CHAPTER1 CHEMISTRY OF REPRESENTATIVE

ELEMENTS

SELF ASSESMENT QUESTION AND ANSWERS

Boiling points of alkali metal decreases regularly and the boiling point of
halogens increase regularly in going from top to bottom in their respective
groups. How can you explain this behavior?
ANSWER
Boiling point of Alkali metal decreases down the group due to decrease in interatomic attraction between electron and
nucleus
Boiling points of halogen increases down the group due to increase in London dispersion force as molecular mass
increases

Complete and balance the following reactions:

Mg + N2
Na + C2H5OH
K + H2SO4
Ba + O2
Ca + H2O

ANSWERS

3Mg(s) + N2(g) -------- Mg3N2

2Na(s) + 2C2H5OH(aq)---------- 2C2H5ONa(aq) + H2(g)
2K(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) ---------- 2K2SO4(s) + H2(g)
Ba + O2 ------- BaO2
Ca(s) + 2H2O(𝑃)------- Ca(OH)2 + H2

Write the equations for the following chemical processes.

 Silicon is put into steam.
 Phosphorus burns in excess of oxygen.
 Nitrogen gas is passed through hot piece of phosphorus.
 Carbon is heated with nitrogen.
 Aluminum is treated with chlorine gas.
ANSWERS
Si(s) + 2H2O(g) SiO2(s) + 2H2(g)
4P(s) + 5O2(g) Excess oxygen 2P2O5(s)
Δ
6P(s) + 5N2(g) 2P3N5(s)
Δ
3C(s) + 2N2(g) C3N4(s)
Δ
2Al(s) + 3Cl2(g) 2AlCl3(s)
FACULTY TEACHER : SIR ASIF IZHAR | SIR FAIZAN SIDDIQUI | SIR ANAS SOORTI | SIR NAVEED HASAN | SIR FAHAD KHAN | SIR TALHA
1. Give reasons for the following:

 Ionization energy decreases from top to bottom in s-block elements?

The ionization energy of alkali metals (Group IA) and alkaline earth metals (Group IIA) decreases
as move down the group. This is because the outermost electrons of these elements are located
farther away from the nucleus as go from top to bottom, leading to weaker attractive forces
between theelectrons and the nucleus. As a result, it requires less energy to remove the outer shell
electrons from the atom, that is why the ionization energy decreases.

 Boiling point of halogens increase down the group in the periodic table?

Boiling points of halogen increases down the group due to increase in London dispersion force as
molecular mass increases

 Gallium has smaller atomic radii than aluminum despite being below thealuminum in
group IIIA?

Gallium has slightly smaller atomic radii than aluminum despite being located below it in the
group. It is because of poor shielding effect caused by electrons of d-orbitals.

 Electronegativities of alkali metals decrease from Li to Cs?

The electronegativity (EN) of alkali metals (Group IA) and alkaline earth metals (Group IIA)
follows a regular decreasing trend from top to bottom. This trend can be explained by the regular
increase in atomic radii as we move down the group. The larger atomic size results in a
decreasing tendency for the atomto attract the shared pair of electrons towards itself.

 Alkali metals are good conductor of electricity?

The electrical conductivity of representative elements can vary widely. Alkali metals and alkaline
earth metals generally exhibit high electrical conductivity due to their ability to easily transfer
electrons

 Acidity of hydrogen halides increase from HF to HI?

The increasing order of acidity of hydrogen halides can be attributed to their bond energies. Since
the bond energy of H-I is the smallest, it can easily donate a proton and serves as the strongest
acid compared to other halogen acids.

 Fluorine is the strongest oxidizing agent?

Fluorine is the strongest oxidizing agent due to its highest electronegativity and smallest atomic
size allowing it to readily accept electron and gain a negative charge

1. Write the balance equations for the following chemical process.

(i) A piece of aluminum is dipped into concentrated sulphuric acid.
2Al(s) + 6H2SO4(aq) (conc.)
Al2(SO4)3 + 3SO2(g) + 6H2O(𝑃)
(ii) Ferric chloride is mixed in an aqueous solution of caustic soda.
3NaOH(aq) + FeCl3(aq) Fe(OH)3 ↓ + 3NaCl(aq)
(iii) Sodium burns in excess of air.

FACULTY TEACHER : SIR ASIF IZHAR | SIR FAIZAN SIDDIQUI | SIR ANAS SOORTI | SIR NAVEED HASAN | SIR FAHAD KHAN | SIR TALHA
 (Excess)
2Na(s) + O2(g) Na2O2(s) (Per oxide)

(iv) Magnesium is heated with nitrogen gas.

3Mg(s) + N2(g) -------- Mg3N2

(v) Potassium is put into ethyl alcohol.

2K(s) + 2C2H5OH(aq) 2C2H5OK(aq) + H2(g)

(vi) Chlorine gas is passed through an aqueous solution of caustic soda.

6NaOH(𝑎𝑞) + 3Cl2 (g) NaClO3(aq) + 5NaCl(𝑎𝑞) + 3H2O(𝑙)

FACULTY TEACHER : SIR ASIF IZHAR | SIR FAIZAN SIDDIQUI | SIR ANAS SOORTI | SIR NAVEED HASAN | SIR FAHAD KHAN | SIR TALHA
 CHAPTER CHEMISTRY OF OUTER TRANSITION
2 ELEMENTS

SELF ASSESMENT QUESTION AND ANSWERS

1. Write down the electronic configurations of the following transition metals.
Vanadium (V), Manganese (Mn), Nickle (Ni) and Titanium (Ti).

