Experiment #08

Operational Amplifiers

Doug Bonn, Rob Kiefl and Andrzej Kotlicki; Updated 2024 by Sarah Burke

Figure 1: Typical gain versus frequency for an Op-Amp without feedback (open loop configuration).

1 Objective
Operational amplifiers (Op-Amps) are versatile devices used in a wide variety of applications. Some
of the basic properties of Op-Amps will be studied in this lab, with an emphasis on the most common
application: a voltage amplifier with negative feedback.

1
 PHYS 219

2 Learning Goals
After this lab you will be able to:
• characterize the linearity of an Op-Amp circuit
• recognize the influence of amplifier distortion/clipping
• be familiar with the behaviour and limitations of circuits using Op-Amps
• build circuits with more complex components
• begin to troubleshoot circuits with Op-Amps

3 Introduction
3.1 Background
In electronics, the term Op-Amp typically refers to a voltage amplifier that has a differential input
(meaning there are two inputs- V− and V+ ) and a single ended output Vout . The difference between
the two voltage inputs is amplified and produced as an output.

pin numbers count LF 411 pinout

CCW starting
at upper left
V+ Vout
Differential
inputs
V-
Single-ended
output

Figure 2: Left: Block diagram of an Op-Amp. Right: Pin assignment of LF 411 looking from the
top; note the dimple in the upper left or notch at the top orients the numbering of the pins (im-
age from: https://www.physlab-wiki.com/phylabs/lab_courses/phys-226-wiki-home/lab_
6_op_amps_i/start).

The Op-Amp symbol is shown in the left of Fig. 2. In circuit diagrams, the power supply lines are
usually omitted from the symbol, so always be sure to connect the DC power that is usually denoted
as VCC and VEE (or −VCC ) (+5 and -5 Volts respectively) even if it is not indicated on the circuit
diagram. Shown on the right of Fig. 2 is the pin-out of the integrated circuit (IC) for the particular
model of Op-Amp you will use in this lab, the LF 411. In this course, we are going to treat the Op-
Amp as a single device. However one should be aware that the Op-Amp is an IC composed of many
transistors and other elements. Each Op-Amp model has a different design that is optimized for
different applications. The LF 411 is a general purpose Op-Amp that is easy to use and is stable over
a wide range of frequencies.

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3.2 The ideal versus non ideal Op-Amp PHYS 219

3.2 The ideal versus non ideal Op-Amp

An ideal Op-Amp follows three “golden rules” (some sources only discuss the first two and assume
the third is obvious) which should always be the starting point when analyzing their behaviour in
circuits.

The (Ideal) Op-Amp “Golden Rules”

Golden rule # 1: As long is there is a feedback resister installed appropriately between the
Negative input and the output, for example as shown in Fig. 3, the Op-Amp will adjust
Vout so that V+ = V− .
Golden rule # 2: Infinite input impedance on the + and − terminals: this means no current
flows in or out of these two terminals.
Golden rule # 3: the open loop gain with no feedback is very large.

However, there are many circumstances where Op-Amps and resulting amplifier circuits deviate
significantly from their ideal behaviour. To quantify the non-ideal behaviour one requires knowledge
of a few key parameters which depend on the particular Op-Amp .
• Open Loop Voltage Gain (A): when no feedback is provided, this is the amount of differential
gain provided by the Op-Amp, i.e. Vout = Â × (V+ − V− ) where  is a function of frequency.
A0
 = (1)
1 + if /fc
√
where i = −1, A0 is the open loop gain at zero frequency and fc is the cutoff frequency
beyond which the gain drops rapidly. Note  is a complex number due to the i in the denom-
inator. This means there is in general some phase shift between the output and input at high
frequencies. For our purposes it is sufficient to consider only the magnitude of  which is an
ordinary/real number.
A0
|Â| = p (2)
1 + (f /fc )2
Note this looks very similar to the amplitude of Vout and the amplitude of Vin seen in the RC
circuit (see Experiment 2) if you substitute fc = 1/(2πRC). What does this say about the
inputs of the Op-Amp?
• The input impedance at the input terminals V+ and V− , although very large is in fact finite.
These lead to some “non-ideal” characteristics of Op-Amps (and the resulting amplifier) which may
be important depending on the application:
• The Op-Amp draws a very small amount of current (<100 pA) through its inputs at all times.
This is called the input offset current. The amplifier is also characterized by a slight, D.C. input
offset voltage (< 2 mV) which may also drift with time.
• For an ideal Op-Amp the open loop gain A is assumed to be infinite and frequency independent.
In the case of a real or non-ideal Op-Amp A has a form given by Eqn. 1 .

3 © Sarah Burke, revised 2024

 PHYS 219

• The magnitude of the output voltage signal Vout is always less than the power supply voltage
no matter how big the product of G × Vin is.
In the ideal case the Op-Amp acts as a linear amplifier such that the output voltage is directly pro-
portional to the input voltage and independent of frequency. However, there are several restrictions
required to observe this ideal behaviour:

Restrictions to stay close to ideal behaviour:

1. |Vin | > 10mV so that input noise and the input offset current and voltage can all be
neglected.
2. |G × Vin | < 5V so that the expected output voltage is not greater than the power supply
voltage which in your case is +- 5V. If |G × Vin | > 5V the output will be distorted or
clipped at some value less than ±5V
3. G of the amplifier circuit is only constant up to some bandwidth frequency determined
by the cutoff frequency fc of the Op-Amp itself.

