INTRODUCTION TO MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MODULE-1

INTRODUCTION: Role of Mechanical Engineering in Industries and Society-

Society Emerging
Trends and Technologies in different sectors such as Energy, Manufacturing, Automotive,
Aerospace, and Marine sectors.
ENERGY: Introduction and applications of Energy sources like Fossil fuels, Nuclear fuels,
Hydel, Solar, wind, and bio-fuels,
fuels, Environmental issues like Global warming and Ozone
depletion.

INTRODUCTION:

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Mechanical Engineering is a multifaceted branch of engineering that integrates principles from

engineering physics, mathematics, and materials science. This field focuses on the creation,
analysis, production, and upkeep of mechanical systems. Renowned for being one of the oldest and
most extensive engineering disciplines, mechanical engineers play a pivotal role in designing,
constructing, and managing various types of machinery.

ROLE OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING IN INDUSTRIES AND SOCIETY

• Addressing Energy Challenges: Modern society faces a critical shortage of electricity, especially in
underdeveloped regions. As a mechanical engineer, the task is to innovate sustainable and eco-friendly
eco
methods for power generation, countering rising fuel costs.

• Enhancing Transportation Safety: Countless lives are lost annually in transportation accidents.
Mechanical engineers bear the responsibility of prioritizing safety in vehicle design, contributing to the
prevention of accidents and ensuring the well-being of passengers.

• Enabling Affordability: Many individuals struggle to afford essential everyday items. Mechanical
engineers play a crucial role by devising efficient machinery and processes that reduce production
costs, making vital products more accessible to a broader population.

• Diverse Industrial Impact: Mechanical Engineering plays pivotal roles in various sectors including

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Transportation, Medicine, Agriculture, Defense, Power Generation, and Construction. Engineers in

these fields contribute significantly to technological advancements, shaping the progress of societies
worldwide.

CONTRIBUTION OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING TO THE SOCIETY

• Optimizing Resource Utilization: Mechanical engineering optimizes processes, reducing excessive

resource usage and enhancing efficiency, thereby promoting sustainability.

• Creating a Better Living Environment: Mechanical engineers design and construct innovations that
enhance living conditions, contributing to a world that is more conducive to human well-being.

• Enhancing Work Simplicity: By developing technologies that reduce human effort, mechanical
engineering simplifies tasks, making work easier and more accessible for everyone.

ROLE OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES

Mechanical engineers in manufacturing industries play diverse and crucial roles, including:

• Product Design: They create product designs based on market demands and future trends,
involving tasks such as drawing preparation, prototyping, and design modifications based on
manufacturability feedback.

• Engineering and Process Selection: Mechanical engineers choose appropriate manufacturing

processes (e.g., press working, machining, molding) and automation levels for each product
component, balancing accuracy and cost requirements.

• Tooling Development: They design and manufacture tools, considering productivity,

accuracy, and cost, aligning with engineering recommendations.

• Manufacturing Operations: Mechanical engineers oversee various functions such as

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planning, procurement, production, and warehousing to ensure efficient manufacturing

processes.

• Quality Control: Responsible for maintaining quality and reliability, the QC department
ensures products align with design specifications, providing feedback to the design team.

• Maintenance: Engineers in this role ensure machinery and facilities remain operational,
minimizing downtime and ensuring optimal working conditions, including aspects like air
conditioning and plating plants.

• Sales & Marketing: This team secures orders and sustains factory operations. Marketing
activities include advertising and sales promotions, while sales engineers handle fieldwork and
after-sales service, ensuring customer satisfaction.

EMERGING TRENDS AND TECHNOLOGIES IN MANUFACTURING

Emerging trends and technologies in the field of manufacturing observed in the following areas

 Industrial internet of things (IIOT)

 Predictive maintenance

 Digital twins

 Automation and dark factories

 Robot and Cobots

 3D printing

 Sustainable product

Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT)

IIoT extends the Internet of Things (IoT) into industrial applications, emphasizing machine-to-

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machine communication, big data, and machine learning. It enhances efficiency and reliability in
industrial operations.

Predictive Maintenance

Predictive maintenance integrates AI, IoT, data analytics, and digital twins to forecast and
prevent potential damage efficiently and cost-effectively, ensuring precise maintenance
strategies.

Digital Twins

Digital twins, virtual models mirroring physical objects, accelerate progress toward autonomous
operations when paired with cloud platforms, offering manufacturers detailed insights.

Automation and Dark Factories

Full automation leads to dark factories, where human labor is unnecessary. These facilities
operate fully autonomously, even in darkness, without heat or light, driven by automated
systems.

Robots and Cobots

Industrial robots are multifunctional manipulators, acting as substitutes for human labor. Cobots,
collaborative robots, are cost-effective, safe, and flexible, designed to share workspaces with
humans, simplifying automation for businesses of all sizes.

3D Printing

3D printing, or additive manufacturing, constructs three-dimensional objects from digital models

by layering materials. This innovative method transforms manufacturing processes, enabling
precise, customizable creations.

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Sustainable Products

Sustainable products provide environmental, social, and economic benefits throughout their life
cycle, from raw material extraction to disposal, emphasizing environmental protection and public
health.