Vanadium (V) [Ar]3d3 4s2

Manganese (Mn) [Ar]3d5 4s2

Nickel (Ni) [Ar]3d8 4s2

Titanium (Ti) [Ar]3d3 4s2

Argon (Ar) 18 = 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6

2. Write down the valence electronic configurations of the following
transition metal ions.
Cu+2, Cu+1, Fe+3, Cr+3, Fe+2, Mn+2, Co+2
Cu+2
[Ar]3d9 4s0

Cu+1
[Ar]3d10 4s0

Fe+3
[Ar]3d5 4s0

Cr+3

[Ar]3d4 4s0

Fe+2

[Ar]3d6 4s0

Mn+2
[Ar]3d5 4s0

Co+2
[Ar]3d7 4s0

3. Explain why Tetraaminecopper(II) [Cu(NH3)4]+2complex ion is blue but

Tetrahydroxozincate(II) [Zn(OH)4]−2 is colourless?
ANSWER
Zinc complex ions are generally colourless since, there is no unpaired electron available in d-orbitals and
hence d-d transition of the electron is not possible in zinc complexes

4. Write the IUPAC names of the following complexes.

[𝑃(𝐻2𝑂)5𝐶𝑙](𝑁𝑂3)3
Pentaaquachloroplatinum(iv)nitrate

FACULTY TEACHER : SIR ASIF IZHAR | SIR FAIZAN SIDDIQUI | SIR ANAS SOORTI | SIR NAVEED HASAN | SIR FAHAD KHAN | SIR TALHA
 𝐾2[𝐶𝑢(𝐶𝑁)4]
Potassiumtetracyanocuperate(ii)
[𝐶𝑟(𝑁𝐻3)4]+3
Tetraaminechromium (iii) ion
[𝐴𝑙𝐹6]−3
Hexaflouroaluminate(iii)ion
Na2[Pt(OH)4]
Sodiumhexahydroxoplatinate (iv)
[Zn(NH3)4]+2
Tetraaminezinc (ii) ion
* K2[Fe(CN)5NO]
Potassiumpentacyanonitrosylferrate(iii)
* [Ni(SCN)4]−2
Tetrathiocyanatonickle (iv) ion

5. Explain why potassium dichromate and potassium permanganate are

generally used in redox titration.
The redox titration of potassium dichromate with oxalic acid (H2C2O4) and Mohr’s salt (Fe(NH4)2(SO4)2.
6H2O) is commonly carried out in the laboratories for determining the concentration of analyte. The end point
of this titration is indicated by the colour change from orange (Cr+6) to green (Cr+3).

7 2Cr2O−2 + 3H2C2O4 + 8H+ 4Cr+3 + 6CO2 + 7H2O

(orange) (green)
7 Cr2 O−2 + 6Fe+2 + 14H+ 2Cr+3 + 6Fe+3 + 7H2O
(orange) (green)

The reaction of potassium permanganate with ferrous sulphate and Mohr’s salt is given as
4 MnO− + 5Fe+2 + 8H+ Mn+2 + 5Fe+3 + 4H2O
The reaction of potassium permanganate with oxalic acid is given as
2MnO− + 5C2O−2 + 16H+ 2Mn+2 + 10CO2 + 8H2O
4 4

The end point of this titration is indicated by the colour change from pink to colorless

6. Give reasons for the following:

* Why do transition elements show variable oxidation states?
“This variation is due to very small energy difference between 3d and 4s orbitals”. As a result,
electrons of 3d as well as 4s orbitals take part in the bond formation.

* Why transition elements have ability to form alloys?

Transition elements have the tendency to form alloys because of their similarities in atomic size which
enable them to mix easily with one another.
* Why Cu+2 ion is blue but Zn+2 is colourless?
Zinc complex ions are generally colourless since, there is no unpaired electron available in d-
orbitals and hence d-d transition of the electron is not possible in zinc complexes.
* Why chromium exists in 4s1 3d5 configuration but not in 4s2 3d4?

there are exceptions observed in chromium and copper where an electron is transferred from 4s orbital to 3d
orbital in order to achieve more stable arrangement. Chromium contains four single parallel electrons in its 3d

FACULTY TEACHER : SIR ASIF IZHAR | SIR FAIZAN SIDDIQUI | SIR ANAS SOORTI | SIR NAVEED HASAN | SIR FAHAD KHAN | SIR TALHA
 orbitals therefore one electron of 4s orbital jumps into 3d orbital to make it half-filled and reaches the more
stable electronic configuration (4s1, 3d5).

A similar pattern is observed in the case of copper where a 4s electron is excited and moves into the 3d orbital,
resulting in a completely filled 3d sub shell. The electron rearrangement makes a more stable configuration of
copper

Cr (z = 24) = ↿ ↿ ↿ ↿ ↿ ↿ (4s1, 3d5)

4s 3d
Cu (z = 29) = ↿ ↿𝖫 ↿𝖫 ↿𝖫 ↿𝖫 ↿𝖫 (4s1, 3d10)

7. Write down the balanced chemical equations for the following reactions.

a. Reaction of conc. nitric acid with copper

Cu + 4HNO3(conc.) Cu(NO3)2 + 2NO2 + 2H2O
b. Reaction of conc. sulphuric acid with copper
Cu + 2H2SO4(conc.) CuSO4 + SO2 + 2H2O
c. Reaction of permanganate with oxalic acid
2MnO− + 5C2O−2 + 16H+ 2Mn+2 + 10CO2 + 8H2O
d. Reaction of dichromate with ferrous sulphate
Cr2O−2
7 + 6Fe
+2 + 14H+ 2Cr+3 + 6Fe+3 + 7H2O
e. Reaction of manganese with dilute sulphuric acid
Mn(s) + H2SO4(aq) MnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
f. Reaction of iron with chlorine
2Fe(s) + 3Cl2(g) 2FeCl3(s)

FACULTY TEACHER : SIR ASIF IZHAR | SIR FAIZAN SIDDIQUI | SIR ANAS SOORTI | SIR NAVEED HASAN | SIR FAHAD KHAN | SIR TALHA
CHAPTER
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
3

 Write the names of ten organic compounds used in daily life.

