader (OCR)
10.Digital Camera
11.Paddle
 12.Steering Wheel
13.Gesture recognition devices
14.Light Gun
15.Touch Pad
16.Remote
17.Touch screen
18.VR
19.Webcam
20.Biometric Devices

1) Keyboard
The keyboard is a basic input device that is used to enter data into a computer or
any other electronic device by pressing keys. It has different sets of keys for letters,
numbers, characters, and functions. Keyboards are connected to a computer
through USB or a Bluetooth device for wireless communication.
Types of keyboards: There can be different types of keyboards based on the
region and language used. Some of the common types of keyboards are as follows:
i) QWERTY Keyboard:

It is the most commonly used keyboard with computers in modern times. It is

named after the first six letters of the top row of buttons and is even popular in
countries that do not use Latin-based alphabet. It is so popular that some people
think that it is the only type of keyboard to use with computers as an input device.
ii) AZERTY Keyboard:

It is considered the standard French keyboard. It is developed in France as an

alternative layout to the QWERTY layout and is mainly used in France and other
European countries. Some countries have manufactured their own versions of
AZERTY.
Its name is derived from the first six letters that appear on the top left row of the
keyboard. The Q and W keys in AZERTY keyboard are interchanged with A and Z
keys in QWERTY keyboard. Furthermore, in AZERTY keyboard M key is located
to the left of the L key.
AZERTY keyboard differs from QWERTY keyboard not only in the placement of
letters but also in many other ways, e.g., it gives emphasis on accents, which is
required for writing European languages like French.
iii) DVORAK Keyboard:

This type of keyboard layout was developed to increase the typing speed by
reducing the finger movement while typing. The most frequently used letters are
kept in a home row to improve typing.

2) Mouse
The mouse is a hand-held input device which is used to move cursor or pointer
across the screen. It is designed to be used on a flat surface and generally has left
and right button and a scroll wheel between them. Laptop computers come with a
touchpad that works as a mouse. It lets you control the movement of cursor or
pointer by moving your finger over the touchpad. Some mouse comes with
integrated features such as extra buttons to perform different buttons.
The mouse was invented by Douglas C. Engelbart in 1963. Early mouse had a
roller ball integrated as a movement sensor underneath the device. Modern mouse
devices come with optical technology that controls cursor movements by a visible
or invisible light beam. A mouse is connected to a computer through different ports
depending on the type of computer and type of a mouse.
Common types of the mouse:
i) Trackball Mouse:

It is a stationary input device that has ball mechanism to move the pointer or cursor
on the screen. The ball is half inserted in the device and can be easily rolled with
finger, thumb or the palm to move the pointer on the screen. The device has sensor
to detect the rotation of ball. It remains stationary; you don't need to move it on the
operating surface. So, it is an ideal device if you have limited desk space as you
don't need to move it like a mouse.
ii) Mechanical Mouse:

It has a system of a ball and several rollers to track its movement. It is a corded
type of mouse. A mechanical mouse can be used for high performance. The
drawback is that they tend to get dust into the mechanics and thus require regular
cleaning.
iii) Optical Mouse:

An optical mouse uses optical electronics to track its movement. It is more reliable
than a mechanical mouse and also requires less maintenance. However, its
performance is affected by the surface on which it is operated. Plain non-glossy
mouse mat should be used for best results. The rough surface may cause problems
for the optical recognition system, and the glossy surface may reflect the light
wrongly and thus may cause tracking issues.
iv) Cordless or Wireless Mouse:

As the name suggests, this type of mouse lacks cable and uses wireless technology
such as IrDA (infrared) or radio (Bluetooth or Wi-Fi) to control the movement of
the cursor. It is used to improve the experience of using a mouse. It uses batteries
for its power supply.

3) Scanner
The scanner uses the pictures and pages of text as input. It scans the picture or a
document. The scanned picture or document then converted into a digital format or
file and is displayed on the screen as an output. It uses optical character recognition
techniques to convert images into digital ones. Some of the common types of
scanners are as follows:

4) Joystick
A joystick is also a pointing input device like a mouse. It is made up of a stick with
a spherical base. The base is fitted in a socket that allows free movement of the
stick. The movement of stick controls the cursor or pointer on the screen.
The frist joystick was invented by C. B. Mirick at the U.S. Naval Research
Laboratory. A joystick can be of different types such as displacement joysticks,
finger-operated joysticks, hand operated, isometric joystick, and more. In joystick,
the cursor keeps moving in the direction of the joystick unless it is upright,
whereas, in mouse, the cursor moves only when the mouse moves.

5) Light Pen

A light pen is a computer input device that looks like a pen. The tip of the light pen
contains a light-sensitive detector that enables the user to point to or select objects
on the display screen. Its light sensitive tip detects the object location and sends the
corresponding signals to the CPU. It is not compatible with LCD screens, so it is
not in use today. It also helps you draw on the screen if needed. The first light pen
was invented around 1955 as a part of the Whirlwind project at the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology (MIT).