EMERGING TRENDS AND TECHNOLOGIES IN ENERGY

Emerging trends and technologies in the field of energy are observed in the following areas.

 Renewable Energy

 The energy industry focused on carbon neutrality.

 Bioenergy

 The Internet of Energy

 Green hydrogen energy

 Energy technology storage systems

Renewable Energy

Transitioning to renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind, hydro, tidal, and geothermal, minimizes
harmful emissions. Ongoing technological advancements aim to generate power economically,
efficiently, and sustainably.

Carbon-Neutral Energy Industry

Energy industries are increasingly focused on meeting energy demands through carbon-neutral,
renewable energy production, aligning with environmental preservation goals.

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Bioenergy

Bioenergy, derived from biomass or biofuel, holds significant potential. Innovations in thermal,
chemical, and biological processes create more efficient fuels from biological matter, including
bioethanol and biodiesel.

The Internet of Energy (IoE)

IoE facilitates power generation and distribution, emphasizing energy decentralization for a sustainable
power infrastructure. It optimizes energy usage in close proximity to its generation, promoting
efficiency.

Green Hydrogen Energy

Hydrogen, abundant and emitting minimal greenhouse gases, presents an exciting energy source. Green
hydrogen, harnessed sustainably, offers a promising solution for clean energy production.

Energy Technology Storage Systems

Energy exists in various forms – mechanical, electrical, thermal, and chemical. Storage technologies
vary widely, enabling efficient conversion and storage. These systems are crucial for storing renewable
energy surpluses, demanding cost-effective, scalable, and standardized solutions for widespread
deployment.

EMERGING TRENDS AND TECHNOLOGIES IN AUTOMOTIVE

Emerging trends and technologies in the field of automobiles observed in the following areas.

 Autonomous Vehicles (AVs)

 Vehicle Connectivity

 Electrification

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 Shared Mobility

 Artificial Intelligence

 Big Data & Analytics

 Human-Machine Interfaces

 3D Printing

 Internet of Things

Autonomous Vehicles (AVs)

Autonomous vehicles, equipped with advanced recognition technologies and AI-enhanced

computer vision, aim to transform transportation by minimizing the need for human drivers,
enhancing safety, and reducing accidents caused by factors like driver fatigue or negligence.

Vehicle Connectivity

Modern vehicles possess tamper-proof digital identities, enabling easy tracking of vehicular data
for insurance, driver safety, predictive maintenance, and fleet management purposes, ensuring
efficient data utilization.

Electrification

Promoting electric mobility solutions addresses environmental concerns caused by fossil fuel use.
Startups are developing solutions to overcome challenges such as high costs, inadequate charging
infrastructure, and fleet electrification, promoting the adoption of electric vehicles and renewable
energy-based charging grids.

Artificial Intelligence (AI)

AI applications enhance safety in vehicles, enabling automatic activities like intelligent beam
control, improving driver vision, and consequently enhancing road safety, showcasing the potential

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of AI-driven advancements in vehicle technology.

3D Printing in Car Manufacturing

3D printing accelerates vehicle production by enabling rapid prototyping, saving time and
resources during the design and testing phases, contributing to streamlined manufacturing
processes.

Biometric Seat Capabilities

Biometric seat capabilities enhance driver experience by collecting data on anxiety levels and
advising drivers to take breaks, preventing fatigue and improving driver performance on the road,
emphasizing personalized vehicle interaction and safety.

Big Data Analytics

Big data analytics aid in making data-driven decisions throughout a vehicle's lifecycle, facilitating
predictive maintenance, fleet management, accident alerts, supply optimization, sales predictions,
and new vehicle design improvements, optimizing operations and increasing profits for automobile
companies.

Shared Mobility

Shared mobility solutions, such as Car-as-a-Service (CaaS), reduce the number of vehicles on the
roads, minimizing pollution. Advanced software applications manage shared mobility services like
shuttle and rental cars, promoting comfortable and eco-friendly transportation options.

Connectivity

Vehicles equipped with unique digital identities enable efficient tracking, fleet management, and
data exchange between vehicles, leading to real-time traffic analysis and route optimization,
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enhancing connectivity and overall driving experience.

Internet of Things (IoT)

IoT enables secure online communication between vehicles, allowing data collection and
predictive maintenance. Algorithms monitor vehicles and provide real-time alerts to drivers,
reducing downtime and improving the driving experience, demonstrating the potential of IoT in
enhancing vehicle safety and performance.

Human-Machine Interface (HMI)

HMI technology, including voice-based interfaces, virtual assistants, augmented reality, and smart
cameras, enhances driver-vehicle interaction, allowing drivers to control features and improve
efficiency, making driving safer and more intuitive.

EMERGING TRENDS AND TECHNOLOGIES IN AEROSPACE

Emerging trends and technologies in the field of aerospace observed in the following areas.

