(LIST OF EXPERIMENTS)

S.NO. LIST OF EXPERIMENT PAGE NO. SIGNATURE

1. Introduction to simulation software for
electromagnetic.
2. To design a rectangular waveguide
using HFSS.
3. To design a Circular waveguide using
HFSS.
4. To design a Coaxial line using HFSS.
5. To design a Microstrip line using HFSS.
6. To study Microwave components.
7. Introduction to Microwave bench.
8. To determine frequency using
Microwave bench.
9. To measure unknown impedance using
Smith Chart.
 Experiment No. – 1

AIM: Introduction to simulation software for Electromagnetics.

APPARATUS: HFSS 13.0

THEORY : Ansys HFSS is a 3D electromagnetic (EM) simulation software for designing and
simulating high-frequency electronic products such as antennas, antenna arrays, RF or
microwave components, high-speed interconnects, filters,
connectors,ICpackagesandprintedcircuitboards.Engineers worldwide use Ansys HFSS to design high-
frequency, high-speed electronics found in communications systems, radar systems, advanced driver
assistance systems (ADAS), satellites, internet-of-things (IoT) productsandotherhigh-speedRF
anddigitaldevices.
 CREATE A SIMPLESOLIDSTRUCTUREIN HFSS:
Herewe aregoingdesigna 2-rectangularboxes for whichwe needto follow these steps:
 Createa newprojectthenwe get screen consist of x- , y- &
z- axis.
 Choosea rectangularsolidshapefromtheabovesolidshape section.
 Now move your pointer(w.r.t. x, y, z-axes) fromwhereyouwantto
start drawing your shapethenexpand your drawnshapeas muchit is
required.
 Now, instead adjust its measurement manually go on to create
box (box1>>create box)optionandadjustsizesoftheshape.
 Againrepeattheabove 3 procedures.
 Againtry to adjustbox2 sizeas peryour ease.
 Finally,we get an outputconsistsof 2-layered-
rectangularboxes. Now, we will see the drawn shape which looks as:

Figure 1 Rectangular Box

  HOW TO CREATE COMPLEX STRUCTURE & ASSIGNING MATERIALS IN HFSS :
On continuing above project,we will draw a circular on the top of these boxes.
 Select a cylindrical shape and draw it on the top of upperbox.
 Now, adjust its size as per requirement.
 Now,move to cylindrical box1 >> Edit >> copy & paste thesame cylindrical
box1 then it yields cylindrical box2.
 Now,select both cylindrical box1 and cylindrical box2 thenmove to Edit >> Bolean
>> Subtract.This will result a circular ring. Its figure is given as:

Figure2 Rectangular Box with Ring

 HOW TO ASSIGNING BOUNDARY CONDITIONS , EXCITATION & CHECK VALIDATION :

To assign boundary condition make right click and go to Select Faces. In this one face
should be a master and other should be a slave and follow the following steps:
 Make a rectangular box of greater size than the previous one as shown in figure.
 Select faces (making right click) of that in such a way that one is master and other
is slave.
 After selecting a face make right click and go to the option Assign Boundary called
Master and define the U-vector. Similarly, make a slave face (just opposite to
master face)and also defined their directions.
 On the same way select faces for rest of the two vertical faces.
 Now,for topand bottom faces Assign Excitation. Assign Excitation >> Floquet Port
>> define direction.
 Now make the setup by defining desired frequency and their starting & stopping
points too.
Check it if all setup is correct then it will indicate all green ticks. Its figure is shown here:
Figure 3 Box3 containing all other elements

Figure 4 Showing the HFSS Design Setup

 HOW TO DO MODE SELECTION & RESULT PLOT:

After implementing all setup correctly, then for the selection of mode and result plotting, we
need to follow these steps:
 HFSS >> Results >> Create Modal Solution Data Report>> Rectangular Plot >>
Analyze all.
On analysis, we get the desired result plot.
LUMPED PORT:
Lumped port is located internally to the solution space and 2D-port rectangle touches the
signal with one edge also little above & below for good feeding to transmission line and
the opposite edge touches the ground plane.
 Experiment No. – 2
AIM: To design a rectangular waveguide using HFSS.

APPARATUS: HFSS 13.0 simulation software.

THEORY: A rectangular waveguide is a hollow metallic tube with a rectangularcrosssection.

The conducting walls of the waveguide confine the electromagnetic fields and thereby guide the
electromagnetic wave. The rectangular waveguide is basically characterized by its dimensions
i.e., length ‘a’ and breadth ‘b’.