6) Digitizer

Digitizer is a computer input device that has a flat surface and usually comes with
a stylus. It enables the user to draw images and graphics using the stylus as we
draw on paper with a pencil. The images or graphics drawn on the digitizer appear
on the computer monitor or display screen. The software converts the touch inputs
into lines and can also convert handwritten text to typewritten words.
It can be used to capture handwritten signatures and data or images from taped
papers. Furthermore, it is also used to receive information in the form of drawings
and send output to a CAD (Computer-aided design) application and software like
AutoCAD. Thus, it allows you to convert hand-drawn images into a format suitable
for computer processing.
7) Microphone

The microphone is a computer input device that is used to input the sound. It
receives the sound vibrations and converts them into audio signals or sends to a
recording medium. The audio signals are converted into digital data and stored in
the computer. The microphone also enables the user to telecommunicate with
others. It is also used to add sound to presentations and with webcams for video
conferencing. A microphone can capture audio waves in different ways;
accordingly the three most common types are described below:
i) Dynamic:

It is the most commonly used microphone with a simple design. It has a magnet
which is wrapped by a metal coil and a thin sheet on the front end of the magnet.
The sheet transfers vibrations from sound waves to the coil and from coil to
electric wires which transmit the sound like an electrical signal.
ii) Condenser:

It is designed for audio recording and has a very sensitive and flat frequency
response. It has a front plate called diaphragm and a back plate parallel to the front
plate. When sound hits the diaphragm, it vibrates the diaphragm and alters the
distance between the two plates. The changes in distance are transmitted as electric
signals.
iii) Ribbon:

It is known for its reliability. It has a thin ribbon made of aluminum, duraluminum,
or nanofilm suspended in a magnetic field. The sound waves cause vibrations in
the ribbon, which generate a voltage proportional to the velocity of the vibration.
The voltage is transmitted as an electrical signal. Early ribbon microphones had a
transformer to increase the output voltage, but modern ribbon microphones come
with advanced magnets to produce a strong signal.
8) Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)

MICR computer input device is designed to read the text printed with magnetic
ink. MICR is a character recognition technology that makes use of special
magnetized ink which is sensitive to magnetic fields. It is widely used in banks to
process the cheques and other organizations where security is a major concern. It
can process three hundred cheques in a minute with hundred-percent accuracy. The
details on the bottom of the cheque (MICR No.) are written with magnetic ink. A
laser printer with MICR toner can be used to print the magnetic ink.
The device reads the details and sends to a computer for processing. A document
printed in magnetic ink is required to pass through a machine which magnetizes the
ink, and the magnetic information is then translated into characters.

9) Optical Character Reader (OCR)

OCR computer input device is designed to convert the scanned images of

handwritten, typed or printed text into digital text. It is widely used in offices and
libraries to convert documents and books into electronic files.
It processes and copies the physical form of a document using a scanner. After
copying the documents, the OCR software converts the documents into a two-color
(black and white), version called bitmap. Then it is analyzed for light and dark
areas, where the dark areas are selected as characters, and the light area is
identified as background. It is widely used to convert hard copy legal or historic
documents into PDFs. The converted documents can be edited if required like we
edit documents created in ms word.

10) Digital camera:

It is a digital device as it captures images and records videos digitally and then
stores them on a memory card. It is provided with an image sensor chip to capture
images, as opposed to film used by traditional cameras. Besides this, a camera that
is connected to your computer can also be called a digital camera.
It has photosensors to record light that enters the camera through the lens. When
the light strikes the photosensors, each of the sensors returns the electrical current,
which is used to create the images.

11) Paddle:

It is a simple input device that is widely used in games. It is a wheel that is held by
hand and looks like a volume knob on a stereo that is used to increase or decrease
the volume. Paddle moves or controls cursor or any other objects in the game in a
back-and-forth motion. It is widely used as an alternative to the joystick. Besides
this, the term paddle also refers to many handheld devices designed to control a
function in an electronic device, computer, etc.

12) Steering wheel:

It is used as an input device in racing video games such as car racing games or in
driving programs as virtual simulators to steer a vehicle. It works like the real
steering wheel by allowing you to take a right or left turn. A steering wheel may be
provided with acceleration and brake pedal devices and a mechanism for shifting
gears. Thus, it makes racing games more adventurous and entertaining.

13) Gesture recognition devices:

These devices take human gestures as input. There are many such devices that
respond to gestures. For example, Kinect is one such device that observes the
movement of a player's body and interprets these movements as inputs to video
games. This feature is also available in certain tablets and smartphones where you
can perform certain tasks such as taking pictures using finger gestures such as
swiping, pinching, etc.
14) Light Gun:

As the name suggests, it is a pointing input device that is designed to point at and
shoot the targets on the screen in a video game, or arcade, etc. The light gun was
used for the first time on the MIT Whirwind computer. When the gun is pointed at
the target on the screen and the trigger is pulled, the screen goes blank for a
fraction of a second. During this moment, the photodiode, which is present in the
barrel, determines where the gun is pointed. For example, shooting ducks in a duck
hunt game.
15) Touchpad:

It is usually found in laptops as a substitute for the mouse. It allows you to move or
control the cursor on the screen using your finger. Just like a mouse, it also has two
buttons for right and left click. Using the touchpad, you can perform all the tasks
that you do with a mouse, such as selecting an object on the screen, copy, paste,
delete, open a file or folder, and more.

