Mechanical Operation Laboratory

INDEX

S. No Name of the Experiment Page. No

Index I
General instructions to students in laboratories ii
1 Sieving and Sieve Analysis - I 1

2 Screen Effectiveness 6

3 Sieving and Sieve Analysis - II 11

4 Drop Weight Crusher 16

5 Jaw Crusher 23

6 Ball Mill 29

7 Beaker Decantation 34

8 ICI Sedimentation 39

9 Air Permeability 44

10 Batch Sedimentation 47

11 Leaf Filter 53

Design of Experiments 58

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GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS
TO STUDENTS IN LABORATORIES
❖ Wear shoes preferably rubber soled.
❖ Do not wear loose garments.
❖ Students should wear goggles and hand gloves during performing lab experiments.
❖ Wear gloves while handling acids and other chemicals.
❖ During the lab timings the student should be well disciplined and don’t indulge in any
sort of playing.
❖ Clean up the area and apparatus after the work is over.
❖ Return the weight box, stop watch etc. Drawn before leaving the lab.
❖ Do not add water to concentrated acids.
❖ Care should be taken while handling concentrated solutions.
❖ Breakages should be brought to the notice of staff immediately.
❖ Switch off all electrical connections after the experiment is over.
❖ Do not use distilled water for cleaning purpose.
❖ Take permission of faculty in charge before leaving the lab.
❖ Wear mask and follow all SOP protocols.

Laboratory CIE Breakup

❖ Laboratory Internal Test: 20 Marks (5 = Procedure; 10 = Conduction of Experiment;
5 = viva voce)
❖ Laboratory Internal Evaluation: 30 Marks [10 Marks each experiment]
❖ (Breakup: 4 = Conduction of Experiments; 4 = Result and calculations; 2 = Record
writing)
❖ Report submission rule: No late submission.
❖ Attendance Rule: If a student’s attendance is less than 75% and less than 20 Marks in
CIE test, the student will be awarded ‘NE’ (NE is equal to F grade)
❖ All medical certificate should be submitted within one week of absence.

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EXPERIMENT - 1
SIEVING AND SIEVE ANALYSIS - I
AIM AND OBJECTIVE: To find the different average particle diameters of the given size
distribution by sieve analysis.

DESCRPTION OF THEORY AND BACKGOUUND INFORMATION:

Screening is a method of separating particles according to size alone. In industrial screening the
solids are dropped on, or thrown against, a screening surface. The undersize, or fines, pass
through the screen openings; oversize, or tails, do not. A single screen can make but a single
separation into two fractions. These are called un-sized fractions, because although either the
upper or lower limit of the particle sizes they contain is known, the other limit is unknown.
Material passed through a series of screens of different sizes is separated into sized fractions,
i.e., fractions in which both the maximum and minimum particle sizes are known. Screening is
occasionally done wet but much more commonly dry.

Industrial screens are made from woven wire, silk or plastic cloth, metal bars, perforated or
slotted metal plates, or wires that are wedge shaped in cross section. Various metals are used,
with steel and stainless steel the most common. Standard screens range in mesh size from 4 in.
to 400-mesh, and woven metal screens with openings as small as 1 m are commercially
available.' Screens finer than about 150-mesh are not commonly used, however, because with
very fine particles other methods of separations are usually more economical.

APPARATUS, EQUIPMENTS AND CHEMICALS REQUIRED: B.S.S. sieve set, sieve

shaker, brush, weight box, collection troughs/pans/bins.

NOTATION:

Xi : Mass fraction

(dpi) : Average particle size

 : Cumulative mass fraction

DATA REQUIRED:

Clear opening for the mesh numbers displayed in the lab, from literature.

EQUATIONS AND FORMULAE REQUIRED:

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1. Volume mean diameter = Σ (xi dpI )

Σ (xi / (dpi)
2. Mean Surface diameter =
Σ (xi / (dpi)3 )

1
3.Surface mean diameter =
Σ (xi / (dpi)
1
4. Mean volume diameter = 3
Σ(xi / (dpi)3 )

Σ (xi / (dpi)
5. Length mean diameter =
Σ (xi / (dpi)2 )

Σ (xi / (dpi)2 )
6. Mean Length diameter =
Σ (xi / (dpi)3 )
DESCRIPTION OF EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:

In most screens the particles drop through the openings by gravity in a few designs
they are pushed through the screen by a brush or centrifugal force. Coarse particles drop
easily through large openings in a stationary surface, but with fine particles the screen surface
must be agitated in some way, such as by shaking, gyrating or vibrating it mechanically or
electrically.