HOW TO DESIGN A RECTANGULAR WAVEGUIDE:

To design rectangular waveguide we need to follow some steps which
are given as :
 Create a new project (named as Project2) >> Open 3D area >>
Draw a rectangular box.
 Adjust its dimensions as per ease.
 Select two faces respectively and assign them an excitation i.e. Assign
Exitation>>Wave Portanddefine its vectorial direction.
 Assign boundaries to rest of the faces such that
Assign_Boundaries >> Perfect E....
 Now go to Analysis and create Setup of the schematic (Analysis
>> Setup).
 Now go to, Setup1 >> Add Frequency Sweep.
 Analyze the Setup for detecting error (if any) (Analyze All).
 Now, for visualizing the behavior of electric field in rectangular
waveguide: Select Object and select entire object (rectangular
waveguide) the Plot Fields>>E>>Vector_E>>Done.Ifwantsto animate
thenjustgo to Field Overlay>>Vector_E>>Animate.
 Similarly, Select face i.e. Select Faces >> PlotFields >> E >> Mag_E . We can
animate this also as following same above procedure.
 For Results,go to Results >> Model Data Report >> Rectangular Plot
>>select S(x, y) >> New report. Got the result.
Here are some experimental diagram is shown....
 Figure 1 Waveguide showing E Field(Vector_E)

Figure 2 Waveguide showing E Field (Mag_E) without

animation
Figure 3 Result plot of S (1, 1)

Figure 4 Result plot of S (1, 2)

 Experiment No. – 3
AIM: To design a Circular Waveguide using HFSS.

APPARATUS: HFSS 13.0 simulation software.

THEORY: A waveguide is a hollow metal tube (rectangular or circular in cross section) that
transmits electromagnetic energy from one place to another. A waveguide with a circular cross-
section is called as Circular Waveguide. It supports both transverse electric (TE) and transverse
magnetic (TM) modes. TE11 is the dominant mode in a circular waveguidei.e., a signal in this
mode propagates with the minimum degradation.
The circular waveguide is easier to manufacture than rectangular waveguides and is relatively
easy to install. It is usually used to connect a horn antenna with a reflector in tracking radars and
for long-distance waveguide transmission above 10 GHz.
The cut-off frequency of a circular waveguide is inversely proportional to its radius. See the

1.8412 ∗ 𝑐
formula below - r is the radius of the circular waveguide and C is the speed of light.
𝑓𝑐 =
2∗𝜋∗𝑟
HOW TO DESIGN A CIRCULAR WAVEGUIDE:
Now to design a circular waveguide we need to follow some recognized steps:
 Createanewproject>>Drawa Cylindricalshape>> Adjust its dimension.
 Now, select a faces (Cross-sectional circular faces).
 Assignexcitation to thosecircularcross-sectionalfacessuchthat Assign Excitation
>> Wave Port and define their direction.
 On the same way, assign boundaries to rest cylindrical faces. Assign
Boundaries >> Perfect_E.
 Now, develope the schematic setup. Analyze >> Solution Setup and adjust
the required frequency value.
 Now,adjustthefrequencysweep. Setup1 >> Add Frequency Sweep.
 Now,to detect error and/or correctness of Solution Setupuse Analysis All.
 Now, for visualizing the behavior of electric field in circular waveguide we
follow: Select Object and select entire object (rectangular waveguide) the Plot
Fields >> E >> Vector_E>> Done . If wants to animate then just go to Field
Overlay >> Vector_E
>> Animate.
 Similarly,Select face i.e. Select Faces >> PlotFields >> E >>Mag_E. We can animate
this also as following same above procedure.
 ForResults,gotoResults>>ModelDataReport>>Rectangular Plot >>select S(x
,y) >> New report. Got the result.
Here are some experimental diagram is shown....
Figure 1 Waveguide showing E Field (Vector_E).

Figure 2 Waveguide showing E Field (Mag_E)

without animation
Figure 3 Waveguide showing E Field (Mag_E) with animation

Figure 4 Result plotting of circular waveguide for S (1,1) and S(1,2)

 Experiment No. – 4
AIM: To design a Coaxial line using HFSS.
APPARATUS: HFSS 13.0Software.
THEORY: Coaxial cable is defined as two concentric wires, cylindrical in shape, separated by
an insulating dielectric of some type. One wire is the center conductor and the other is the outer
conductor (usually called a shield). The dielectric maintains a constant capacitance between the
two conductors, which is very important in radio transmission. The dielectric is soft and
deforms easily if tied too tightly or with the wrong type of tape. The conductors are covered by a
protective jacket. The protective jacket is then covered by an outer protective armor. Coaxial
cables areused as transmission lines and are constructed to provide protection against outside
signal interference.