1. Acetic Acid : CH3COOH : Vinegar

2. Glucose : C6H12O6 : Sweetner

3. Sucrose : C12H22O11 : Sugar

4. Alcohol : C2H5OH : Cough Syrup

5. Urea : NH2 CO NH2 : Plants

6. Petrol : C6H14 : Vehicles

7. Benzene : C6H6 : Cosmetics

8. Naphthalene : : Pesticide

9. Xylene : : Anti-septic

CH3
|
10. Iso-propyl Alcohol : CH3  CH  OH : Alcoholic Swab

Predict the functional group present in the structures

given below:

(a) (b)

(a)

It contains KETONE group

FACULTY TEACHER : SIR ASIF IZHAR | SIR FAIZAN SIDDIQUI | SIR ANAS SOORTI | SIR NAVEED HASAN | SIR FAHAD KHAN | SIR TALHA
 (b)

It contains ALDEHYDE Group

Write down the general molecular formula of the homologous series of

ethers and alcohols.

1. Ether: CnH2n+2O (n≥ 2)

2. Alocohol CnH2n+1 OH / CnH2n+2O (n≥ 1)

1. Give the IUPAC names of the following organic molecules.

O
||
(a) CH3 – C – O – CH (CH3)2
ISO – propyl ethanoate
Sec – propyl ethanoate

❺ ❹ ❸ ❷ ❶

(b) HC  C – CH(CH3) – CH = CH2

3 – methy pent – 1 – en – 4 – yne
3 – methy – 1 – penten – 4 – yne

❸ ❷ ❶

(c) CH2 = C – COOH

|
CH3
2 – methyl prop – 2 – enoic acid
2 – methyl – 2 – propenoic acid

❺ ❶
(d) CH3 O CH3
❹ ❸ II ❷
CH – C – CH

CH3 Cl

2 – chloro – 4 – methyl – 3 – pentanone

FACULTY TEACHER : SIR ASIF IZHAR | SIR FAIZAN SIDDIQUI | SIR ANAS SOORTI | SIR NAVEED HASAN | SIR FAHAD KHAN | SIR TALHA
(e) CH3 – CH2 – O – C (CH3)2 – C2H5

❶
CH3
❷│
CH3  CH2  O  C  CH3
❸│
CH2
❹│
CH3

2 – ethoxy – 2 methyl butane

(f) (CH3)2 CBr CHO

CH3 O
❸ ❷│ ❶ ‖
CH3  C  C  H
│
Br

2 – Bromo – 2 – methyl Propanal

O
❶ ❷ || ❸ ❹ ❺
(g) CH3 – C – CH = CH – CH3

Pent – 3 – en – 2 – one / 3 – Penten – 2 – one

(h) CH2 – CH – CH2

| | |
OH OH OH

1, 2, 3 – Propntriol
Propan – 1, 2, 3 – triol

(i)

4 – ethyl phenol
4 – ethyl – 1 – hydroxy benzene

(j)

1 – (3 – chlorophenyl) ethanone

FACULTY TEACHER : SIR ASIF IZHAR | SIR FAIZAN SIDDIQUI | SIR ANAS SOORTI | SIR NAVEED HASAN | SIR FAHAD KHAN | SIR TALHA
CHAPTER NOMENCLATURE OF
4 ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

Name the following compounds by IUPAC method.

 (CH3)2 CH-(CH2)3-CH(CH3)2  CH2 = C(CH3) – CH = C(CH3) – CH3
 CH  C – CH2 – C  C – CH3  CH2 = C(CH3) – CH2 – C  CH

 (CH3)2 CH-(CH2)3-CH(CH3)2
CH3 CH3
❶ ❷│ ❸ ❹ ❺ ❻│ ❼
CH3  CH  CH2  CH2  CH2  CH  CH3

2, 6 – dimethylheptane

 CH2 = C(CH3) – CH = C(CH3) – CH3

CH3 CH3
❶ ❷│ ❸ ❹│ ❺
CH2 CH  CH C  CH3

2, 4 – dimethylpenta – 1, 3 – diene

 CH  C – CH2 – C  C – CH3
❶ ❷ ❸ ❹ ❺ ❻
CH  C – CH2 – C  C – CH3
Hexa – 1, 4 – diyne
1, 4 – hexadiyne
 CH2 = C(CH3) – CH2 – C  CH
CH3
❶ ❷│ ❸ ❹ ❺
CH2 C  CH2  C CH
2 – methylpenta – 1 –en – 4 –yne
2 – methyl – 1 – penten -4 – yne

Write the structure of the following organic compounds.

 1-chloro-2-methyl-2-butene  Neobutyl iodide
 1-iodo-4-methylheptane  3-methyl-2-butanamine

 1-chloro-2-methyl-2-butene
Cl H H
| | |
HCC CCH
| | |
H CH3 H
FACULTY TEACHER : SIR ASIF IZHAR | SIR FAIZAN SIDDIQUI | SIR ANAS SOORTI | SIR NAVEED HASAN | SIR FAHAD KHAN | SIR TALHA
  Neobutyl iodide
CH3
|
CH3  C  I
|
CH3

 1-iodo-4-methylheptane
I
|
H2C  CH2  CH2  CH  CH2  CH2  CH3
|
CH3
 3-methyl-2-butanamine
NH2 CH3
| |
H3C  CH  CH  CH3

Write the structure of the following organic compounds.