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EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:

1. Clean the sieves by brush without damaging the screens

2. Weight about 1 kg of sample from the bin marked -5+100

3. Spread a newspaper on the floor and divide the sample into four equal parts by coning
and quartering.

4. Take one quarter and transfer to the most sieve, close the lid and shake in sieve shaker
for 10-20minutes.

5. Weigh the samples retained in each sieve and draw up the following observation table.

❖ The following mesh sizes are available : 8, 36, 44, 85, 102, 150, 170 and pan out of 25
sizes listed in B.S.S

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Clear Mass
S.NO Mesh No
Opening ( dpi ) retained(g)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

SAMPLE CALCULATION:

Xi = Mass retained/Total mass

(dpi) = Average particle size = (dp1+dp2)/2

i = Cumulative mass fraction = (x1+x2)

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CALCULATION TABLE:

Average Mass fraction

S. NO Mesh. No (xi)(dpi) (xi) / (dpi) (xi) / (dpi) 2 (xi) / (dpi) 3
diameter (dpi) ( xi )

10

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RESULTS:

1
1.Surface mean diameter = =
 xi 
  d pi 
 
 
  x i 
dpi 
2. Mean Surface diameter =  =
x 
  i d ( ) 3


 pi 
3.Volume mean diameter = x d i pi =

1
4. Mean Volume diameter = =
 
  xi d 
3

 pi ( ) 3


 
  x i 
dpi 
5. Length mean diameter =  =
x 
  i d 2  ( )
 pi 
 
  x i d 2  ( )
6. Mean Length diameter =  pi =
 
  x i d 3  ( )
 pi 

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EXPERIMENT 2
SCREEN EFFECTIVENESS
AIM AND OBJECTIVE: To find the effectiveness factor of the given screen.
DESCRIPTION OF THEORY & BACKGROUND INFORMATION:

The objective of a screen is to accept a feed containing a mixture of various sizes and separate
it into two fractions, an underflow that is passed through the screen and an overflow that is
rejected by the screen either one, or both, of these streams may be a product.

An ideal screen would sharply separate the feed mixture in such a way that the smallest
particle in the overflow would be just larger than the largest particle in the underflow. Such
an ideal separation defines a cut diameter Dpc that marks the point of separation between the
fractions. Usually Dpc is chosen to be equal to the mesh opening of the screen whose
effectiveness is to be found.

Actual screens do not give a perfect separation about the cut diameter, instead the cumulative
screen analysis of the underflow and overflow are like those shown in the figure in the end.

The effectiveness of a screen (often called the screen efficiency) is a measure of the success
of a screen in closely separating material A and B. if the screen functioned perfectly; all of
material A would be in the overflow and all of material B would be in the underflow. A
common measure of screen effectiveness is the ratio of oversize material A that is actually in
the overflow to the amount of A entering with the feed. These quantities are DxD, and FxF

D xD
EA = Where EA is the screen effectiveness based on the
F xF
oversize.
W(1− X W ) EB is the effectiveness based on under size.
E =
B
F(1− xF )

A combined overall effectiveness can be defined as the product of the two individual ratios. If
this is denoted by E,

(x F - x ) ( x - x ) x (1- x
w D F D w
)
E= 2
( x - x ) (1- x ) x
D W F F

Where: XF = mass fraction of material A in feed

XD = mass fraction of material A in overflow.

Xw= mass fraction of material A in under overflow.

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APPARATUS, EQUIPMENTS & CHEMICALS REQUIRED: B.S.S. sieve set, sieve

shaker, brush, weight box, collection troughs/pans/bins.

NOTATION:

XF = mass fraction of material A in feed

XD = mass fraction of material A in overflow.
XW= mass fraction of material A in under overflow.
E = Screen Effectiveness
dpi = diameter of the particles
DATA REQUIRED:
Clear opening for the mesh numbers displayed in the lab, from literature.
EQUATIONS & FORMULAE REQUIERED

(x F - x ) ( x - x ) x (1- x
w D F D w
)
E= 2
( x - x ) (1- x ) x
D W F F

DESCRIPTION OF EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:

In most screens the particles drop through the openings by gravity in a few designs
they are pushed through the screen by a brush or centrifugal force. Coarse particles drop
easily through large openings in a stationary surface, but with fine particles the screen surface
must be agitated in same way, such as by shaking, gyrating or vibrating it mechanically or
electrically.