16) Remote:

It is a hardware device designed to control the functioning of a device, e.g., a TV

remote that can be used to change channels, increase or decrease the volume, from
a distance without leaving the seat. The first cordless TV remote was invented by
Dr. Robert Adler of Zenith in 1956. The remote sends the electromagnetic waves to
communicate with the device. These waves can be infrared rays, radio waves, etc.

17) Touch screen:

It is the display screen of a device such as a smartphone, tablet, etc., that allows
users to interact or provide inputs to the device by using their finger. Today, most
of the electronic devices come with touchscreen as an alternative to a mouse for
navigating a graphical user interface. For example, by touching, you can unlock
your phone, open emails, open files, play videos, etc. Besides this, it is used in lots
of devices such as Camera, Car GPS, Fitness machine, etc.
The concept of the touch screen was first introduced and published by E.A.
Johnson in 1965. The first touch screen was developed at the beginning of the
1970s by CERN engineers Frank Beck and Bent Stumpe.
18) VR:

VR stands for virtual reality. It is an artificial or virtual environment which is

generated by computers. A person can interact with virtual objects of this artificial
environment using some input devices such as headsets, gloves, headphones, etc.
For example, he or she can find himself or herself walking on a beach, watching a
football match, walking in the sky, etc., without actually doing all this.

19) Webcam:

Any camera which is connected to a computer is called a webcam. The in-built

camera provided on a computer can also be considered a webcam. It is an input
device as it can take pictures, and can be used to record videos if required. The
pictures and videos are stored in the computer memory and can be displayed on the
screen if required. Although it works almost the same as the digital camera, it is
different from a digital camera, as it is designed to take compact digital photos that
can be uploaded easily on the webpages and shared with others through the
internet.

20) Biometric Devices:

Biometrics refers to a process in which a person is identified through his or her
biological features such as fingerprints, eye cornea, face structure, etc. It is done by
using biometric devices, which can be of different types based on their scanning
features and abilities, such as:
i) Face Scanner:
It is designed to identify a person by scanning his or her face. It takes the face
measurements of a person. For example, the distance between eyes, nose, and
mouth, etc., accordingly, it confirms the identity of a person. Besides this, it is
smart enough to differentiate between a person's picture and the real person.
ii) Hand Scanner:

The hand of a person can also be used to verify his or her identity as every person
has a unique pattern of veins in the palm, just like fingerprints. This device takes
advantage of this feature; it identifies a person by scanning the palm of his hand. It
uses infrared light to scan veins' patterns and blood flowing in them. Palm is even
more unique than fingerprints.
iii) Fingerprint Scanner:

It scans the fingerprints to identify people or for biometric authentication. This

device is developed, keeping in mind the fact that no two persons in the world can
have the same fingerprints. It is widely used in companies as a fingerprint
attendance system to mark the attendance of employees. This type of scanners
captures the pattern of valleys and ridges found on a finger and store it in the
memory or database. When you press your finger on the given space, it verifies the
identity by using its pattern-matching software.
iv) Retina or Iris Scanner:

It scans the retina or iris of a person's eye to confirm the identity. This device is
more secure than others as it is next to impossible to copy the retina or iris. It
works by mapping the retina's blood vessel patterns of the eye. The blood vessels
of retina absorb light more easily as well as can be identified with appropriate
lighting.
In this scan, a beam of low-energy infrared light falls on the retina through the
scanner's eyepiece. Then, the software captures the network of blood vessels in the
retina and uses it to verify a person's identity.
v) Voice Scanner:
It records the voice of a person and digitizes it to create a distinctive voice print or
template. The voiceprints are stored in the database, and are used to verify the
voice of a person to confirm his or her identity. The person is required to speak in
the normal or same voice that was used to create a voice template. It is not much
reliable as it can be misused using a tape recording.
Categories of Output Devices
Output devices can be categorized into four main types based on the nature of their
output.

● Visual Output Devices: These devices display processed data as text,

images, or video. Examples include monitors and projectors, which allow
users to view information on screens or project it onto larger surfaces.
● Data Output Devices: These devices provide machine-readable output for
further processing or storage. Plotters and 3D printers fall into this category,
allowing users to create physical representations of data or objects.
● Print Output Devices: Printers produce hard copies of processed data, such
as documents, images, or graphics. They allow for physical documentation
and distribution of information.
● Sound Output Devices: These devices deliver audio output for listening or
communication purposes. Speakers and headphones/earphones enable users
to hear the sound, whether Music, speech, or other audio content.