Neopentyl alcohol 2,2-Dimethyl-1,4 hexandiol
Ethyl, tert-butyl ether 2,4,6-Tribromophenol

 Neopentyl alcohol

 2,2-Dimethyl-1,4 hexandiol

OH CH3 OH
| | |
H2C  C  CH2  CH CH2  CH3
|
CH3
 Ethyl, tert-butyl ether
CH3
|
CH3  CH2  O  C  CH3
|
CH3
 2,4,6-Tribromophenol

FACULTY TEACHER : SIR ASIF IZHAR | SIR FAIZAN SIDDIQUI | SIR ANAS SOORTI | SIR NAVEED HASAN | SIR FAHAD KHAN | SIR TALHA
 Write the IUPAC name of the following molecules.
CH3 – CH(Br) – CH(CH3) – CHO CH2 = CH – C(CH3)2 – COOH
(CH3)2 CH – CO – C(CH3)3 HOOC –CH2-HC = CHCOOH

 CH3 – CH(Br) – CH(CH3) – CHO

3 – Bromo – 2 – methyl butanal
 CH2 = CH – C(CH3)2 – COOH
2,2 – Dimethyl but – 3 – enoic acid
2,2 – Dimethyl – 3 – butenoic acid
 (CH3)2 CH – CO – C(CH3)3
CH3 O CH3
❺ ❹| ❸ ‖ ❷| ❶
CH3  CH  C  C  CH3
|
CH3
2, 2, 4 – trimethyl – 3 – pentanone
2, 2, 4 – trimethyl penten – 3 – one

 HOOC –CH2-HC = CHCOOH

O O
❺‖ ❹ ❸ ❷ ❶‖
HO  C  CH2  CH CH  C  OH

Pent – 2 – en – 1,5 – dioic acid

Pent – 2 – en dioic acid
2 – Penten – 1,5 – dioic acid

FACULTY TEACHER : SIR ASIF IZHAR | SIR FAIZAN SIDDIQUI | SIR ANAS SOORTI | SIR NAVEED HASAN | SIR FAHAD KHAN | SIR TALHA
 CHAPTER
INTRODUCTION TO HYDROCARBONS
5

C3H6 = unsaturated
C7H12 = saturated
C8H18= saturated
C5H10= unsaturated
C5H8= unsaturated

BOILING POINT OF CYCLOPROPANE

(i) CH3-CH=CH2 + HI------- 2-iodopropane

(ii)

FACULTY TEACHER : SIR ASIF IZHAR | SIR FAIZAN SIDDIQUI | SIR ANAS SOORTI | SIR NAVEED HASAN | SIR FAHAD KHAN | SIR TALHA
(iii)

1. C4H10 Butane has no position isomer.

2. C5H12 Petane has no position isomer.
3. C4H8 Butene has 2 position isomer
(a) CH2 = CH – CH2 – CH3
1 - butene
(b) CH3 – CH = CH – CH3
2- butene
4. C5H10 Petene has 2 position isomers

(a) CH2 = CH – CH2 – CH2 – CH3

1 - Pentene
(b) CH3 – CH = CH – CH2 – CH3
2 - Penetene
5. C4H6 Butyne has 2 position isomers
(a) CH ≡ C – CH2 – CH3
1- butyne

FACULTY TEACHER : SIR ASIF IZHAR | SIR FAIZAN SIDDIQUI | SIR ANAS SOORTI | SIR NAVEED HASAN | SIR FAHAD KHAN | SIR TALHA
 (b) CH3 – C ≡ C – CH3
2- butyne
6. C5H8 Pentyne has 2 positin isomer
(a) CH ≡ C – CH2 – CH2 – CH3
1-pentyne
(b) CH3 – C ≡ CH2 – CH3
2-pentyne

FUNCTIONAL GROUP ISOMER

1. C2H6O Has two functional group isomers
a) CH3 – CH2 – OH
Ethyl alcohol / ethanol
b) CH3 – O – CH2
Dimethyl ether / methoxy methane
2. C3H6O Has two functional group isomers
O
||
a) CH3 – CH2 – C – H
Propanal
O
||
b) CH3 – C – CH3

3. C2H4O2 Has two functional group isomers

O
||
a) CH3 – C – OH
Ethanoic acid
O
||
b) H – C – O – CH3
Methyl methanoate

Benzene is highly unsaturated but the double bonds present inside the bezene ring are delocalized due to
bond resonance, which makes it extremely stable and thereof shows addition reaction.

FACULTY TEACHER : SIR ASIF IZHAR | SIR FAIZAN SIDDIQUI | SIR ANAS SOORTI | SIR NAVEED HASAN | SIR FAHAD KHAN | SIR TALHA
 CHAPTER
AKYL HALIDES & AMINES
6

(i) When methyiodide reacts with caustic soda, if forms methanol

CH3 – I + NaOH CH3 – OH + NaI
Methyliodide Sodium hydroxide Methanol
(ii) When methyliodide reacts with potassium cyanide, it forms methyl cyanide
CH3 – I + KCN CH3 – CN + KI
Methyl cyanide
(iii) When methyiodide reacts with Sodium methoxide , it forms dimethyl ether

CH3 – I + CH3 – ONa CH3 – O – CH3 + NaI

Dimethyl ether

(iv) When methyliodide reacts with potassium hydrosulphide , it forms methyl thiol
CH3 – I + KSH CH3 – SH + KI
Methyl thiol

(i) 𝛽 − elimination reactions are not possible in methyl halodes because they do not have any 𝛽 −
hydrogens to be eliminated

A 𝛽 − hydrogen is a hydrogen attached to 𝛽 − carbon i.e . a carbon next to the carbon bonded to the
halide.
H
H H
𝛼
𝛽 Hydrogen H–C−X 𝛽
H – C −𝛼 C – X
H
Methyl Halide H H

𝛽 Hydrogen Ethyl Halide

FACULTY TEACHER : SIR ASIF IZHAR | SIR FAIZAN SIDDIQUI | SIR ANAS SOORTI | SIR NAVEED HASAN | SIR FAHAD KHAN | SIR TALHA
 (ii) SN2 reaction is not favorable in tertiary alkyl halides due to steric hindrance i.e. the difficulty of a
reaction to occur due to presence of bulky molecules around the reacting atom. As in SN2 reaction
, the nucleophile attacks the central carbon from opposite side of halogen , but as carbon to
halogen bond is surrounded by three large groups , the reaction is very slow or impossible.