EXPERIMENT PROCEDURE:

1. Take the remaining ¾ sample in the sieve whose effectiveness is to be found

along with pan and lid.
2. Shake the above set with hands.
3. Take the samples retained on the given screen (i.e. oversize) in a sieve set.
4. Keep the sieve set on a sieve shaker for 10 minutes.
5. Note the mass retained on each sieve.
6. Take the samples which have passed through the given screen (i.e. Undersize)
in a sieve set.
7. Keep the sieve set on a sieve shaker for 10 minutes.
8. Note the mass retained on each sieve.

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OBSERVATION TABLE:

Mass Retained g
Clear Opening
S. No. Mesh No.
Diameter (m) Feed
Oversize Undersize
(From previous Expt.)
1

10

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CALCULATION TABLE:
* Given Mesh No. =

Clear Opening FEED OVERSIZE UNDERSIZE

Mesh.
S. NO Diameter
No MRg Mf Xi Cmf Øi MR g Mf Xi Cmf Øi MR g Mf Xi Cmf Øi
[Dpi] X 10-4 m

10

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NATURE OF GRAPH:

XD
S IZE
ER
OV D XF
E
FE ZE
SI
R
NDE XW
U

3.5 [dpi] x10-4 m

RESULT:

1. Effectiveness factor of the given screen is =

2. Effectiveness factor of the given screen from graph is =

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EXPERIMENT 3

SIEVING AND SIEVE ANALYSIS - II

AIM & OBJECTIVE: To determine the specific surface area and number of particles per
unit mass of the size distribution by differential and cumulative analysis using analytical and
graphical methods given the shape factor and density.

DESCRIPTION OF THEORY AND BACKGROUND INFO:-

Screening is a method of separating particles according to size alone. In industrial screening the solids
are dropped on, or thrown against, a screening surface. The undersize, or fines, pass through the
screen openings; oversize, or tails, do not. A single screen can make but a single separation into
two fractions. These are called un-sized fractions, because although either the upper or lower
limit of the particle sizes they contain is known, the other limit is unknown. Material passed
through a series of screens of different sizes is separated into sized fractions, i.e., fractions in
which both the maximum and minimum particle sizes are known. Screening is occasionally done
wet but much more commonly dry.

Industrial screens are made from woven wire, silk or plastic cloth, metal bars, perforated or
slotted metal plates, or wires that are wedge shaped in cross section. Various metals are used,
with steel and stainless steel the most common Standard screens range in mesh size from 4 in. to
400-mesh, and woven metal screens with openings as small as 1 pm are commercially available.'
Screens finer than about 150-mesh are not commonly used, however, because with very fine
particles other methods of separation are usually more economical.

APPARATUS, EQUIPMENTS AND CHEMICALS REQUIRED: B.S.S. sieve set, sieve

shaker, brush, weight box, collection troughs/pans/bins.

NOTATION:
Øs - Sphericity of particles

ρp – Density of particles
Xi – differential mass fraction.
(dpi) – Average particle size

Nw – number of particles per unit mass

a – proportionality factor for volume of particle (Vp = a dpi)
Dn – size of any fraction

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DATA REQUIRED:
Spericity (Øs) = 0.73

Density ρp = 2.9x103 kg/m3

Shape factor (a) =2

EQUATION AND FORMULAE REQUIRED:

6 Xi m 2
AW =
Øs  p
 d , kg
pi

1 Xi m 2
NW =
a p
 ( d ) 3 , kg
pi

Calculate the specific surface area of the size distribution by differential analysis.

DESCRIPTION OF EXPERIMENT SETUP:

In most screens the particles drop through the openings by gravity in a few designs they are
pushed through the screen by a brush or centrifugal force. Coarse particles drop easily
through large openings in a stationary surface, but with fine particles the screen surface must
be agitated in some way, such as by shaking, gyrating or vibrating it mechanically or electrically.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
1 Clean the sieves by brush without damaging the screens

2 Weight about 1 kg of sample from the bin marked -5+100

3 Spread a newspaper on the floor and divide the sample into four equal parts by coning
and quartering.

4 Take one quarter and transfer to the most sieve, close the lid and shake in sieve shaker
for 10-20minutes.

5 Weigh the samples retained in each sieve and draw up the following observation table.

❖ The following mesh sizes are available : 8, 36, 44, 85, 102, 150, 170 and pan out of 25
sizes listed in B.S.S

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OBSERVATION TABLE:
Clear Opening Mass
S.NO Mesh No
( dpi ) retained (g)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

CALCULATION & RESULT TABLE:

Mesh MR dpi (dpi ) Xi Xi 1 1

S. NO Xi Øi
No. (g) (m) (m) (dpi ) (dpi )3 dpi dpi3

10

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SAMPLE CALCUTATION:

Differential analysis:

6 X
1. AW =  i =
Øs ρ p d pi
m2
Specific surface area =
kg

1 Xi
2. N W =
aρ p
 (d ) 3
=
pi

Number of particles per unit mass = particles/kg

Cumulative analysis:

6 1 di 6
1. A W =  =  Area = ( from graph I )
Øs ρ p 0 d Øs ρ
pi p
m2
Specific surface area =
kg

1 1 di 1
2. N W =
a ρp  (d
0
pi ) 3
=
a ρ p
 Area = ( from graph II )

Number of particles per unit mass = particles/kg

NATURE OF GRAPHS:
GRAPH I: plot between 1/dpi Vs Øi, Surface mean diameter

12000

10000

8000
1/dpi

6000

4000

2000

0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Øi

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GRAPH II: plot between 1/(dpi)3 Vs Øi,

12000

10000

8000
1/dpi

6000

4000

2000

0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Øi

RESULTS:

Differential analysis (Analytical method):

Specific surface area =
Number of particles per unit mass =
Cumulative analysis (Graphical methods):
Specific surface area =
Number of particles per unit mass =

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EXPERIMENT 4
DROP WEIGHT CRUSHER
AIM: To determine the constants of crushing laws and to find the work index using drop
weight crusher.

THEORY:

Size reduction applies to all methods in which particles of solids are broken into small pieces.
The objective of crushing is to produce small particles from larger ones. Smaller particles are
desired either because of their large surface area or because of their size, shape and number.
In drop weight crusher, the force used to crush is impact. This crusher is not used industrially,
but one can get some idea about the energy needed for crushing a particular material by doing
experiment with it. The laws of crushing are (i) Kick’s law (ii) Rittinger’s law (iii) Bonds law.

Kick’s law states that the energy required for crushing a material is proportional to the
logarithm of the reduction ratio or mathematically it is written as:
P D sa
= K k In ………. (1)

m D sb
Rittinger’s law states that the work required in crushing is proportional to the new surface
area created and is expressed as:
P  1 1 
= KR  - ……….. (2)

m  D sb D sa 
Bond’s law states that the work required to form particle of size Dp from a very large feed
is proportional to the square root of the surface to volume ratio of the product, which gives
a final expression:

P  1 1 
= Kb   …….. (3)
(D ) (D )
-
m  sb sa 

Work Index is defined as the gross energy in kWh/ton of feed needed to reduce a very large
feed to such a size that 80% of product passes through 100 micron screen. This definition
leads to a relation between Kb and Wi. If Dp is in millimeters, P in kilowatts and m
 in tons per
hour, may be calculated using the relation:

Wi = Kb/0.3162 kWh/ton ….….. (4)

The constants Kk, KR, Kb in equations (1), (2) and (3) are respectively Kick’s constant,
Rittinger’s constant and Bond’s constant. Wi in equation (4) is the work index.

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NOTATION:

D sa , D sb = Volume surface mean diameters of feed and product respectively, m.

P = Power required for crushing, kWh

 = mass flow rate of material crushed, ton/hour.

m

Xi= mass fraction

APPARATUS, EQUIPMENTS & CHEMICALS REQUIRED:

Weight box, sieve set, brush.
EXPERIMENTAL SEPUP:-
Drop Weight

Release lever

Guide pipe

Flat Plate Disc

Feed Particles
Flat Base

Anvil

It consists of a 0.535m cylindrical pipe fixed to a stand, at the top the weight can be released
using the lever, at the bottom a steel crushing chamber with the sample to be crushed inside
and a heavy lid covering it, so when the weight falls through the pipe , it impacts the lid and
the sample inside is crushed.
DATA REQUIRED:
( Dsa ) = Feed size (average size of two screens (-8+12))

m = Weight of drop weight = 4.5Kg

h = height of drop weight = 0.535m
w = Weight of sample = 50 g.
g = Acceleration Due to gravity = 9.81 m/S2
n = No. of drops = 20 drops.