 Zero-Fuel Aircraft

 Supersonic Flights

 Autonomous Flight Systems

 Structural Health Monitoring (SHM)

 Advanced Materials

 Additive Manufacturing (3D Printing)

 Utilizing Internet of Things (IoT) to Anticipate Maintenance Issues

 Artificial intelligence (AI)

Zero-Fuel Aircraft

The Aerospace industry revealed that the world’s zero-emission hydrogen commercial aircraft,
could enter service by 2035. These concepts each represent a different approach to achieving zero-

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emission flight by exploring various technology pathways and aerodynamic configurations to

support their ambition of pioneering the decarbonization of the entire aviation industry.

Supersonic Flights

Supersonic flight is when an aircraft travels faster than the speed of sound.

Autonomous Flight Systems

Implementing autonomous technologies has been a growing trend across several industries, and
the aerospace industry is no exception. Much of this has been focused on increasing autonomous
flights, with the end goal being to launch fully human-free flights. While this may still be several
years away.

Structural Health Monitoring (SHM)

Structural health monitoring involves the observation and analysis of a system over time using
periodically sampled response measurements to monitor changes to the material and geometric
properties of engineering structures of airplanes. Aircraft accidents involving catastrophic fatigue
failure have the potential for significant loss of life, which makes innovation in this branch of the
aerospace industry so important.

The foundation of structural health monitoring is the ability to monitor structures using embedded
or attached nondestructive evaluation (NDE) sensors and to utilize the data to assess the state of
the structure. Over the last ten years, researchers have made significant advances in developing
NDE sensors for SHM, and they have developed the hardware and software needed for analysis
and communication of the SHM results. The NDE SHM sensors that have reached some modest
degree of maturing and are able to monitor significantly large areas of structures include fiber
optics, active ultrasonics, and passive acoustic emission.

Advanced Materials

The materials used for the construction of aircraft must be light weight, high specific strength,
heat resistant, fatigue load resistant, crack resistant and corrosion resistant.

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Traditional aluminum, titanium alloys, nickel alloys and composite materials like metal matrix
composites, polymer matrix composites, ceramic matrix composites, nanomaterials and graphene
are used in the aircraft industry.

Additive Manufacturing (3D Printing)

3D printing, also known as additive manufacturing, has been proven to be an excellent

manufacturing solution for producing components and parts that utilize significantly less material
than other comparable, traditionally manufactured parts. Since the material can be used to create
an item through additive manufacturing, extremely complex geometric shapes can be built that
have great strength despite the reduced density in the material used.

Reducing weight is paramount to the aerospace technology industry due to increasing performance
in areas of speed, capacity, fuel consumption, emissions, and more. This realization is leading the

aerospace and defense industry to look for applications of 3D printing in its newest products, from
seat frameworks to air ducts.

Utilizing Internet of Things (IoT) to Anticipate Maintenance Issues

Aircraft maintenance and repair companies are widely using Internet of Things technology for
predictive maintenance of aircraft parts and equipment. An IoT-based predictive maintenance
solution can help to predict potential damage, for example by collecting data from ultrasonic and
vibration sensors attached to the spindle of a CNC machine. Analyzing the collected data helps to
identify fragile spindles and tools before they break. IoT technology is used to send critical data
from engines, wing flaps, bleed values, and landing gear to technicians for preventive maintenance.
This data aids technicians to create maintenance schedules, procure parts, and schedule relevant
workers to fix equipment.

Artificial intelligence (AI)

The use of artificial intelligence in aerospace and defense is growing – it drives innovations in
manufacturing. This technology allows aerospace organizations to transform their manufacturing

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processes, improve safety, and optimize customer service.

EMERGING TRENDS AND TECHNOLOGIES IN MARINE

Emerging trends and technologies in the field of marine observed in the following areas.

 Artificial Intelligence

 Sensor technology

 Robot and 3D Printing

 Big data and IOT

 Advanced Materials

 Drones

 Ship propulsion

Artificial Intelligence (AI)

AI technologies are revolutionizing the marine industry by enabling predictive maintenance, enhancing
navigation systems, and optimizing fuel efficiency. AI algorithms process vast amounts of data to
improve decision-making processes, making marine operations safer and more efficient.

Sensor Technology

Advanced sensor technology, including sonar systems and underwater sensors, allows for real-time
monitoring of marine environments. These sensors provide valuable data on water quality, marine life,
and potential hazards, aiding in environmental conservation and maritime safety.

Robotics and 3D Printing

Robotic systems are being employed for underwater exploration, maintenance, and repair tasks.
Additionally, 3D printing technology is used in the marine industry to create customized components and

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spare parts, reducing production costs and downtime.

Big Data and IoT

Big data analytics and the Internet of Things (IoT) facilitate data
data-driven
driven decision-making
decision in the marine
sector. Connected devices and data analysis help in predicting equipment failures, optimizing routes, and
enhancing operational efficiency. IoT technology also enables remote monitoring and control of marine
assets.

Advanced Materials

The development of lightweight, durable, and corrosion

corrosion-resistant materials is a key trend in the marine
industry. Advanced materials, such as composites and alloys, are used in the construction of ships and
marine structures, improving their performance, longevity, and fuel efficiency.

Drones

Drones are utilized for various marine applications, including aerial surveys, environmental monitoring,
and search and rescue operations. Drones equipped with cameras and sensors provide valuable data for
research, surveillance, and mapping coastal areas.