4 Experiment
4.1 Building an Inverting Voltage Amplifier
A simple inverting amplifier circuit is shown in Fig. 3. Assuming the Op-Amp is treated as ideal, show
that closed loop voltage gain:

Vout Rf
=− ≡G (3)
Vin Rg

j2
Rf
j1
Rg
j3
LF411
V in
&'()
Vout

Figure 3: Inverting amplifier

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4.1 Building an Inverting Voltage Amplifier PHYS 219

Construct the circuit shown in Fig. 3. Important: do not power up the protoboard until you have
checked all connections twice! Make sure you and your partner agree that it is set up correctly! In
order not to short any of the pins of the Op-Amp together it must be installed in such a way that all 8
pins are in different columns (e.g. as shown in Fig. 4 where pins 1,2,3 and 4 are in different columns
in the upper half of the protoboard and pins 5, 6, 7 and 8 are in different columns of the bottom half
of the protoboard). Also note that the LF411 Op-Amp has a small circle imprinted on the top between
pins pin 1 and 2 to indicate where the numbering starts and goes counter-clockwise. You can see
this if you expand Fig. 4.
Build the circuit shown by installing Rg = 1 kOhms for the input
resistor and Rf = 10 kOhms for the feedback resistor. You Tip 1
should measure the resistors with the DMM and calculate the
expected gain for your circuit according to Equation 3. Remember to keep your wiring tidy
and as 2-dimensional as you can.
• With the power supply OFF connect the +5V power line
This makes circuits easier to trou-
to pin 7 and the -5V power line to pin 4, as shown in the
bleshoot. Your in-class grade will
right hand side of Fig. 2.
depend on neatness as well as the
• Set the frequency on the function generator to sine wave circuit working.
with an amplitude of 100 mV, a frequency of 100 Hz and
with no offset.
• Use DC coupling on the oscilloscope channels so you
can observe any DC component in the signals.
• Before turning on the power to the protoboard check all
the connections one more time, especially the power
connections.
The input and output signals should look the same when the power is off. Now turn on the power
supply. The amplitude of the output signal should be amplified. What do you notice about the ampli-
tude and phase of the output signal relative to the input signal? Explain what you observe. Save the
screenshots of the input and output signals with power supply off and then with the power supply
on. Take a photo of your circuit to include in your notes.

Checkpoint 1

Show your circuit along with the input and output signals displayed on CH1 and CH2 of the oscil-
loscope. While waiting, you can carry on with the measurements below unless you believe there is
a problem.

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4.2 Amplifier Measurements PHYS 219

Figure 4: The LF 411 op-amp used to make an inverting amplifier. Note how the location of the
LF411 on the protoboard straddles the electrical barrier between the top and bottom halves of the
protoboard.This is required so that each pin has its own column and thus is electrically isolated from
the other pins. Also note the small circular dot which is between pins 1 and 2 identified in Fig 2. This
means the V+ and V− inputs are in columns 6 and 7 respectively for the location of the op-Amp in
the picture. The power connections go to pins 4 and 7 (i.e. columns 5 and 53 for the location in the
picture).

4.2 Amplifier Measurements

4.2.1 Distortion and clipping

First, start with a small amplitude low frequency sine wave input signal (e.g. 100 mV and 100Hz
you started with) with no offset. Vary the offset voltage and amplitude of the signal and report
under what conditions there is distortion of the output signal (deviation from sinusoidal). Save a few
screenshots to supplement your description.
Describe the nature of the distortion that is observed when the output signal reaches a some limiting
value for both positive and negative voltages. (This kind of distortion is commonly called clipping).
These limiting voltages on the positive and negative side depend on the particular Op-Amp and are
always less than the power supply voltages of ±5V . Save images of both channels with and without
distortion. Report the limiting values for your Op-Amp . For the measurements below always check
for such distortions. Make a note of any such checks you do in your notebook. It is a good idea to
take a few points where there is some noticeable distortion. However most of the points should be

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4.2 Amplifier Measurements PHYS 219

taken in a region where there is minimal distortion. Make sure you include a detailed sketch of the
circuit as well as a photo showing all the connections.

Checkpoint 2

Discuss your observations of the distortion and clipping of your amplifier.

4.2.2 Linearity and Gain

Measure the linearity of the amplifier under conditions where

there is minimal distortion, but take a couple of points where Tip 2
you see some small amount of distortion. Make measure-
ments of the amplitude Vout versus Vin at 100Hz. A plot of Plot your data as you go with a line
this allows you to check the range over which this is linear, for your expected gain to visualize
meaning the gain (which is the slope) is constant. deviations.

Checkpoint 3

Show the data you have obtained to determine the gain and linearity, and discuss how you will
analyze the data.

Repeat these measurements at some high frequency e.g.

500kHz. Describe and explain any differences between the low and high frequency data sets.

Before you leave the lab!

Make sure you have:

• saved screenshots of the input and output signals with the Op-Amp power off and on
• description and screenshots of both distorted and undistorted amplified signals from
section 4.2.1
• a data set of Vout vs. Vin at 100Hz
• a data set of Vout vs. Vin at a high frequency (e.g. 500kHz)

7 © Sarah Burke, revised 2024