EQUATIONS AND FORMULA:

nmgh
E=
w

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Product analysis
1
a. surface mean dia =
Σ x i / dpi
1
b. surface mean dia (Graphical) = 1

 dφ / dpi
0

c. Volume mean dia = Σ x i dpi

1
d. Volume mean dia (Graphical) =  dφ dpi
0

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
1. The top surface of the anvil and disc, guide pipe are cleaned
2. From the feed bin 50 g of –8+12 mesh particles are weighed
3. The feed is evenly spread under the disc and the guide pipe is placed over it.
4. The drop weight and the lever are held in position
5. The weight is dropped taking care to avoid spill over
6. After every 5 drops the guide pipe is removed and the crushed material is evenly
spread under the disc as in step 3
7. After 20-25 drops the product is collected and sieved through the sieve set and the
observations are recorded.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
FEED ANALYSIS:
Mass retained
S. No. Mesh No. dpi µm
g
1 8 2057

2 12 1405

PRODUCT ANALYSIS:
Mass retained
S. No Mesh No. dpi (µm)
(g)
1

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CALCULATION TABLE:

Mesh Mass Xi
S. No Xi Øi dpi µm d pi Xi / d pi 1/dpi
No. Retained d pi

SAMPLE CALCULATIONS:
nmgh 20 x 4.5 x 9.81 x 0.535
1. E = = = 9447.035 / kg
w 50 x 10- 3

2057 + 1405
2. Feed Size (Dsa ) = = 1731μm = 1731 x 10-6 m
2

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1
3. Surface mean diameter (DSb ) = = , m (Analytical)
Σx i /d pi
1 1
4. Surface mean diameter (DSb ) = 1
= = , m (Graphical)
dφ i area
0 d pi
5. Volume mean diameter (DSb ) = Σx i d pi = , m (Analytical)
1
4. Volume mean diameter (DSb ) =  dφ i d pi = area = , m (Graphically)
0

To find Kick’s law constant, KK

P D sa E
E= = K k In ➔ KK = =

m D sb ln( Dsa / Dsb )

To find Rittenger’s law constant, KR

P  1 1  E
E= = KR  -  ➔ KR= =
m  Dsb Ds a   1 1 
 - 
 Dsb Dsa 

To finds Bond’s law constant, Kb

P  1 1  E
E= = Kb   ➔ Kb= =
(D ) (D )
-
m  sb sa   
 1 1 
 - 
 (D ) sb (D ) sa 

To find Dsb from graph corresponding to 20% overflow

1/Dp=………, Dsb =1/(1/Dp)=

P/m
Kb = =
 
 1 1 
 - 
 (D ) sb (D ) sa 

Work Index=Kb/ 0.3162=……………=……….KWh/ton

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NATURE OF GRAPHS:
GRAPH I: plot between 1/dpi Vs Øi, Surface mean diameter

12000

10000

8000
1/dpi

6000

4000

2000

0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Øi

GRAPH II: plot between dpi Vs Øi Volume mean diameters

0.0025

0.0020

0.0015
dpi

0.0010

0.0005

0.0000
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Øi

GRAPH III: plot between Øi Vs dpi

1.0

0.8

0.6
Øi

0.4

0.2

0.0
0.0000 0.0005 0.0010 0.0015 0.0020 0.0025

dpi

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RESULTS:
Analytical:
The constants of crushing laws for drop weight crusher are

Kick’s Constant KK = …………… KWh/ton

Rittinger’s constant. KR = ………….. KWh m/ton

Bond’s constant Kb = ………….. KWh mm1/2 /ton

Graphical:
The constants of crushing laws for drop weight crusher are
Kick’s Constant KK = …………… KWh/ton

Rittinger’s constant. KR = ………….. KWh m/ton

Bond’s constant Kb = ………….. KWh mm1/2 /ton

Work Index Wi = ………….. KWh/ton

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EXPERIMENT 5
JAW CRUSHER

AIM & OBJECTIVE: To determine the constants of Ritlinger’s Law, Kick’s Law and the
Bond’s work index by crushing the given feed in a Jaw Crusher.

DESCRIPTION OF THEORY & BACKGROUND INFORMATION:

Size reduction equipment may be broadly classified as coarse crusher’s intermediate crushers
and fine crushers. Jaw crushers come under the first category. Jaw crushers are further
classified as the Blake type and the dodge type. In the Blake Jaw crusher the moving Jaw is
pivoted at the top. Blake Jaw crushers are made with Jaw width of 50mm to 1.2 m and the
running speed varies from about 1.5 to 6HZ the angle of nip between the Jaws is about 300.
In the dodge jaw crusher the moving jaw is pivoted at the bottom, hence they are able to take
larger feeds than a Blake Jaw crusher.
The energy required for crushing a given material depends on a no. of factors viz.
1. Hardness: The Moh’s scale of hardness gives an idea about the power consumption and
wear and tear of the machine on a scale of 1 to 10 the following materials are classified,
the first four being ‘soft ‘ and the rest ‘hard’.
1. Jale 2. Rock Salt or Gypsum 3.Calcite 4.Fluospar 5.Apatite
6. Felspar 7. Quartz 8.Jopaz 9.Carbon 10.Diamond
2. Structure: Granular materials like coal, ores etc are easier to crush than fibrous
materials.
3. Moisture content: Increase in moisture content above 5% tends to promote caking.
4 The crushing strength, friability, stickiness soapiness, explosiveness, dust carryover or
other, properties influencing the choice of size reduction equipment. The empirical laws
as discussed under drop weight crusher are also applied to the equipment.
EQUIPMENT, INSTRUMENTS & APPARATUS:
Jaw crusher, sieve set, sieve shaker, sample separator, weight balance
FORMULAE:

To find Kick’s law constant, Kk

P D sa
= K k In ………….. (1)

m D sb

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To find Rittenger’s law constant, KR

P  1 1 
= KR  - ……………… (2)

m  D sb D sa 
To find Bond’s law constant, Kb

P  1 1 
= Kb   ………… (3)
(D ) (D )
-
m  sb sa 

NOTATION:
The constants Kk, KR, Kb are respectively Kick’s constant, Rittinger’s constant and Bond’s
constant. Wi is the work index.

D sa , D sb = Volume surface mean diameters of feed and product respectively, m.

P = Power for crushing, kWh

m= mass flow rate of material crushed, ton/hour.
Xi= mass fraction
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:

The Jaw crusher (Blake) has a fixed jaw and a moving jaw pivoted at the top with the crushing
faces themselves formed of manganese steel. Since the maximum movement of the jaw is at
the bottom, there will be little tendency for the machine to clog. Further, the maximum
pressure will be exerted on the large material which is introduced at the top. The machine is
usually protected so that it is not damaged if lumps of metal inadvertently enter, by making
one of the toggle plates in the driving mechanism relatively weak so that, if any large stresses
are set up, this is the first part to fail.

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The angle of nip, the angle between the jaws, is usually about 30 .Because the crushing action
is intermittent, the loading on the machine is uneven and the crusher therefore incorporates
a heavy flywheel.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
 1 1 
1. 1 Kg of feed is prepared by screening to size  − + 
 2 4 
 
2. The Jaw Crusher is switched on and run on no load for a few minutes.
3. The time taken for 5 revolutions of the disc in the wattmeter (Energy meter) is noted.
(let n1=5 for t=t1)
4. Now the feed is fed evenly to the jaw crusher without chocking the Jaw Crusher the
time taken (t2) and the corresponding no of revolutions of the disc in the energy meter
(n2) are noted for the crushing period.
5. The comminuted product is collected and sieved through
1 1
" mesh screen classifying the product into 3 sizes viz
4 8
 1 1    1  1    
 − + ,  − +  &  − 1 + 0 
 2 4   4 8   8 
     
6. The top two fractions are weighed
 1 
7. The  − "+0"  fraction is sieved through a set of sieves and the mass retained on
 8 
each sieve and pan is entered in the observation column.
8. Draw up the following observation table.

OBSERVATION TABLE
Mass Retained
S. No. Mesh No. dpi (µm)
(g)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

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CALCULATION TABLE:

Mesh Mass Xi
S. No Xi Øi dpi µm d pi Xi / d pi 1/dpi
No. Retained d pi
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

SAMPLE CALCULATIONS:
W=0.7Kg, n1=5, t1=1875, n2= 0.78, t2 =215, E1=24 KJ / rev
No. of revolutions on no load for t2 sec = (5/ t1) x t2 = 5/187x21 = 0.1615 rev = n1
Energy on load = n2 E1= 0.78x24x103=18.72x103 Joules =E2
Energy on no load = n, E1= 0.5615x24x103= 13.476 K Joules E1
E 2 − E1 (18.72 − 13.476)x10 3 J
1. E = = = 7.494x10 3
w 6.7 Kg
1" 1"
2. FeedSize( DS a ) = + x 2.54 x 10 −2 m = 9525x10 −6
2 4
1
3. Surface mean diameter (DSb ) = = , m (Analytical)
Σx i /d pi
1 1
4. Surface mean diameter (DSb ) = 1
= = , m (Graphical)
dφ i area
0 d pi
5. Volume mean diameter (DSb ) = Σx i d pi = , m (Analytical)
1
4. Volume mean diameter (DSb ) =  dφ i d pi = area = , m (Graphically)
0

To find Kick’s law constant, KK

P D sa E
E= = K k In ➔ KK = =

m D sb ln( Dsa / Dsb )