There are two types of coaxial lines, flexible (solid) and rigid (air) coaxial line. The physical
constructionofbothtypes is basicallythe same; that is, each contains two concentric conductors.
Flexible coaxial lines are made with an inner conductor that consists of flexible wire insulated
from the outer conductor by a solid, continuous insulating material. The outer conductor is made
of metal braid, which gives the line flexibility.

The Rigid coaxial line consists of a central, insulated wire(inner conductor) mounted inside a
tabular outer conductor. The inner conductor is insulated from the outer conductor by insulating
spacers or beads at regular intervals. The spacers are made of Pyrex, polystyrene, or some other
materialthathasgoodinsulatingability and low dielectric losses.

Some useful formulas:

Impedance:

Cut Off Frequency:

Symbols:
A = Attenuation
D = Inner diameter of outer conductor (inches)
d = outer diameter of inner conductor (inches)
ε = Dielectric Constant
ρ = Resistivity in Ω·mm²/m
f = Frequency in Hz
l = Length (feet)
Z = Characteristic Impedance
tan δ = Loss Tangent of Dielectric
Velocity of Propagation:
(in Per Cent of the light speed)

Dielectric Loss (in dB):

Reflection Loss (in dB):

Time Delay (in ns/ft):

Capacitance (in pf/ft):

Figure1 Port field and E-Field Overlays.

Figure 2 Basic Coaxial line with E-Field
Figure 3 Two XY Plot-1 & Plot-2 of coaxial line with E-Field
 Experiment No. – 5

AIM:To designa Microstriplineusing HFSS.

APPARATUS: HFSS 13.0Software.

THEORY: A Microstrip is a type of transmission line that consistsof a conductor fabricated on
dielectric substrate with a grounded plane by a dielectric layer known as the substrate.
Microstrip lines are used to convey microwave-frequency signals. It is easily miniaturized and
integrated with microwave devices making it a popular choice of transmissionline.
A microstrip line consists of a conductor of width W, a dielectric substrate of thickness d and
permittivity εr. The presence of the dielectric(commonlythinwith d<<λ) concentratesthefieldlines
in the region between the between the conductor and the ground plane, with some fraction being
in the air region above the conductor, leading to quasi-TEM modes of propagation in which
dispersion occurs as a function of wavelength as shown in Fig.1.

𝑐
The phase velocity and propagation constant is given by:
𝑣𝑝 =
√𝜀𝑒
𝛽 = 𝑘0 = √𝜀𝑒
With theeffectivedielectricconstant, 𝜀𝑒 of the Microstripline satisfying the relation
1 < 𝜀𝑒 < 𝜀𝑟

Figure1 Microstrip Line diagram

Figure2 Radiation in Microstrip
Figure 3 XY Plots from different S-parameters
Figure 4 Final combined XY Plot
 Experiment No. – 6

AIM: To study Microwave components.

APPARATUS: Klystron tube, Klystron power supply, Klystron mount, Isolator, frequency
meter, variable attenuator, Slotted section waveguide, Tunable Probe, VSWR meter, Waveguide
stand, Movable short.

THEORY: A setup of microwave bench, which consist of Microwave devices has a

prominent place.

Figure 1 Block Diagram: Microwave Bench

A. Signal Generator
As the name implies, it generates a microwave signal, in the order of a few milliwatts. This uses
velocity modulation technique to transfer continuous wave beam into milliwatt power. A Gunn
diode oscillator or a Reflex Klystron tube could be an example for this microwave signal
generator.
B. Precision Attenuator
This is the attenuator which selects the desired frequency and confines the output around 0 to
50db. This is variable and can be adjusted according to the requirement.
C. Variable Attenuator
This attenuator sets the amount of attenuation. It can be understood as a fine adjustment of
values, where the readings are checked against the values of Precision Attenuator.
D. Isolator
This removes the signal that is not required to reach the detector mount. Isolator allows the
signal to pass through the waveguide only in one direction.
E. Frequency Meter
This is the device which measures the frequency of the signal. With this frequency meter, the
signal can be adjusted to its resonance frequency. It alsogivesprovision to
couplethesignaltowaveguide.
F. Crystal Detector
A crystal detector probe and crystal detector mount are indicated in the above figure, where
the detector is connected through a probe to the mount. This is used to demodulate the signals.
G. Standing Wave Indicator
The standing wave voltmeter provides the reading of standing wave ratio in dB. The waveguide
is slotted by some gap to adjust the clock cycles of the signal. Signals transmitted by waveguide
are forwarded through BNC cable to VSWR or CRO to measure its characteristics.
Result: All microwave components are successfully studied.
 Experiment No. – 7

AIM: Introduction to Microwave bench.