Ship Propulsion

Innovations in ship propulsion systems focus on improving energy efficiency and reducing environmental
impact. Hybrid propulsion systems, LNG (liquefied natural gas) engines, and fuel cell technology are
emerging trends, leading to greener and more sustainable maritime transportation.

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ENERGY

 Energy is defined as the capacity to do work.

 Energy exists in various forms such as mechanical energy, electrical energy, thermal
energy, and chemical energy.
 Energy in the process of transfer from one body to another. After it has been transferred,
energy is always designated according to its nature.
 Energy can be converted from one form to another in various ways, but the total amount
ofenergy remains constant before and after the transformation.

Various sources of energy

The various sources of energy are.

(i) Fossil fuels

(ii) Nuclear energy

(iii) Hydal energy

(iv) Solar energy

(v) Wind

(vi) Tides

(vii) Geothermal energy

(viii) Biomass

Different sources of energy

The sources of energy are classified in the following two ways:

(a) Conventional and non- conventional sources of energy

(b) Renewable and non-renewable sources of energy

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Conventionalenergysources

 Conventional sources of energy are natural energy resources which are regularly usedfor
many years and are accepted as fuel to produce heat, light, food, and electricity.
 The energy sources include firewood and fossil fuels.

 Fossil fuel is the greatest conventional source, wherein fossil implies the remains of plants
and animals, that got buried under the earth and transformed into rocks over the years.
These fossil fuels are coal, oil (petroleum), and natural gas.

 Conventional sources of energy are generally non-renewable

renewable sources of energy as the
accumulation or creation of conventional sources of energy takes years once they are
exploited or consumed.

Non-conventional energy sources

 An alternative to conventional sources of energy is the non-conventional sources of energy,

that achieved popularity in recent years.
 Energy can be obtained from various sources such as the sun, wind, biological wastes,hot
springs, tides, etc. to generate heat and power.
 These are not only renewable sources of energy but are also pollution free. These sources
are present in abundance in nature, and they are constantly generated, so it cannot be
exhausted easily, and used again and again.

Difference between Conventional and non- conventional sources of energy

Conventional sources of energy Non- conventional sources of energy

These are widely used and economical These are rarely used, and initial cost is high
Most of them are exhaustible Most of them are in-exhaustible
exhaustible
Most of them are pollute the environment Most of them are environment friendly
They are reliable (continuous supply of energy They are not reliable (continuous supply of

is possible) energy is not possible)

Energy transmission cost is high Energy transmission cost is low
Example: Fossil fuels, Hydel energy Example: solar, wind, tidal etc.
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RENEWABLE AND NON-RENEWABLE

RENEWABLE SOURCES OF ENERGY
Renewable sources of energy
The renewable sources of energy are defined as the energy sources which are continuously
produced in nature and are essentially inexhaustible or non
non-depletable.
depletable. These energy sources
replenish themselves naturally in a relatively short time and therefore will always be available.
E.g., of renewable energy sources: direct solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy, hydel
energy, ocean thermal energy, bio energy, geothermal energy, peat, fuel wood, fuel cells, solid
wastes, hydrogen energy etc.

Non-renewable sources of energy

The non-renewable energy sources are those natural resources that are available in limited
quantity and these resources cannot be renewed in short durations.
E.g., Fossil fuels (coal, petroleum, and petroleum products), nuclear fuels and heat traps

.
Difference between Renewable and non-renewable sources of energy

Renewable sources of energy Non- Renewable sources of energy

These are in-exhaustible These are exhaustible
Freely available and environment friendly Not freely available & hazardous to
environment
Initial cost is high, but maintenance cost is low Initial cost is low, but maintenance cost is
high
Energy concentration varies from region to Energy concentration almost same in all
region regions
Example: solar, hydel, wind, tidal etc. Example: Fossil fuels, nuclear fuels.

FOSSIL FUELS
 Fossil fuels are energy rich substances that have been formed from long buried plants and
microorganisms.
 Fossil fuels include solid, liquid, and gaseous fuels.

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 Chemical fossil fuels consist largely of hydrocarbons, which are compounds of hydrogen
and carbon.

1. Solid Fuels
Solid fuels are mainly classified into two categories:

i) Natural fuels: wood, coal, etc.

ii) Manufactured fuels: charcoal, coke, etc.

Wood
 The most used and easily obtainable solid fuel is wood. It is the oldest type of fuel which
man had used for centuries after the discovery of the fire itself. Charcoal is an artificial
fuel obtained from wood.
 Calorific value:18000 kJ/kg

Charcoal
 It is obtained from destructive distillation of wood.

 It burns rapidly with clear flame, producing no smoke and developing heat of about 6050
cal/kg.
Coal
 Coal is a combustible black or brownish black sedimentary rock.

 The major chemical elements in coal are carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

 There are two types, one is Bituminous coal and Anthracite coal.

 Calorific value:27000 kJ/kg

Coke
 It is obtained from destructive distillation of coal, being left in the shape of solid residue.

 Coke can be classified into two categories: soft coke and hard coke.