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To find Rittenger’s law constant, KR

P  1 1  E
E= = KR  -  ➔ KR = =
m  Dsb Ds a   1 1 
 - 
 Dsb Dsa 

To finds Bond’s law constant, Kb

P  1 1  E
E= = Kb  ➔ Kb = =
(D ) (D )
-
m  sb sa   
 1 1 
 - 
 (D ) sb (D ) sa 

To find Dsb from graph corresponding to 20% overflow

1/Dp=………, Dsb =1/(1/Dp)=

Work Index=Kb/ 0.3162=……………=……….KWh/ton

NATURE OF GRAPHS:

12000 0.0025

10000
0.0020

8000
0.0015
1/dpi

dpi

6000

0.0010
4000

0.0005
2000

0 0.0000
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Øi Øi

GRAPH I: plot between 1/dpi Vs Øi, Surface GRAPH II: plot between dpi Vs Øi Volume
mean diameter mean diameter
1.0

0.8

0.6
Øi

0.4

0.2

0.0
0.0000 0.0005 0.0010 0.0015 0.0020 0.0025

dpi

GRAPH III: plot between Øi Vs dpi

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RESULTS:
Analytical:
The constants of crushing laws for drop weight crusher are

Kick’s Constant KK = …………… KWh/ton

Rittinger’s constant. KR = ………….. KWh m/ton
Bond’s constant Kb = ………….. KWh mm1/2 /ton
Graphical:
The constants of crushing laws for drop weight crusher are
Kick’s Constant KK = …………… KWh/ton
Rittinger’s constant. KR = ………….. KWh m/ton
Bond’s constant Kb = ………….. KWh mm1/2 /ton
Work Index Wi = ………….. KWh/ton

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EXPERIMENT 6

BALL MILL
AIM & OBJECTIVE: To grind the given material in the ball mill and determine the increase
in specific surface area.
DESCRIPTION OF THEORY & BACKGROUND INFORMATION:
In its simplest form, the ball mill consists of a rotating hollow cylinder, partially filled with balls,
with its axis either horizontal or at a small angle to the horizontal. The inner surface of the
cylinder is usually lined with an abrasion resistant material such as manganese steel, felsites,
stoneware or rubber. When the cylinder rotates the friction between the balls and the wall
carries the balls in contact to a greater height which then drop on the feed crushing it by
impact and attrition. The balls are usually made of flint or steel and occupy up to 30% - 50%
of volume of the mill. The diameter of the balls varies between 12 mm to 125 mm and the
optimum diameter is proportional to the square root of the feed size. Ball mills can be used
for both dry and wet grinding. Ball mill rotating at higher speeds may encounter centrifuging
or cascading. The critical speed of the ball mill is that speed at which the balls continue to
rotate in contact with the cylinder and the critical angular velocity WC of the mill is given by

g
WC =
R −r
Where R=Radius of mill
r= Radius of particle
No. effective grinding takes place at and above the critical speed. The optimum speed is about
50% - 60% of the critical speed. Ball mills are operated both as batch and continuous process
depending upon the specific design.
EQUATIONS & FORMULAE REQUIRED:
mg cosα mv 2
=
gc (R − r)gc
at n C , α = 0, cos α = 1
υ = 2ππn (R - r)
1 g
nC =
2Π R−r
6 x
Specific surface area feed A f = XΣ i
Ø s P d pi

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:

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Figure: ball mill setup

The ball mill setup consists of a small steel cylindrical drum with a lid, through which the
grinding medium (steel balls) and the sample to be grinded is fed inside. The ball mill is
connected to the motor by the belt, so it can rotate at a slow speed.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
About 800 grams of the specified sample in given size range is weighed. The ball mill and the
product collection tray are cleaned with a brush. Fifty balls of given size are charged into the
ball mill and subsequently the feed. The openings in the ball mill are closed. The ball mill is
switched on and allowed to run for a specified time period. The product is collected in a tray
and separated from the balls. The product is then analyzed to determine the surface area.
Both analytical and graphical techniques are used.
OBSERVATION:
Feed size = - Density of feed (p) = Time of operation = 12
1
+
1 2.9x103Kg/m3, minutes
4 8,

Sphericity (ØS) =0.7, Mass of feed = ………. g

OBSERVATION TABLE:
FEED ANALYSIS:
Mesh
S. Mesh Mass
Opening, Xi Øi Xi / ( d pi )
1/dpi
No. No. retained g d pi
(dpi)
1 ¼” 6.35mm