Visual Output Devices

Visual output devices are components of computing systems that enable the visual
presentation of processed data. Monitors and projectors, for example, play an
important role in displaying information to users through text, pictures, or video.
Users can view and analyze information more effectively with visual output
devices. They allow for the intelligible display of text, making reading papers,
emails, and online sites simpler. These devices also excel in picture presentation,
allowing users to see photographs, graphics, and illustrations with accuracy and
detail. Video material is additionally improved by visual output devices, resulting
in a fascinating viewing experience.
Some of the popular visual output devices are:
 1. Monitor
● CRT Monitor
● LCD Monitor
● LED Monitor
● Plasma Monitor
1. Printer
● Impact Printers
A. Character Printers
i. Dot Matrix printers
ii. Daisy Wheel printers
B. Line printers
i. Drum printers
ii. Chain printers
● Non-impact printers
A. Laser printers
B. Inkjet printers
2. Projector

1) Monitor
The monitor is the display unit or screen of the computer. It is the main output
device that displays the processed data or information as text, images, audio or
video.
The types of monitors are given below.
i) CRT Monitor

CRT monitors are based on the cathode ray tubes. They are like vacuum tubes
which produce images in the form of video signals. Cathode rays tube produces a
beam of electrons through electron guns that strike on the inner phosphorescent
surface of the screen to produce images on the screen. The monitor contains
millions of phosphorus dots of red, green and blue color. These dots start to glow
when struck by electron beams and this phenomenon is called
cathodoluminescence.
The main components of a CRT monitor include the electron gun assembly,
deflection plate assembly, fluorescent screen, glass envelope, and base.The front
(outer surface) of the screen onto which images are produced is called the face
plate. It is made up of fiber optics.
There are three electron beams that strike the screen: red, green, and blue. So, the
colors which you see on the screen are the blends of red, blue and green lights.The
magnetic field guides the beams of electrons. Although LCDs have replaced the
CRT monitors, the CRT monitors are still used by graphics professionals because
of their color quality.
ii) LCD Monitor

The LCD monitor is a flat panel screen that is compact and light-weight as
compared to CRT monitors. It is based on liquid crystal display technology which
is used in the screens of laptops, tablets, smart phones, etc. An LCD screen
comprises two layers of polarized glass with a liquid crystal solution between
them. When the light passes through the first layer, an electric current aligns the
liquids crystals. The aligned liquid crystals allow a varying level of light to pass
through the second layer to create images on the screen.
The LCD screen has a matrix of pixels that display the image on the screen.Old
LCDs had passive-matrix screens in which individual pixels are controlled by
sending a charge. A few electrical charges could be sent each second that made
screens appear blurry when the images moved quickly on the screen.
Modern LCDs use active-matrix technology and contain thin film transistors
(TFTs) with capacitors. This technology allows pixels to retain their charge. So,
they don?t make screen blurry when images move fast on the screen as well as are
more efficient than passive-matrix displays.
iii) LED monitor

The LED monitor is an improved version of an LCD monitor. It also has a flat
panel display and uses liquid crystal display technology like the LCD monitors.
The difference between them lies in the source of light to backlight the display. The
LED monitor has many LED panels, and each panel has several LEDsto backlight
the display, whereas the LCD monitors use cold cathode fluorescent light to
backlight the display.Modern electronic devices such as mobile phones, LED TVs,
laptop and computer screens, etc., use a LED display as it not only produces more
brilliance and greater light intensity but also consumes less power.
iv) Plasma Monitor

The plasma monitor is also a flat panel display that is based on plasma display
technology. It has small tiny cells between two glass panels. These cells contain
mixtures of noble gases and a small amount of mercury. When voltage is applied,
the gas in the cells turns into a plasma and emits ultraviolet light that creates
images on the screen, i.e., the screen is illuminated by a tiny bit of plasma, a
charged gas. Plasma displays are brighter than liquid crystal displays (LCD) and
also offer a wide viewing angle than an LCD.
Plasma monitors provide high resolutions of up to 1920 X 1080, excellent contrast
ratios, wide viewing angle, a high refresh rate and more. Thus, they offer a unique
viewing experience while watching action movies, sports games, and more.

3) Projector

A projector is an output device that enables the user to project the output onto a
large surface such as a big screen or wall. It can be connected to a computer and
similar devices to project their output onto a screen. It uses light and lenses to
produce magnified texts, images, and videos. So, it is an ideal output device to give
presentations or to teach a large number of people.
Modern projects (digital projectors) come with multiple input sources such as
HDMI ports for newer equipment and VGA ports that support older devices. Some
projectors are designed to support Wi-Fi and Bluetooth as well. They can be fixed
onto the ceiling, placed on a stand, and more and are frequently used for classroom
teaching, giving presentations, home cinemas, etc.
Print Output Devices
Print output devices are essential components of computing systems that enable the
generation of hard copies of processed data. These devices, commonly known as
printers, allow users to obtain physical copies of documents, images, or other types
of information.
Print output devices offer several advantages. Firstly, they provide a tangible
format for information, allowing for easy reading, sharing, and archiving of
documents. Hard copies are particularly useful for legal documents, contracts, or
important records that require physical signatures or official documentation. Print
output devices find applications in various settings, including homes, offices,
schools, and businesses. They are used for printing documents, reports,
presentations, photographs, labels, and more. From everyday printing needs to
specialized requirements, printers provide a reliable and efficient means of
generating physical copies of digital content.
Some of the popular print output devices are:

3) Printer

● Impact Printers
● Character Printers
● Dot Matrix printers
● Daisy Wheel printers
● Line printers
● Drum printers
● Chain printers
● Non-impact printers
● Laser printers
● Inkjet printers