(iii) The stability of carbocation depends on the number of alkyl to it . Tertiary carbocations are most
stable than secondary and primary carbocation due to electron donating tendency of alkyl group.

KEY PROPERTIES OF ORGANOMETALLIC COMPOUNDS:

1. They contain atleast one metal carbon bond , which is covalent in nature and can vary in polarity.
2. Most of the organometallic compounds are solid in nature , especially the compounds in which the
hydrocarbon groups are aromatic or have a ring structure.
3. The compound consisting of highly electropositive metals such as sodium or lithium are very volatile
and can undergo spontaneous combustion.
4. They are toxic to humans.
5. They can act as reducing agents.

FACULTY TEACHER : SIR ASIF IZHAR | SIR FAIZAN SIDDIQUI | SIR ANAS SOORTI | SIR NAVEED HASAN | SIR FAHAD KHAN | SIR TALHA
 CHAPTER
Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers
7

SHORT QUESTIONS

Q.1 Define Phenol? Write the equations for the preparation of Phenol from:
(i) Chloro benzene

(ii)Sodium benzene Sulphonate

Q.2 Write the equation for the following chemical process.

(i) Reduction of acetic acid with LiAlH4

(ii) Hydration of ethene with hot concentrated H2SO4

FACULTY TEACHER : SIR ASIF IZHAR | SIR FAIZAN SIDDIQUI | SIR ANAS SOORTI | SIR NAVEED HASAN | SIR FAHAD KHAN | SIR TALHA
(iii) Oxidation of ethanol with Acidified Dichromate.

(iv) Hydrolysis of diazonium salt.

Q.3 Explain the following with scientific reasons:

(i) Boiling point (B.P) of ether is less than with alcohol, why ?
Ethers, have no hydrogen atom on the oxygen atom , unlike alcohols, (that is, no OH group).
Therefore, there is no intermolecular hydrogen bonding between ether molecules, which makes
their boiling points much lower than an alcohol with similar mass.
(ii) Alcohols are soluble in water, why?
Alcohol is soluble because its hydroxyl group is hydrophilic, or “water-loving,” and forms hydrogen
bonds with water.
(iii)Ethanol is liquid but ethyl chloride (Chloro ethane) is a gas at room temperature, why ?
In Ethyl alcohol due to the presence of -OH group, hydrogen bonding is present between the
molecules. In case of ethyl chloride only dipole-dipole forces are present. Due to this greater
intermolecular forces in ethyl alcohol , exists in liquid state at room temperature.
Q.4 Identify with each of the following with two laboratory test:
(i) Phenol (Ferric Chloride Test & Bromine water test)
a. Ferric Chloride Test:

FACULTY TEACHER : SIR ASIF IZHAR | SIR FAIZAN SIDDIQUI | SIR ANAS SOORTI | SIR NAVEED HASAN | SIR FAHAD KHAN | SIR TALHA
b. Bromine water test:

(ii) Alcohol (Na metal reaction & Esterification).

(a) Na metal

(b) Esterification

Q.5 What is Lucas Reagent? Describe its uses to distinguish among 10 , 20 & 30 Alcohol.
Lucas Reagent: The mixture of HCl(concentrated) & ZnCl2 .
The reaction rate for this is highly dependent on the formation of a carbocation caused by
the loss of the hydroxyl as water.

A carbocation formed by a primary alcohol

is unstable, and thus will not readily occur.

FACULTY TEACHER : SIR ASIF IZHAR | SIR FAIZAN SIDDIQUI | SIR ANAS SOORTI | SIR NAVEED HASAN | SIR FAHAD KHAN | SIR TALHA
Q.6 What is Oxonium ion ? How can ether form oxonium ion?
Oxonium ion : any cation (positive ion) containing an oxygen atom that has three bonds. The simplest
oxonium ion is the hydronium ion (H3O+).

DESCRIPTIVE QUESTIONS

Q.1 (a) What are Alcohols? How alcohols are they Classified?
1.Alcohols:
Aliphatic compounds in which one or more hydroxyl (-OH) group is directly attached with carbon
atom are known as alcohols.
Classification:
Based on number of hydroxyl group present in their structure, alcohols are classified into three
classes:
(a) Monohydric Alcohols:
The class of alcohol in which only one hydroxyl group is present in the structure is known as
monohydric alcohol.
For Example:
CH3-OH CH3-CH2-OH
Methyl Alcohol Ethyl Alcohol
(b) Dihydric Alcohols:
The class of alcohol in which two hydroxyl groups are present in their structure is known as dihydric
alcohol.
For Example:
HO-CH2-CH2-OH
Ethylene Glycol
(c) Trihydric Alcohols:
The class of alcohol in which three hydroxyl groups are present in their structure is known as trihydric
alcohol.
For Example:
CH2-CH-CH2
(Glycerol)
OH OH OH
Classification of Monohydric Alcohol:
The general molecular formula of monohydric alcohol is CnH2n+1OH or R-OH. They are further
classified into three classes:
(i) Primary (10) Alcohols:
The class of monohydric alcohol in which hydroxyl (-OH) is directly attached with primary carbon, is
known as primary (10) alcohol.
For example:
CH3-CH2-OH Ethyl alcohol
(ii) Secondary (20) Alcohols:
The class of monohydric alcohol in which hydroxyl (-OH) is directly attached with secondary carbon,
is known as secondary (20) alcohol.
For example:
CH3-CH-OH Sec-propyl alcohol
CH3

FACULTY TEACHER : SIR ASIF IZHAR | SIR FAIZAN SIDDIQUI | SIR ANAS SOORTI | SIR NAVEED HASAN | SIR FAHAD KHAN | SIR TALHA
(iii) Tertiary (30) Alcohols:
The class of monohydric alcohol in which hydroxyl (-OH) is directly attached with tertiary carbon, is
known as tertiary (30) alcohol.
For example:
CH3
CH3-C-OH Ter-butyl alcohol
CH3
(b) Starting from Grignard reagent how is pri- , sec- & Tert- alcohol prepared.