 Soft coke is obtained as a solid residue from the destructive distillation of coal in the

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temperature range of 600-650oC. It contains 5 to 10% volatile matter. It burns without

smoke. It is extensively used as domestic fuel.
 Hard coke is obtained as solid residue from the destructive distillation of coal in the
temperature range of 1200-1400oC. It burns with smoke and is a useful fuel for
metallurgical processes.
 Calorific value:28000 kJ/kg

Advantages of solid fuels

i) They are easy to transport.

ii) They are convenient to store without any risk of spontaneous explosion.

iii) Their cost of production is low.

iv) They possess moderate ignition temperature.

Disadvantages of solid fuels

i) Their ash content is high.

ii) Their large proportion of heat is wasted.

iii) Their combustion operation cannot be controlled easily.

iv) Their cost of handling is high.

2. Liquid fuels
 All types of liquid fuels used are derived from crude petroleum and its by-products.

 The petroleum or crude oil consists of 80-85% Carbon, 10-15% hydrogen, and varying
percentages of sulphur, nitrogen, oxygen, and compounds of vanadium.
 The crude oil is refined by fractional distillation process to obtain fuel oils, for industrial
as well as for domestic purposes.
 The fractions from light oil to heavy oil are naphtha, gasoline, kerosene, diesel, and
finallyheavy fuel oil.
 The heavy fuel oil is used for generation of steam. The use of liquid fuels in thermal power
plants has many advantages over the use of solid fuels.

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 Liquid fuels are generally found under the earth’s surface by drilling wells in the earth’s
crust.
 Liquid fuels include Gasoline, Diesel oil, Kerosene, Heavy oil, Naptha, Lubricating oils,
etc.

Gasoline or Petrol
 It is a mixture of many hydrocarbons.

 It is the lightest and most volatile liquid mainly used as motor fuel.

 It is obtained by fractional distillation from crude oil.

 Calorific value:48000 kJ/kg

Diesel
 The liquid fuel distilled after gasoline and kerosene.

 These fuels are used in diesel engines.

 It evaporates slowly when compared to petrol as it is heavier.

 Calorific value:44800 kJ/kg

Kerosene
 It is obtained from crude oil in the fractional distillation after obtaining petrol.

 It is heavier than petrol and less volatile than petrol.

 It is mostly used as domestic fuel for heating and lighting purposes.

 Calorific value:46200 kJ/kg

Advantages of liquid fuels

i) They possess a higher calorific value per unit mass than solid fuels.

ii) They burn without dust, ash, clinkers, etc.

iii) They are easy to transport through pipes.

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iv) They can be stored indefinitely without any loss.

v) They are clean in use and economic to handle.

vi) They require less excess air for complete combustion.

vii) They require less furnace space for combustion.

Disadvantages of liquid fuels

i) The cost of liquid fuel is relatively much higher as compared to solid fuel.

ii) Costly special storage tanks are required for storing liquid fuels.

iii) There is a greater risk of five hazards, particularly in the case of highly inflammable
andvolatile liquid fuels.
iv) For efficient burning of liquid fuels, specially constructed burners and spraying
apparatus are required.

3. Gaseous fuels
In recent years gaseous fuels are playing predominant role in industrial and domestic applications

Natural Gas
 Methane is the main constituent of natural gas and accounts for about 95% of the total
volume along with other elements namely ethane, propane, butane, and other gases.
 It has high calorific value.

 It mixes with air readily and doesn’t produce smoke.

 It is lighter than air.

Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG)

 It mainly consists of butane.

 Calorific value:50000 kJ/kg

 On compression it easily changes to a liquid state and stored in cylinders

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 In cylinder it will be in liquid form and while using it will convert into gaseous state

 The cost of LPG is less than that of petrol.

 It causes less pollution to the environment than petrol as it releases less amount of
carbonmonoxide when compared to petrol.
 It is extensively used as domestic fuel and in transportation.

Compressed Natural Gas (CNG)

 It mainly consists of methane.

 Calorific value:55000 kJ/kg

 It is nontoxic, colorless, and lighter than air.

Advantages of gaseous fuels

i) They can be conveyed easily through pipelines to the actual place of need, thereby eliminating
manual labor in transportation.
ii) They can be lighted at ease.

iii) They have high heat contents and hence help us in having higher temperatures.

iv) They can be pre-heated by the heat of hot waste gases, thereby affecting economy in heat.

v) Their combustion can readily be controlled for change in demand like oxidizing or reducing
atmosphere, length flame, temperature, etc.
vi) They do not require any special burner.

vii) They are free from impurities found in solid and liquid fuels.

Disadvantages gaseous fuels

i) Very large storage tanks are needed.

ii) They are highly inflammable, so the chances of fire hazards in their use is high.

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Applications of Fossil Fuels

i) Electricity generation: it can be produced in various power plants by using fossil fuels
such as coal, oil, gaseous fuels.
ii) Heating: Oil and natural gases are commonly used for heating for domestic and
industrial applications
iii) Transportations: The petroleum products such as petrol, diesel and natural gases are
used in the transportation sector. All the major means of transportation depend on
fossil fuels.

iv) Cooling applications: Cooling systems in the houses and industries are directly or
indirectly depends on the fossil fuels for energy.
v) The by-products of the oil used to produce chemicals, plastics, lubricants, waxes,
medicine.
NUCLEAR ENERGY

Nuclear energy is the energy released during nuclear fission or fusion, especially when
used to generate electricity. Nuclear fuel is any material that can be consumed to derive nuclear
energy. The most common type of nuclear fuel is fissile elements that can be made to undergo
nuclear fission chain reactions in a nuclear reactor. The most common nuclear fuels are
235U.