APPARATUS: Klystron tube, Klystron power supply, Klystron mount, Isolator, frequency meter,
variable attenuator, Slotted section waveguide, Tunable probe, VSWR meter, Waveguide stand,
Movable short.

THEORY: Klystron Microwave test bench and Gunn oscillator Microwave test bench. Theblock
diagramand components or modules used in these microwave test benches.
Introduction:
The typical microwave test benches are precision microwave systems. It consists of rectangular
microwavewaveguide components. They are used for test and measurement of various microwave
modules in the lab. Letusunderstand klystronandgunn oscillator based microwave testbenches.

Figure 1 Klystron Microwave Test Bench block diagram with components

The figure depicts klystron microwave test bench. It consists of klystron power supply,
klystron mount tube, isolator, variable attenuator, frequencymeter,slottedlinesection,VSWR
meterand load.
Let us understand functions of each in brief.
• Klystron power supply: It helps in operating low power klystron (e.g. 2K25). It houses AM
modulation, FM modulation andexternal modulating signal functionalities. It usually provides
display for beam voltage, beam current and repeller voltage.
• Klystron mount tube: This consists of reflex klystron. It uses velocity modulation in order
to transformcontinuouselectronbeam into corresponding microwave power.
• Isolator: It passes microwave signal only in one directionand blocks signal going in
the other direction.
• Variableattenuator: It is used to attenuatemicrowavesignalwith variable attenuation
settings as made by the user. The different attenuation can beset.
• Frequency meter: It is used for frequency measurement.
• Slottedlinesection: Itshouldcoverdesiredfrequencyandshould be equipped with accurate
scale/indicator.
• VSWR meter: It is used for standing wave measurement with suitable detector
andslotted line (or waveguide) section. It isused to measure VSWR or SWR. It is designed
such that it avoids harmonics of linefrequency.
 • Load: It is microwave matched termination at desired characteristic impedance either 50
or 75 ohm. It is used toabsorb microwave power.

Result: Introduction to microwave bench is successfully completed.

 Experiment No. – 8

AIM: To determine frequency using Microwave bench.

APPARATUS: Klystron tube, Klystron power supply, Klystron mount, Isolator,

frequency meter, variable attenuator, Slotted section waveguide, Tunable probe,
VSWR meter, Waveguide stand, Movable short.

THEORY:Inthefieldof Microwaveengineering, thereoccurmany applications. Hence,

while using different applications, we often come acrossthe need ofmeasuring
different values such as Power, Attenuation, Phase shift, VSWR, Impedance, etc. for
the effective usage.
For dominant TE10 mode in rectangular waveguide λ0, λg, and λc are related as below:
1/ λo2 = 1/ λg2 + 1/ λc2
where λo is free space wavelength, λ g is guide wavelength and λc is cutoff wavelength.
For TE10 mode, λc = 2a, where ‘a’ is the broad dimension of waveguide.

Figure 1 Schematic Diagram

Fig 2 Klystron Microwave Test Bench block diagram

 PROCEDURE
1. Set up the components and equipments as shown in Fig. 1.
2. Set the variable attenuator at maximum position.
3. Keep the control knobs of VSWR meter as below: Range dB 50 dB position
Input switch Crystal low impedance Meter switch Normal position Gain (coarse &
fine) Mid Position.
4. Keep the control knobs of Klystron power supply as below: Meter switch
‘Off’ Mod-switch AM Beam voltage knob Fully anticlockwise Reflector
voltage Fully clockwise AM-Amplitude knob Around fully clockwise AM-
Frequency knobAroundmid Position.
5. Switch‘ON’theKlystronpowersupply,VSWRmeterandcooling fan.
6. Rotate the meter switch of power supply to beam voltage position and set beam
voltage at 300 V (you should notmake beam voltage higher than 300V) with help
of beamvoltageknob (you should not touch this knob till the end of the
experiment).
7. Adjustthereflectorvoltage to getsomedeflection inVSWR meter.
8. MaximizethedeflectionwithAMamplitudeandfrequency control knob of powersupply.
9. Tune the plunger of Klystron mount for maximum deflection.
10. Tune the reflector voltage knob for maximum deflection.
11. Tune the probe for maximum deflection in VSWR meter.
12. Tune the frequency meter knob to get a ‘dip’ on the VSWRscale and note down
the frequency directly from the frequencymeter.
13. Replacetheterminationwithmovableshort,anddetunethe frequency meter.
14. Move probe along with the slotted line, the deflection in VSWR meter will
vary. Move the probe to a minimum deflection position, to get accurate reading;
it is necessary to increase the VSWRmeterrangedBswitch to higherposition.
Noteand record the probe position.
15. Movetheprobetonextminimumpositionandrecordthe probe position again.
16. Calculate the guided wavelength as twice the distance between two successive
minimum positions obtained as above.
17. Measure the waveguide innerbroad dimension ‘a’, whichwill be around
2.286cm for X-band waveguide.
18. Calculate the frequency by followingequation:
f = c/ λo = c {sqrt (1/ λg2 + 1/ λc2)}
where c = 3 × 108 meter/sec is velocity of light in free space.
19. Verify with frequency obtained by frequency meter.