(i) Formation of Primary Alcohol: (Reaction with Formaldehyde)

When Formaldehyde reacts with Grignard’s reagent followed by hydrolysis in acidic medium and
thus gives primary (10) alcohol.

CH3-Mg-Br + H2C=O CH3-CH2-OMg+Br- H-OH CH3-CH2-OH + HO-Mg-Br

HCl (dil) Ethyl alcohol(10)

(iv) Formation of Secondary Alcohol (Other than Formaldehyde):

Grignard’s reagent reacts with aldehyde other than formaldehyde in acidic medium and thus forms
secondary alcohol.

CH3CH=O+CH3-MgCl (CH3)2CH-O-Mg+Cl H3O+ (CH3)2CH-OH + HO-Mg-Cl

HCl(dil) 20 Propyl Alcohol

(v) Formation of Tertiary Alcohol: (Reaction with Ketone)

Ketone react with Grignard’s reagent in acidic medium forming tertiary (3 0) alcohol.

(CH3)2C=O + CH3-MgI (CH3)3C-O-Mg+I H3O+

(CH3)3C-OH + HO-Mg-I
(30) butyl Alcohol
Q.2 Write the equation for the following possible conversions.
(i) Ethyl Alcohol to Diethyl ether. (Dehydration of Alcohol)

(ii) Phenol to benzoquinone.(Oxidation of Phenol)

(iii) Ethyl bromide to ethanol (Nucleophilic Reaction)

(iv) 20 alcohol to Carboxylic Acid

FACULTY TEACHER : SIR ASIF IZHAR | SIR FAIZAN SIDDIQUI | SIR ANAS SOORTI | SIR NAVEED HASAN | SIR FAHAD KHAN | SIR TALHA
Q.3 Differentiate between alcohol & Phenol::

S. No Property Alcohol Phenol

-OH attached to Alkyl carbon -OH attached to Aryl carbon

1. Functional Group
(R-OH) (Ar-OH)

2. Solubility Readily soluble in water Lower solubility in water

3. Boiling Point Generally lower than phenol Generally higher than alcohol

Weaker Acid Stronger Acid

4. Acidic Character
(Higher pKa =15 to 18 values) (Lower pKa=10 values)

Q.4 Write the equation & name the final product when phenol react with the following:

(i) Hot HNO3 (conc)

Nitration of benzene

(ii) H2SO4 (conc) at (High Temperature 1000c)

Sulfonation of benzene

(iii) Bromine Water

Halogenation / In the presence of Polar Solvent

FACULTY TEACHER : SIR ASIF IZHAR | SIR FAIZAN SIDDIQUI | SIR ANAS SOORTI | SIR NAVEED HASAN | SIR FAHAD KHAN | SIR TALHA
(iv) Na metal
Acidic nature test

FACULTY TEACHER : SIR ASIF IZHAR | SIR FAIZAN SIDDIQUI | SIR ANAS SOORTI | SIR NAVEED HASAN | SIR FAHAD KHAN | SIR TALHA
 CHAPTER CARBOYNL COMPOUNDS 1:
8 ALDEHYDES AND KETONES

SELF ASSESSMENT

Q.1 What is ozonolysis of alkene & What are the main products that can be obtained from this reaction.
Ozonolysis: Organic chemical reaction where ozone is employed to cleave the unsaturated bonds of alkenes,
alkynes.
Main Products: Aldehyde & Ketone are the main Products.
Q.2 Give equation for the reaction of propanone with the following:
(a) Hydrazine

(b) Hydroxyl Amine

Q.3 Which reagent can be used to convert an alcohol to aldehyde or ketone only without the formation of
Carboxylic Acid.
Answer: The pyridinium chlorochromate (PCC) is used to oxidize primary alcohol to aldehyde and secondary alcohol
to ketone.
EXERCISE SHORT QUESTIONS
Q.1 Give reasons for the following:
i. The boiling point of aldehydes and ketones are lower than alcohol.
Aldehydes and ketones have lower boiling point than alcohols because they are not associated with intermolecular
H-bonding.
ii. Formaldehyde is highly soluble in water as compared to other aldehydes.
Formaldehyde is hydrated (surrounded) by water molecules through hydrogen bonding interaction, thus, it is
soluble in water.
iii. Oxidation of aldehydes is faster than ketones.
Aldehydes are less hindered than ketones (a hydrogen atom is smaller than any other organic group). The carbonyl
carbon in aldehydes generally has more partial positive charge than in ketones due to the electron-donating nature
of alkyl groups.
Q.2 Write the equation for the reaction of acetaldehyde (Ethanal) with the following:
a) Chromic acid (H2CrO4)
(Oxidation Reaction)

FACULTY TEACHER : SIR ASIF IZHAR | SIR FAIZAN SIDDIQUI | SIR ANAS SOORTI | SIR NAVEED HASAN | SIR FAHAD KHAN | SIR TALHA
 b) Lithium Aluminum hydride (LiAlH4)
(Reduction Reaction → Formation of Alcohol)

c) Zinc mercury amalgam (Zn/Hg)

(Clemmensen Reduction Reaction → Formation of alkane)

Q.3 How is formaldehyde (methanal) prepared by ozonolysis?