The basic nuclear generating station energy cycle is shown in Figure. Fuel containing
fissile material (Uranium) is fed to the reactor where fission takes place. The energy liberated
appears in the form of heat, which is used to boil water in heat exchanger or steam generator. The
steam produced from the boiling water spins a turbine-generator set, where the heat is converted
first to kinetic energy and then it will be converted to mechanical energy in the turbine and to
electricityby the generator.

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Figure: Nuclear Energy Conversions

Application of Nuclear energy

i) Generate electricity in nuclear power stations.

ii) Military operations in developing nuclear weapons.

iii) Medical field for radiotherapy, sterilization of medical products

iv) Food preservation and agricultural fields

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HYDEL (HYDRO) ENERGY

Figure: Hydro-power station

Hydro energy is considered as an indirect source of solar energy. The water from the earth’s
surface gets evaporated by solar heat and forms as clouds, this inturn results in rainfall. The
rainwater flowing as river can be stored in dam and released in a regulated way to through a
penstock, to drive the turbine. The potential energy of water stored at a height is converted into
mechanical energy in water turbines. The mechanical energy produced by the water turbines is
further converted into electrical energy by the electric generators which are coupled to the water
turbines.After doing the useful work the water is discharged from the turbine to the river through
a water way to the tail race through draft tube.
Merits
i) These can be used for power generation in large scale.
ii) Environmentally friendly source of energy
iii) As water is a natural resource, it is the energy available at free of cost.

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Demerits
i) It is expensive to build a dam.
ii) By construction of dam, the nearby area may be flooded, and this could affect
nearbywildlife and plants.
iii) During summer the water may not be sufficient to produce electricity
Applications
i) To generate electricity in power plants

WIND ENERGY

Figure: Schematic diagram of Windmill

Wind arises primarily from temperature difference of the earth’s surface resulting from

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unequal exposure to (or absorption of) solar radiation. Wind possesses kinetic energy. The kinetic
energy of wind can be converted into mechanical energy that can be utilized to perform useful
work or to generate electricity. Wind energy conversion devices are commonly known as wind
turbines.

It consists of a rotor hub fitted with large sized blades. When the wind blows against the
blades of a wind turbine, rotational motion is caused in the win
windd turbine. Thus, the kinetic energy
of wind is converted into mechanical work. This mechanical work can be used directly to run a
machine or to run a generator to produce electricity. Wind energy can be utilized in places where
wind velocity is considerably
y high. An ideal wind speed that can be utilized to extract energy lies
between a speed 10 km/hr to 50 km/hr.

The speed increasing device (gearbox) converts relatively slow rotation of the spinning
blades into higher speed motion turning the drive shaft qquickly
uickly enough to power the electricity
generator. The tail fin is used for automatic wind source steering.

SOLAR ENERGY
Solar energy refers to the energy produced and radiated by the sun, i.e., the sun’s energy
whichreaches the earth. Solar energy can be converted directly or indirectly into other forms of
energy,such as heat and electricity which can be utilized by man. The heat energy contained in the
rays ofthe sun is absorbed by a black surface.
The solar energy can be converted into other forms of energy, the primary processes are.

i) Helio chemical process: conversion of solar energy into chemical energy

ii) Helio electrical process: conversion of solar energy into electrical energy

iii) Helio thermal process: conversion of solar energy into thermal energy

Helio chemical process

Is a photosynthesis process, which is the source of all fossil fuels and the food on which
we live today. The photosynthesis is a complex biochemical reaction in which the plants using
the solar energy synthesize to produce energy rich molecules of starch and cellulose and oxygen
from the inorganic materials like carbon dioxide and water. Thus, photosynthesis is a form of
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biologicalconversion of solar energy into chemical energy called bioenergy which will be stored
in plants. The overall efficiency of this conversion process from solar energy to stored energy is
very low.
Fixed Dome type Bio-Gas plant
The slurry is prepared by mixing water in cattle dung in equal proportion in mixing tank. The slurry is
then sent into the digester tank with the help of the inlet chamber. It should be noted that slurry is fed into
the digester tank up to the point where the dome of the roof starts. Inside the digester tank, the complex
comp
carbon compounds present in the cattle dung break into simpler substances by the action of anaerobic
microorganisms in the presence of water. This anaerobic decomposition of complex carbon compounds
present in cattle dung produces biogas and gets compl
completed
eted in about 60 days. The biogas so produced starts
to collect in dome shaped roof of biogas plant and is supplied to homes through pipes. The spent slurry is
replaced from time to time with fresh slurry to continue the production of biogas.

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Helio-electrical Process- Photovoltaic Cell

Figure: Solar Cell

Conversion of solar energy into electrical energy can be achieved by the photovoltaic effect caused
by the solar radiation. Photo-voltaic
voltaic effect can be observed in a variety of materials, but the best
performance is given by semiconductors (like silicon).