Result: Frequency using microwave bench is successfully determined.

 Experiment No. – 9

AIM: To measure unknown impedance using Smith chart.

THEORY: Smith chart devised by P.H. Smith is the most widely used graphical chart
for transmission line calculations. It is a chart of resistance(r) and reactance(x) circles
in the plane for where, r - and x- circles are everywhere orthogonal to one another.
The intersection of an r-circle and an x-circle defines a point that represents
normalized load impedance. This can be obtained by selecting option 3 from menu
and providing the values of r and x in the space specified. The actual load impedance
is . Since a Smith chart plots the normalized impedance for , it can be used for
calculations concerning a lossless transmission line only with
arbitrarycharacteristicimpedance. The Smithchart is marked with and rectangular
coordinates. The same chart can be marked with polar coordinates, such that every
point in the Γ- plane is specified by a magnitude and a phase angle θΓ. All -circles are
centered at the origin, and their radii vary uniformly from 0 to 1. The radius of the
VSWR circle is equal to the magnitude of the load reflection coefficient.
Each -circle intersects the real axis ( ) at two points. The points are marked in the
above figure as on the positive-real axis ( ) and on the negative-real axis ( ). Since
along the real axis, and both represent situations with apurely resistive load, .Obviously,
at , where ; and at, where . Value of the r-circle passing through the point is
numericallyequal to the standing-waveratio(S).Similarly,thevalue of the r-circle
passing through the point on the negative-real axis is numerically equal to 1/S.

Calculation of Input Impedance: As we know that the input impedance lookingtowardthe load
at adistance z’ from the loadis the ratio of V(z’) andI(z’)
V(z’) = IL/2(ZL +ZO)eYZ’[1+ tau(e-2YZ’)] (1)

I(z’) = IL/2(ZL + ZO)eYZ’[1 - Γ(e-2YZ’)] (2)

From equation (1) and (2) we have
Zl(z’) = V(z’)/ I(z’)=ZO{(1 +Γ(e-2YZ’)) /(1 – Γ(e-2YZ’))} (3)
= ZO {(1 + |Γ| (e-2YZ’)) / (1– |Γ| (e-2YZ’))} (4)
Where phi = (theta) tau – 2*beta*z’
We note that the magnitude of the reflection coefficient and therefore the standing-
wave ratio S, are not changed by the additional line length. Thus just as we can use the
Smith chart to find and for a given at the load, we can keep constant and subtract
(rotate in the clockwise direction) from an angle equal to. This will locate the point
for, which determines, the normalized input impedance looking into a lossless line of
characteristic impedance length z’, and a normalized load impedance.
 Figure 1 Smith Chart
Procedure:
Step 1: Selecttheoptionfrommenuaccording to yourrequirement.
Step 2: Enter the values corresponding to the option provided in previous step.
Step 3: Run the VI to see the desired plot in Smith chart. In case, you wish to see the
other plot then click stop and repeat steps 1-2 before running the program again.
Task:
1. ObservethevariousplotsonSmithChart.Differentiatebetween resistance and
reactance circle.
2. Analyzetheintersectionpointofresistanceandreactancecircle as load point. View
the short circuit and open circuited points on Smith chart.
3. Observe the |Γ|-circle plotted on the Smith Chart with centered at the origin on
the Smith chart. The value of the r-circle passing throughtheintersectionofthe |Γ|-
circle and thepositive-realaxis equals the standing-wave ratio S.
Summary:This experimentguides on how to use Smith chart for tedious
calculations of transmissionline.

Result: Impedance is measured successfully from smith chart.