A printer produces hard copies of the processed data. It enables the user, to print
images, text or any other information onto the paper. Users can pick from various
printer types, such as inkjet, laser, or dot matrix, to meet their printing demands.
Printers enable the generation of tangible copies for record-keeping, presentations,
marketing materials, and other purposes, from household to professional settings.
Printers are essential for personal and commercial use due to their simplicity and
adaptability.
Based on the printing mechanism, the printers are of two types: Impact Printers and
Non-impact Printers.
Sound Output Devices
Sound output devices, which allow users to listen to audio material, are a
significant component of computing systems. Speakers and headphones, for
example, facilitate sound reproduction and improve the whole multimedia
experience. There are various advantages to using sound output equipment. They
let consumers experience high-quality audio with increased clarity, depth, and
richness. Sound output devices improve the entire audio experience by bringing
information to the existence, whether or not it is the minute specifics in Music, the
immersive sound effects in movies, or the clear voice during a conference call.
These devices have several applications, which include use in homes, groups,
amusement venues, and academic institutions. They are used for personal
enjoyment, communication, professional audio work, and multimedia jobs. Sound
output devices link to other devices, such as smartphones, tablets, and televisions,
increasing their versatility and utility.
Some of the popular sound output devices are:
4) Speakers
Speakers are important output devices that transform electrical impulses into
audible sounds. They're essential to many modern devices, including computers,
televisions, music players, and mobile phones. The audio system improves the
multimedia experience by providing high-quality audio output, whether listening to
the song, viewing films, playing video games, or participating in virtual meetings.
They help ensure that consumers enjoy audio material with clarity and depth by
contributing to clean and clear sound reproduction.

● Surround Sound Speakers: Surround sound speakers provide immersive

audio.

5) Headphones/Earphones
Headphones and earphones are personal audio devices worn over the ears or
inserted into the ear canal, respectively. They deliver Music to the user directly,
giving a private and immersive listening experience. Earphones are tiny and fit
within the ear, whereas headphones have two speakers that cover both ears. They
are regularly used with portable music players, phones, laptop computers, and
different gadgets. Users of headphones and earbuds may listen to Music and
podcasts and view films and other media without bothering others. They offer ease,
mobility, and the ability to concentrate on audio information while maintaining
privacy and clarity
Wireless Output Devices
Wireless output devices have grown in popularity and have become essential
components of modern computing systems. These gadgets link and interact with
computers or other devices via wireless technology, eliminating the need for
physical wires or connections. They provide ease, flexibility, and mobility by
letting users engage with their devices from a distance while removing the
constraints imposed by wired connections. Here are a few examples of wireless
output devices and their applications:

● Wireless Monitors: Wireless monitors are display units that can connect to
a computer or other devices using wireless technology, such as Wi-Fi or
Bluetooth. They provide the ease of cable-free communication, letting users
position their displays wherever they are within wireless range. Wireless
monitors are especially beneficial when wire management is difficult or
when users need to move or adjust the display often.

● Wireless Printers: Wireless printers have changed the way people print by
removing the requirement for direct physical connections. These printers
usWi-Fifi or Bluetooth to connect to devices such as PCs, laptops, or
smartphones, allowing wireless printing from anywhere within the network
range. Wireless printers provide increased flexibility, convenience, and
decreased cable clutter. Users may print papers, images, and other items
without having to deal with wires and cords. Wireless printers are very
handy in shared office environments or households with many devices since
they may be accessed by several people at the same time.
● Wireless Projectors: They can wirelessly receive video and audio signals,
letting users project material from a distance onto a screen or wall. They can
wirelessly receive video and audio signals, letting users project material
from a distance onto a screen or wall. Wireless projectors are often utilized
in classrooms, boardrooms, and home theatre setups because they provide
flexibility and convenience of usage during presentations, movie evenings,
and gaming sessions.

● Wireless Speakers: wireless speakers make use of wireless technologies

like Bluetooth or Wi-Fi to connect and flow audio from devices which
include smartphones, tablets, or computer systems. They provide a clean
method to listen to Music, podcasts, or other audio records without having to
deal with cords. Wi-Fi audio systems are available in an expansion of sizes
and styles, ranging from small portable devices for on-the-go use to larger
devices for home enjoyment systems.

● Wireless Headphones/Earphones: wireless headphones and earbuds have

grown in recognition because of their portability and lack of cables. Wireless
headphones and earbuds connect to gadgets via Bluetooth, giving a
hassle-free music experience without tangled cords. They're available in an
expansion of designs to accommodate an extensive variety of tastes and
usage conditions. These gadgets' wireless connection allows users to roam
around freely while listening to audio material. Wireless headphones and
earbuds have become popular alternatives for their seamless and portable
audio experiences, whether for workouts, commuting, or simply untethered
listening.