Since silicon is a tetravalent material has four valence electrons. After doping with
pentavalent material (like arsenic, phosphorous) it forms N-type semiconductor and the same with
trivalent material (like boron) it forms P-type semiconductor. When P-N junction of semiconductor
is exposed to sunlight, a voltage around 0.5 volts is built up around the junction and current
depends on the exposed area
rea of cell. By applying external load, current is made to flow through
the conductor, it will continue if the free electrons and holes are formed due to solar radiation.

Helio-Thermal Process

In the helio thermal process, the radiant solar energy falling on the surface placed on the earth in
the form of visible light is converted directly into thermal energy. The surfaces on which the
solarrays fall are called collectors.

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Basically, two types of collectors are used, and they are flat plate (non-concentrating)
collectors and Focusing (concentrating) collectors.

Flat plate collectors

Figure: Flat Plate collector

In flat plate collectors the incident solar radiation is absorbed by the collectors surface
itself, which are usually coated with black paint (usually electroplated), covered with transparent
glass cover on top and insulated all around to prevent the heat loss from the collector surface. The
black collector surface gets heated up and then in turn transfers the heat to the fluid passing through
the tubes which are either welded or soldered or are integral part of the collector plate. Flat plate
collectors are usually sloped and oriented in one direction and can collect bothdiffuse and beam
radiation. Since there are no moving parts in it, the repair and maintenance cost are also nil or
negligible. A maximum of 70°C can be easily achieved using flat plate collectors and are more
popularly used in solar water heating applications and solar air heaters as they are relatively
cheaper as compared to the cost of concentration collectors.

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Focusing collectors

Figure: Parabolic Focusing Collector

In focusing collectors, a mirror or lens system is used to increase the intensity of solar
radiation. Generally parabolic reflectors of either cylindrical shape or spherical shape are
employed to focus the incident radiation. The focusing collectors intercept and concentrate only
the direct rays of the sun and hence they do not perform satisfactorily when the sky is cloudy or
hazy. The focusing collectors require tracking systems to follow the path of the sun. The
concentrated narrow focused beam is absorbed by a receiver placed at the focus of the reflector,
The focusing collector may be used for high temperature heating applications for industrial
purposes. A maximum of 150°C can be easily achieved using focusing collectors.

Application of solar energy

i) Generating electricity using photovoltaic cells

ii) Water pumping and lighting

iii) Water distillation purpose in the coastal areas

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INTRODUCTION TO MECHANICAL ENGINEERING (ISE ‘C & D’ Section)

iv) Solar furnaces

v) Heating the water domestic and industrial purposes

vi) Source of energy for satellites in the space

Benefits of solar energy

i) Renewable source of energy

ii) Non-polluting
iii) Avoids global warming.
iv) Reduce the use of fossil fuels.
v) Generate local wealth and jobs.

BIO-FUELS
Biofuels are energy sources made from living things, or the waste that living things produce. It is
a source of renewable energy. Biofuels are combustible fuels created from biomass. There are
two main types of biofuels, one is ethanol and another biodiesel.

Biofuels are grouped into categories like first, second and third generations. First generation
biofuelsare produced from food crops. For ethanol the feedstock includes sugarcane, corn, and
maize. Forbiodiesel the feedstock is naturally occurring vegetable oil such as soybean, Jatropha,
and canola. Second generation biofuels are produced from cellulose material such as wood, graces,
and inedibleparts of plants. Third-generation biofuels are produced using lipid production from
Algae.

Advanced biofuels are used to describe the relatively new technological field of biofuel
productionthat uses waste such as garbage, animal fat and spent cooking oil to produce liquid
fuels.

Ethanol
Ethanol can be produced by the action of microorganisms and enzymes through the fermentation
of sugar cane. Ethanol can be used in petrol engines as a replacement for gasoline; it can be mixed

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with gasoline to any percentage. Most existing car petrol engines can run on blends of up to 15%
bioethanol with petroleum/gasoline. Ethanol has a smaller energy density than that of gasoline;
this means it takes more fuel (volume and mass) to produce the same amount of work. An
advantage of ethanol (CH3CH2OH) is that it has a higher octane rating than ethanol-free
gasoline available at roadside gas stations, which allows an increase of an engine's compression
ratio for increased thermal efficiency. In high-altitude (thin air) locations, some states mandate a
mix of gasoline and ethanol as a winter oxidizer to reduce atmospheric pollution emissions.

Advantages

• Unlike petroleum, ethanol is a renewable resource.

• Ethanol burns more cleanly in air than petroleum, producing less carbon (soot) and carbon
monoxide.
• The use of ethanol as opposed to petroleum could reduce carbon dioxide emissions,
provided that a renewable energy resource was used to produce crops required to obtain
ethanol and to distil fermented ethanol.

Disadvantages

• Ethanol has a lower heat of combustion (per mole, per unit of volume, and per unit of mass)
than petroleum.
• Large amounts of arable land are required to produce the crops required to obtain ethanol,
leading to problems such as soil erosion, deforestation, fertiliser run-off and salinity.
• Major environmental problems would arise out of the disposal of waste fermentation
liquors.