Q.4 Why is formaldehyde more reactive towards nucleophilic addition reaction compared with ketones.

Q.5 How does the oxidation of ketones different from the oxidation of aldehydes.
In the Oxidation of Alcohol -OH group is oxidized to carbonyl group (C=O).
1. 10 Alcohol are oxidized to Aldehyde
2. 20 Alcohol are oxidized to Ketone.
Q.6 Why are ethers considered as good solvents in organic reaction.

EXERCISE DESCRIPTIVE QUESTIONS

Q.2 Explain the Acid & base Catalyzed nucleophilic Addition Reaction in aldehyde & Ketone.
I. Acid Catalyzed nucleophilic Addition Reaction:

FACULTY TEACHER : SIR ASIF IZHAR | SIR FAIZAN SIDDIQUI | SIR ANAS SOORTI | SIR NAVEED HASAN | SIR FAHAD KHAN | SIR TALHA
 II. Base Catalyzed nucleophilic Addition Reaction:

Q.3 Distinguish test between Aldehyde & Ketone.

a. Silver Mirror Test:
Aldehyde Ketone
Aldehyde (Formaldehyde) reacts with Tollen’s reagent and Ketone (Acetone) cannot produce silver mirror
form silver mirror which is deposited on inner wall of with Tollen’s reagent.
container.
HCHO + 2[Ag(NH3)2]OH → 2Ag + HCOONH4 + 3NH3 + H2O

b. Fehling’s solution test:

Aldehyde Ketone
Aldehyde (Formaldehyde) reacts with Fehling’s solution A Ketone (Acetone) cannot give red precipitates
and B to form red precipitates of Cu2O. with Fehling’s solution.
HCHO + NaOH + Cu(OH)2 → Cu2O + HCOONa + 2H2O

Q.4 Give the equation of the following Reaction:

a) Oxidation of Ketone (Acetone) with Acidified K2Cr2O7.

b) Reduction of Ethanal (Acetaldehyde) with NaBH4.

FACULTY TEACHER : SIR ASIF IZHAR | SIR FAIZAN SIDDIQUI | SIR ANAS SOORTI | SIR NAVEED HASAN | SIR FAHAD KHAN | SIR TALHA
 c) Hydration of Ethyne (Acetylene) in the presence of H2SO4 / HgSO4

d) Acylation of benzene in the presence of AlCl3.

Q.6 Write the equation for the nucleophilic addition reaction of formaldehyde (Methanal) with:
a) HCN (Hydrogen Cyanide)

b) 10 Alcohol:
When formaldehyde reacts with ethyl alcohol hemiacetal is formed. This hemiacetal further reacts with ethyl alcohol
to form acetal.

c) CH3-Mg-Br

Q.7 Explain the factors affecting that influence the reactivity of Carbonyl compounds towards nucleophilic addition
reaction.

FACULTY TEACHER : SIR ASIF IZHAR | SIR FAIZAN SIDDIQUI | SIR ANAS SOORTI | SIR NAVEED HASAN | SIR FAHAD KHAN | SIR TALHA
 CARBONYL COMPOUNDS II:
CHAPTER
CARBOXYLIC ACID AND
9
FUNCTIONAL DERIVATIVES

1. Show the following conversions by means of chemical reactions:

 Methyl cyanide into acetic acid
 Acetic acid into an amide
 Ethanoic acid into ethanol

2. Carboxylic acids are more acidic than alcohol and explain on the basis of their pKa values.
Ans. ACIDITY: The acidity of carboxylic acid is higher than corresponding alcohols, phenol & water, but weaker
than mineral acid It is due to less pka value (acetic acid pKa= 5) lesser than phenol pKa= 10, ethanol pKa=16 & water
pKa= 15.7 Carboxylic acid upon dissolution in water, dissociates into carboxylate ions with the release of proton. This
dissociation is due to the electron-withdrawing nature of C in the carboxylic acid group which weakens the hydrogen-
oxygen bond.

FACULTY TEACHER : SIR ASIF IZHAR | SIR FAIZAN SIDDIQUI | SIR ANAS SOORTI | SIR NAVEED HASAN | SIR FAHAD KHAN | SIR TALHA
 CHAPTER
BIOCHEMISTRY
10

1. What is glycosidic linkage? Draw the structure of maltose and show glycosidic linkage in it.
Ans. A glycosidic bond (O-C-O) is a type of covalent bond that join two monosaccharide units together
to form a larger carbohydrate molecule.

2. What do animal & plant starch mean? What is the role of animal starch in energy storage in the body?
Ans. : Animal starch are biomacromolecule found in animals; for example, Glycogen (animal starch) is
found in muscle & liver Plant starch is a blomacromolecule reserved for plants, for example, cellulose, and
starch. The body stores glucose for rainy days as "glycogen" which is utilized in fasting & liness.
3. How you can differentiate fat and oil?
Ans. Oils are liquid below 20°C. Oils contain a high percentage of triglycerides of unsaturated fatty acids
Example: Oleic acid, Linoleic acid Fats are solid below 20°C. Fats contain a high percentage of triglycerides of
saturated fatty acids Example: Palmitic, Stearic acid

4. Haemoglobin, harmones and antibodies are categorized as proteins. What is the biological role of
these proteins in human body.
Ans. Hemoglobin transports oxygen from the lungs to every tissue of the body. Hormones regulate
physiological functions in the body. Antibodies play an important role in the immune system of the body.