● Wireless Presenters: Wireless presenters are handheld devices that enable

users to control presentations remotely. They connect to computers or other
devices using wireless technology, allowing presenters to navigate slides,
highlight points, or control multimedia elements from a distance. Wireless
presenters provide flexibility and enhance the presenter's mobility and
engagement during meetings, conferences, or lectures.
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
A Central Processing Unit is also called a processor, central processor, or
microprocessor. It carries out all the important functions of a computer. It receives
instructions from both the hardware and active software and produces output
accordingly. It then performs calculations, manipulates data, and produces output
based on those instructions. It stores all important programs like operating systems
that manage the computer's resources and allows you to interact with it and
application software that you use to perform tasks like word processing, web
browsing, and gaming. Your computer couldn't execute these essential programs
without the CPU.
CPU also helps Input and output devices to communicate with each other. The
CPU translates these inputs when you click, move the mouse, or click on a key on
the keyboard, and it works with the relevant software program to produce the
intended result. The CPU ensures that the input and output devices communicate
without any troubles, whether it means printing a paper, playing music through the
audio system, or showing text on the display screen. Owing to these features of
CPU, it is often referred to as the brain of the computer.
CPU is installed or inserted into a CPU socket located on the motherboard.
Furthermore, it is provided with a heat sink to absorb and dissipate heat to keep the
CPU cool and functioning smoothly.
Components of CPU

Generally, a CPU has three components:

● ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

● Control Unit
● Memory or Storage Unit

Control Unit:
The Control Unit (CU) is a vital part of the Central Processing Unit (CPU) and is
accountable for the overall performance of a computer system. It is the circuitry in
the control unit, which makes use of electrical signals to instruct the computer
system for executing already stored instructions. It takes instructions from memory
and then decodes and executes these instructions. So, it controls and coordinates
the functioning of all parts of the computer.

The Control Unit's main task is to maintain and regulate the flow of information
across the processor. It serves as a traffic controller, ensuring that information and
instructions are efficiently transferred among the various elements of the computer
system. It manages the order in which instructions are executed and synchronizes
the activities of various units within the CPU. It does not take part in processing
and storing data. Instead, it serves as an overseer, coordinating the actions of other
CPU parts to guarantee that instructions are carried out accurately and in the right
order.
The Control Unit achieves coordination within the CPU through a series of steps:

● Fetch: The Control Unit retrieves an instruction from the computer's

memory. It accomplishes this by accessing the memory location provided by
the program counter (PC), which contains the address of the next instruction
to be executed.
● Decode: Once the instruction is fetched, the Control Unit decodes it. It
breaks down the instruction into its constituent elements, which include the
operation code (opcode) and any associated operands. The operands supply
the data or memory locations on which the operation will be completed,
while the opcode suggests the kind of operation to be done.
● Execute: After the instruction is decoded, the Control Unit initiates the
execution phase. It coordinates the necessary actions within the CPU's
functional units, such as the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), to perform the
specific operation indicated by the instruction. This may involve
calculations, data manipulations, or control operations.
● Store: Once the instruction is executed, the Control Unit updates the
necessary registers and flags to reflect the operation results. This could
involve storing the result in a register, updating the program counter to
indicate the address of the next instruction, or modifying status flags that
provide information about the outcome of the operation (e.g., zero flags,
carry flags).
 ● Repeat: After updating the necessary components, the Control Unit repeats
the process by fetching the next instruction from memory. It increments the
program counter to point to the next instruction's address, and the cycle
continues.

This fetch-decode-execute cycle is repeated for each instruction in the program,

allowing the Control Unit to coordinate the sequential execution of instructions and
ensure that the computer system performs the required tasks.
The Control Unit ensures the correct information flow and guides the CPU's
actions during this process. It eventually aids in the general operation of the
computer system by allowing the CPU to carry out the required operations and
computations through the fetching, decoding, and execution of instructions
ALU:
It is the arithmetic logic unit, which carries out arithmetic and logical operations.
Included in the list of arithmetic operations are addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, and comparisons. Data selection, comparison, and
merging are the primary logical operations. More than one ALU may be present in
a CPU. ALUs can also be used to keep track of timers that assist in running the
computer.
Memory or Storage Unit
A computer system's memory or storage unit maintains instructions, data, and
intermediate outcomes. It acts as a database that other computer components may
access and save data in as needed. This device has numerous names because of its
numerous functions, including
internal storage unit, main memory, primary storage, or Random-access
reminiscence (RAM).
A computer system commonly has two types of memory: primary and secondary.

● Primary memory, often called RAM, is the main memory of a computer. It

closely collaborates with the CPU to quickly store and retrieve data. RAM
allows the computer to access information randomly, which means it can
retrieve any piece of data without going through everything in order. RAM
acts as a momentary workspace where the computer stores the information
and applications it is now utilizing. RAM is a volatile memory, so anything
 saved inside is lost when the machine is switched off. How many programs
can run simultaneously and how much data can be processed simultaneously
depends on the RAM capacity.

● Secondary memory includes hard disk drives (HDDs), solid-state drives

(SSDs), and external storage devices. Computer systems are designed to
store data for extended periods, even if powered off. Secondary memory,
unlike RAM, is non-volatile and maintains records even in the absence of
power. It is the storage location for operating systems, software applications,
documents, and user data. Secondary memory has a larger capability in
comparison to RAM. While accessing data from secondary memory takes
longer than primary memory, it gives the advantage of long-term data
retention.

What is Computer Hardware?