• Typical current engines would require modification to use high concentrations of ethanol.

Biodiesel

It is produced from oils or fats using transesterification and is a liquid similar in composition to
fossil/mineral diesel. Chemically, it consists mostly of fatty acid methyl (or ethyl) esters (FAMEs).

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Feedstocks for biodiesel include animal fats, vegetable oils, soyabean, jatropha, mahua, mustard,
flax, sunflower, palm oil, hemp, field pennycress, Pongamia pinnata and algae. Pure biodiesel
(B100) currently reduces emissions with up to 60% compared to diesel.

Advantages of biodiesel fuel

• An excessive production of soybeans in the world makes it an economic way to utilize this
surplus for manufacturing the Biodiesel fuel.
• One of the main biodiesel fuel advantages is that it is less polluting than petroleum diesel.

• The lack of sulfur in 100% biodiesel extends the life of catalytic converters.

• Another of the advantages of biodiesel fuel is that it can also be blended with other energy
resources and oil.
• It can also be distributed through existing diesel fuel pumps, which is another biodiesel.

o fuel advantage over other alternative fuels.

• The lubricating property of the biodiesel may lengthen the lifetime of engines.

Disadvantages of biodiesel fuel

i) At present, Biodiesel fuel is about one and a half times more expensive than
petroleumDieselfuel.
ii) It requires energy to produce biodiesel fuel from soy crops; plus, there is the energy of
sowing, fertilizing, and harvesting.
i) As Biodiesel cleans the dirt from the engine, this dirt can then get collected in the fuel
filter, thus clogging it. So, filters must be changed after the first several hours of
biodiesel use.
iv) Biodiesel fuel distribution infrastructure needs improvement, which is another of the
biodiesel fuel disadvantages.

Application of Biofuels
i) As an alternative fuel for automobiles

ii) Cooking purpose

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iii) Lubrication in place of conventional oils

iv) In Power plants to generate electricity

v) In marine industry to run the ships

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
Environmental issues are harmful effects of human activity on the biophysical environment. The
various environmental issues are global warming, ozone layer depletion, air pollution, water
pollution, natural resource depletion, and waste disposal. Climatic changes, deforestation, acid rain
etc.
Green House Effect
The greenhouse effect is a natural process that warms the Earth’s surface. When the Sun’s energy
reaches the Earth’s atmosphere, some of it is reflected to space and the rest is absorbed and re-
radiated by greenhouse gases.

Greenhouse gases include water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone, and some
artificial chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). The absorbed energy warms the
atmosphere and the surface of the Earth.

Step 1: Solar radiation reaches the Earth's atmosphere - some of this is reflected into
space.
Step 2: The rest of the sun's energy is absorbed by the land and the oceans, heating the Earth.

Step 3: Heat radiates from Earth towards space.

Step 4: Some of this heat is trapped by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, keeping the Earth
warm enough to sustain life.
Step 5: Human activities such as burning fossil fuels, agriculture and land clearing are
increasing the amount of greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere.
Step 6: This is trapping extra heat and causing the Earth's temperature to rise.

GLOBAL WARMING
The gradual heating of Earth's surface, oceans and atmosphere, is caused by human activity,
primarily the burning of fossil fuels that pump carbon dioxide (CO 2), methane and
other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. Global warming is the long-term rise in the average
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temperature of the Earth's climate system.

Causes for Global Warming

Global warming occurs when carbon dioxide (CO2) and other air pollutants and greenhouse gases
collect in the atmosphere and absorb sunlight and solar radiation that have bounced off the earth’s
surface. Normally, this radiation would escape into space—but these pollutants, which can last for
years to centuries in the atmosphere, trap the heat and cause the planet to get hotter. That's what's
known as the greenhouse effect.

Effects of Global warming

i) Ocean Warming

ii) Ice Loss

iii) Change in climate.

iv) Sea level rise

v) Depletion of ozone layer

vi) Causes for unseasonal rains.

vii) Causes for different types of skin diseases.

OZONE LAYER DEPLETION

The ozone layer is an invisible layer of protection around the planet that protects us from the Sun’s
harmful rays (Ultra-Violet Rays). In other words, it acts as nature’s umbrella against UV radiation.

The ozone layer is about 3mm thick. Ozone depletion is the thinning of earth’s ozone layer. This is
caused due to the presence of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Depletion of the ozone layer is
mainly due to the interaction of ozone with chlorine and bromide present in Chlorofluorocarbons
(CFC’s). Once these toxic gases reach the upper atmosphere, they cause a hole in the ozone layer
causing its depletion. Thisis one of the most important current environmental challenges.

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Effects of Ozone Layer Depletion

i) Increases the flux of UV radiation over earth’s biosphere.

ii) Causes skin cancer and eyes disorders.

iii) Decreases the rate of photosynthesis.

iv) Leads to greenhouse effect.

v) It causes a decrease in the yield of crops.

vi) Adversely affects the human immunity system and causes genetic abnormalities.

vii) Causes the degradation of plants, plastics, and other polymer materials.

viii) It affects the marine life.

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