FACULTY TEACHER : SIR ASIF IZHAR | SIR FAIZAN SIDDIQUI | SIR ANAS SOORTI | SIR NAVEED HASAN | SIR FAHAD KHAN | SIR TALHA
CHAPTER
INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY
11

1- GLASS INDUSTRY:-
It involves melting raw materials Such as silica, soda ash, calcium carbonate to form glass and shaping
of glass into various products. These glass products are used in construction, packaging and consumer
goods.
2- BATTERY INDUSTRY:-
It involves assembly of battery components and chemical reactions to store and provide electrical
energy. These are mainly used in automotive, electronics and energy storage applications.
3- PAPER AND PULP INDUSTRY:
It includes pulping of raw material, bleaching and papermaking. The main products include paper,
cardboard and pulp used in printing, packaging. and hygiene products.
4- WATER TREATMENT INDUSTRY :
It involves coagulation, filtration, disinfection, PH adjustment, ensuring the quality and safety of
drinking water, treating wastewater for discharge or reuse.
5- ADHESIVE INDUSTRY:
It includes formulation of adhesives, sealants and bonding agents. These materials are used for joining
or sealing surfaces in construction, automotive and manufacturing applications.

FACULTY TEACHER : SIR ASIF IZHAR | SIR FAIZAN SIDDIQUI | SIR ANAS SOORTI | SIR NAVEED HASAN | SIR FAHAD KHAN | SIR TALHA
 CHAPTER
ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY
12

Q: Can a vehicle run without catalytic converter?

Yes, a vehicle can ron without catalytic converter but it will be harmful for the environment because
of the emission of CO, NO and some unburnt volatile hydrocarbon.

Catalytic Converter :
Catalytic converter contains, a mixture of metals such as platinurn (Pt) and palladium (Pd) which
serve as catalyst. The purpose of catalytic converter is to transform the harmful chemicals produced
during combustion into less or non-harmful substances such as CO2, N2 and Oz and H2O.
The main pollutants which are targeted. by catalytic convertes are NO, CO and different unburnt
volatile hydrocarbons.
These pollutants have bad rmpact on life.

Q: i) Why climate change occurs?

ii) What measures can be taken to mitigate climate change?

ⅰ) The temperature of our earth is regulated by certain gases such as CH4, CO2, N2O and H2O
(collectively known as greenhouse gases). The change in concentration of these gases leads to the
climate change.

ii) To prevent climate change, we need to reduce greenhouse gas emission by alternating to
renewable energy sources, promoting energy efficiency and implementing sustainable practices in
sectors like transportation and agriculture.

ACID RAIN :-
Acid rain refers to the rainfall that has acidic components such as nitric acid, sulphuric acid and
carbonic acid."
The PH of acid rain is below 5 depending upon the concentration of acidic components present in it.

FACULTY TEACHER : SIR ASIF IZHAR | SIR FAIZAN SIDDIQUI | SIR ANAS SOORTI | SIR NAVEED HASAN | SIR FAHAD KHAN | SIR TALHA
 PRIMARY CAUSE :-
Pollutants Jike oxides of carbon. nitrogen and sulphur present in the atmosphere may undergo
chemical reaction with atmospheric water to produce carbolic acid, nitric acid and sulphuric acid
respectively.
These acid components are mixed with rain water and fall as acidrain.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS:-
Acid rain has several adverse environmental impacts, given as follows:
 Acid rain increases the acidity of rivers causing a disturbance in marine ecosystem.
 Acid rain reduces the fertility of soil and affects crop production.
 Acid rain causes corrosion of buildings and other concrete and metal made things.
 Acid rain makes underground water toxic and undrinkable.

What is the process of ozone formation in the stratosphere? How does the ozone
layer provide protection for life?

OZONE FORMATION:
Ozone is formed in the stratosphere due to the photochemical reaction of oxygen gas with sunray's,
Ultra-vio radiations of sunlight break the oxygen molecule into free radicals, which then combine
with another oxygen molecule to form ozone.

UV light
. .
O2 O +O
.
O2 + O O3
Ozone

Ozone layer provides protection of life. It absorbs all the ultraviolet radiations and does not allow
them to reach Earth's surface, thus protecting all living organisms from the harmful effects of U.V
radiations.

FACULTY TEACHER : SIR ASIF IZHAR | SIR FAIZAN SIDDIQUI | SIR ANAS SOORTI | SIR NAVEED HASAN | SIR FAHAD KHAN | SIR TALHA
 CHAPTER
SPECTROSCOPY
13

What is the range of wave length typically used in U.V-visible spectroscopy?

UV-visible spectroscopy covers a wavelength range from 200 nm to 800 nm. The U. V region spans
200nm to 400nm while the visible region extends from 200 nm to 800 nm. The U. V region spans
200mm to 4000m while the visible region extends from 400nm to 8000nm.

What is the principle behind atomic emission spectroscopy?

PRINCIPLE OF ATOMIC EMISSION SPECTROSCOPY :

1- Excitation of atoms:
Atoms are excited by thermal or electrical energy supplied by an external source.

2- Emission of light:-
When excited electrons return to their ground state, they emit excess of energy in the form of
light of Specific wavelengths.
3- Wavelength Analysis:-
This emitted light is commonly found in U.V visible or rarely IR range. This emitted light
appears as a series of bright lines against a dark background.
4- Unique spectral lines:-
Since each element has its distinct set of bright lines, chemist can identify the element.

What is mass spectrum? What is the role of detector in mass spectrometer?

MASS SPECTRUM:
A mass spectrum is a plot of intensity (signal strength) against the mass to charge ratio (m/z) of ions.

 It provides valuable information about the elemental composition and structure of molecules in a
sample.

ROLE OF DETECTORS:-
Detectors play a crucial role in mass spectrometers.
 They capture ions after separation by mass and measure their abundance.
 The detector output reveals the distribution of ions based on m/z values.
 Different types of detectors (such as electron multipliers) convert ion currents into measurable
signals.
FACULTY TEACHER : SIR ASIF IZHAR | SIR FAIZAN SIDDIQUI | SIR ANAS SOORTI | SIR NAVEED HASAN | SIR FAHAD KHAN | SIR TALHA