Hardware, which is abbreviated as HW, refers to all physical components of a
computer system, including the devices connected to it. You cannot create a
computer or use software without using hardware. The screen on which you are
reading this information is also a hardware.
Computer Hardware Parts
Some of the commonly used hardware in your computer are described below:

1. Motherboard
2. Monitor
3. Keyboard
4. Mouse

1) Motherboard:
The motherboard is generally a thin circuit board that holds together almost all
parts of a computer except input and output devices. All crucial hardware like
CPU, memory, hard drive, and ports for input and output devices are located on the
motherboard.
2) Monitor:
A monitor is the display unit of a computer on which the processed data, such as
text, images, etc., is displayed. It comprises a screen circuity and the case which
encloses this circuity. The monitor is also known as a visual display unit (VDU)
3) Keyboard:
It is the most important input device of a computer. It is designed to allow you
input text, characters, and other commands into a computer, desktop, tablet, etc. It
comes with different sets of keys to enter numbers, characters, and perform various
other functions like copy, paste, delete, enter, etc.
4) Mouse:
It is a small handheld device designed to control or move the pointer (computer
screen's cursor) in a GUI (graphical user interface). It allows you to point to or
select objects on a computer's display screen. It is generally placed on a flat surface
as we need to move it smoothly to control the pointer. Types of Mouse: Trackball
mouse, Mechanical Mouse, Optical Mouse, Wireless Mouse, etc
Software
Software, which is abbreviated as SW or S/W, is a set of programs that enables the
hardware to perform a specific task. All the programs that run the computer are
software. The software can be of three types: system software, application
software, and programming software.
1) System Software
The system software is the main software that runs the computer. When you turn
on the computer, it activates the hardware and controls and coordinates their
functioning. The application programs are also controlled by system software. An
operating system is an example of system software.
2) Application Software:
Application software is a set of programs designed to perform a specific task. It
does not control the working of a computer as it is designed for end-users. A
computer can run without application software. Application software can be easily
installed or uninstalled as required. It can be a single program or a collection of
small programs. Microsoft Office Suite, Adobe Photoshop, and any other software
like payroll software or income tax software are application software. As we know,
they are designed to perform specific tasks. Accordingly, they can be of different
types such as:
3) Programming Software:
It is a set or collection of tools that help developers in writing other software or
programs. It assists them in creating, debugging, and maintaining software or
programs or applications. We can say that these are facilitator software that helps
translate programming language such as Java, C++, Python, etc., into machine
language code. So, it is not used by end-users. For example, compilers, linkers,
debuggers, interpreters, text editors, etc. This software is also called a
programming tool or software development tool.
Computer Memory
A computer is an electronic device that takes raw data as input and, processes it,
then provides the desired result. It has the potential to execute programmed
computations quickly and with great accuracy. Put in another way, the computer
receives input such as data and stores it together with instructions in memory (use
them when required). The data is then processed and converted into valuable
information. After that, it provides the result according to the inputs. Here, input
means the unprocessed data that we want the machine to handle and then give us a
response, and output refers to the outcome of the machine's processing of the
unprocessed data, which may include data analysis, searching, distributing, storing,
and more. Consequently, a computer is also referred to as a data processing system.
What is Memory?
The computer memory holds the data and instructions needed to process raw data
and produce output. It is the same as a human mind, where data, information, and
instructions are stored. It is a data storage device or a data storage component
where instructions for processing data are kept along with the data that has to be
processed. Both the input and the output can be held here.
The computer memory is divided into large number of small parts known as cells.
Each cell has a unique address which varies from 0 to memory size minus one.
Computer memory is of two types: Volatile (RAM) and Non-volatile (ROM). The
secondary memory (hard disk) is referred as storage not memory.
Memory vs. Storage
Although the terms "memory" and "storage" are frequently used interchangeably,
there are some distinct and important differences between both. Simply said,
storage is secondary memory, while memory is primary or main memory. Storage
refers to where long-term data is stored, whereas memory refers to where
short-term data is stored.
RAM ROM
The full form of RAM is Random The full form of ROM is read
access memory. only memory.
In terms of speed, it is fastest As compared to RAM, it is
memory. slower in speed.
It is volatile in nature, which It is non-volatile in nature,
means the data is lost when which means the data is
power is cut off. retained even power is cut
off.
Users can change and retrieve Users can one read the data
data that is stored in RAM. that is stored in ROM

Primary Memory
Primary Memory is of two types: RAM and ROM.
RAM (Volatile Memory)
It is a volatile memory. It means it does not store data or
instructions permanently. When you switch on the computer the
data and instructions from the hard disk are stored in RAM.
CPU utilizes this data to perform the required tasks. As soon as
you shut down the computer the RAM loses all the data.
ROM (Non-volatile Memory)
It is a non-volatile memory. It means it does not lose its data or
programs that are written on it at the time of manufacture. So it is a
permanent memory that contains all important data and
instructions needed to perform important tasks like the boot
process.
Secondary Memory
The secondary storage devices which are built into the computer or connected to
the computer are known as a secondary memory of the computer. It is also known
as external memory or auxiliary storage.
The secondary memory is accessed indirectly via input/output operations. It is
non-volatile, so permanently stores the data even when the computer is turned off
or until this data is overwritten or deleted. The CPU can't directly access the
secondary memory. First, the secondary memory data is transferred to primary
memory then the CPU can access it.
Some of the secondary memory or storage devices are described below:
1) Hard Disk:
It is a rigid magnetic disc that is used to store data. It permanently stores data and
is located within a drive unit.

The hard disk is also known as a hard drive. It is a rigid magnetic disc that stores
data permanently, as it is a non-volatile storage device. The hard disk is located
within a drive unit on the computer's motherboard and comprises one or more
platters packed in an air-sealed casing. The data is written on the platters by
moving a magnetic head over the platters as they spin. The data stored on a
computer's hard drive generally includes the operating system, installed software,
and the user's files and programs, including pictures, music, videos, text
documents, etc.
Components of Hard Drive:
The main components of a hard drive include a head actuator, read/write actuator
arm, read/write head, platter, and spindle. A circuit board, which is called the disk
controller or interface board, is present on the back of a hard drive. It allows the
hard drive to communicate with the computer.
2) Solid-state Drive:
SSD (Solid State Drive) is also a non-volatile storage medium that is used to hold
and access data. Unlike a hard drive, it does not have moving components, so it
offers many advantages over SSD, such as faster access time, noiseless operation,
less power consumption, and more.
As the cost of SSD has come down, it has become an ideal replacement for a
standard hard drive in desktop and laptop computers. It is also suitable for
notebooks, and tablets that don't require lots of storage.
3) Pen drive:

Pen drive is a compact secondary storage device. It is also known as a USB flash
drive, thumb drive or a jump drive. It connects to a computer via a USB port. It is
commonly used to store and transfer data between computers. For example, you
can write a report using a computer and then copy or transfer it in the pen drive.
Later, you can connect this pen drive to a computer to see or edit your report. You
can also store your important documents and pictures, music, videos in the pen
drive and keep it at a safe place.
Pen drive does not have movable parts; it comprises an integrated circuit memory
chip that stores the data. This chip is housed inside a plastic or aluminium casing.
The data storage capacity of the pen drive generally ranges from 2 GB to 128 GB.
Furthermore, it is a plug and play device as you don't need additional drives,
software, or hardware to use it.
4) SD Card:

SD Card stands for Secure Digital Card. It is most often used in portable and
mobile devices such as smartphones and digital cameras. You can remove it from
your device and see the things stored in it using a computer with a card reader.
There are many memory chips inside the SD card that store the data; it does not
have moving parts. SD cards are not created equal, so they may differ from each
other in terms of speed, physical sizes, and capacity. For example, standard SD
cards, mini SD cards, and micro SD cards.
5) Compact Disk (CD):
Compact Disk is a portable secondary storage device in the shape of a round
medium disk. It is made of polycarbonate plastic. The concept of CD was
co-developed by Philips and Sony in 1982. The first CD was created on 17 August
1982 at the workshop of Philips in Germany.
In the beginning, it was used for storing and playing sound recordings, later it was
used for various purposes such as for storing documents, audio files, videos, and
other data like software programs in a CD.
6) DVD:

DVD is short for digital versatile disc or digital video disc. It is a type of optical
media used for storing optical data. Although it has the same size as a CD, its
storage capacity is much more than a CD. So, it is widely used for storing and
viewing movies and to distribute software programs as they are too large to fit on a
CD. DVD was co-developed by Sony, Panasonic, Philips, and Toshiba in 1995.
Types of DVDs:
DVDs can be divided into three main categories which are as follows:

● DVD-ROM (Read-Only): These types of DVDs come with media already

recorded on them, such as movie dvds. As the name suggests, data on these
discs cannot be erased or added, so these discs are known as a read-only or
non-writable DVD.
● DVD-R (Writable): It allows you to record or write information to the
DVD. However, you can write information only once as it becomes a
read-only DVD once it is full.
● DVD-RW (Rewritable or Erasable): This type of discs can be erased,
written, or recorded multiple times.

Classification of Computers
Super computers : The super computers are the most high performing system. A
supercomputer is a computer with a high level of performance compared to a
general-purpose computer. The actual Performance of a supercomputer is measured in
FLOPS instead of MIPS. All of the world’s fastest 500 supercomputers run Linux-based
operating systems. Additional research is being conducted in China, the US, the EU,
Taiwan and Japan to build even faster, more high performing and more technologically
superior supercomputers. Supercomputers actually play an important role in the field of
computation, and are used for intensive computation tasks in various fields, including
quantum mechanics, weather forecasting, climate research, oil and gas exploration,
molecular modeling, and physical simulations. and also Throughout the history,
supercomputers have been essential in the field of the cryptanalysis.
eg: PARAM, jaguar, roadrunner.
Mainframe computers : These are commonly called as big iron, they are usually used by
big organisations for bulk data processing such as statistics, census data processing,
transaction processing and are widely used as the servers as these systems has a
higher processing capability as compared to the other classes of computers, most of
these mainframe architectures were established in 1960s, the research and
development worked continuously over the years and the mainframes of today are far
more better than the earlier ones, in size, capacity and efficiency.
Eg: IBM z Series, System z9 and System z10 servers.
Mini computers : These computers came into the market in mid 1960s and were sold at
a much cheaper price than the main frames, they were actually designed for control,
instrumentation, human interaction, and communication switching as distinct from
calculation and record keeping, later they became very popular for personal uses with
evolution.