2 1/8” 3.175mm

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PRODUCT ANALYSIS: Cone & Quartered Sample

Clear Opening Mass
S.NO Mesh No
( dpi ) retained
1

CALCULATION TABLE:

S. Mesh Mesh Opening, Mass Xi / ( d pi

Xi Øi 1/dpi
No. No. dpi (mm) retained g d pi )
1

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SAMPLE CALCULATIONS:

Analytical:
6 x
Specific surface area of feed A f = XΣ i =
 s P d pi
= , m2/Kg
6 x
Specific surface area of product A p = XΣ i =
 s P d pi
= , m2/Kg
Graphical:
1
A plot of Vs Φ i (feed and product)is plotted and the area under the curve is
d pi
measured.
1 d i
Area under the curve = 
0 d
pi
=

6
Af = X Area Under Curve =
 s P
= , m 2 /Kg (for Feed Curve)
6
Ap = X Area Under Curve =
 s P
= , m 2 /Kg (for Product Curve)

NATURE OF GRAPH:
FEED & PRODUCT ANALYSIS:

12000

10000

8000
1/dpi

6000

4000

2000

0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Øi

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RESULTS:
Analytical:
Specific surface area of feed () :
Specific surface area of product :
The increase in specific surface area Ap - Af :
Graphical:
Specific surface area of feed (Af) :
Specific surface area of product (Ap) :
The increase in specific surface area Ap - Af :

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EXPERIMENT 7
BEAKER DECANTATION
AIM & OBJECTIVE: To find the average size of the sub-sieve particles by beaker
decantation method.

INTRODUCTION:

Sieve analysis can be used down to 200mesh with good accuracy. However, in special cases,
it may be used for finer particles, but is usually stopped at 400mesh. Very often it is necessary
to have the size analysis for particles in the sub-sieve range. Several methods are used for this
purpose. But, the beaker decantation method is very simple and does not require any
sophisticated apparatus. This present experiment can be performed using simple apparatus
normally found in any laboratory.

THEORY: Beaker decantation is a method used for finding the average size of powder
sample. To separate the mixture of particles into different size- ranges, settling principle is
used. The movement of particles through a fluid requires the density difference between the
particle and the fluid medium. The greater the density difference the more effective is the
separation process. Homogeneous mixtures of particles are separated based on their sizes.
The settling of particles is assumed to be free settling and comes under Stoke’s region. This
method utilizes the differences in the settling velocity of the particle in the medium. Under
the condition of uniform density and laminar flow, the settling velocity can be calculated from
the equation.
g D 2 ( p −  )
Ut = = m/s
18 
Where,
Ut = Terminal settling velocity, m/s
g = Acceleration due to gravity, 9.81 m/s2
 p = Density of slid sample (CaCO3), 2930 kg/m3

 = Viscosity of medium (Water), 0.001 Ns/m2

ρ = Density of medium (Water), 1000 kg/m3
DATA:

Height of settling= ------- cms

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EQUIPMENTS, INSTRUMENTS, APPARATUS:

Beakers-1lit-4nos, stirrer, funnel stand, funnels-4 nos, filter paper, stopwatch, oven.

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:

The setup simply consists of 4 beakers, where the slurry is transferred from one beaker to
the other, after settling. The settled particles are filtered using the funnels and the wet
particles are dried in the oven.

Step – 1 (mixture of water and

CaCO3 after shaking and water with Step -2 (Transfer to next beaker) Filtration (separation of solid)
the slight particles of CaCO3)

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
Weigh 15 g of CaCO3 powder and transfer it to one of the four beakers provided.
Add water and make up the slurry up to the given mark in the beaker (15 cm). Assume
60 30
different sizes of particles, say 60 ,  , 30 , and  are present and calculate the
2 2
terminal settling velocity of these sizes. Using these calculated velocities, find the time of
settling for each size. Stir the slurry with a stirrer to make the slurry uniform throughout its
height. Stop stirring and start the stopwatch simultaneously. Allow the solids in the slurry to
settle for the calculated time for 60  particles and decant the slurry into another beaker
leaving the settled solids at the bottom.

Make up the slurry to the same height of 15 cm in the second beaker by adding water and
60 30
repeat the same procedure as before, for particles, 30  and  particles. Filter the
2 2
settled solids separately for all sizes in previously weighted filter papers, dry and weigh again
to get the rough weights of different fractions W1, W2, W3 and W4. Calculate the correct
weights as shown below the tabulated.

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X1 = W1 – W2, X2 = 2W2 – W3, X3 = 2W3 – W4, X4 = Total – X1 – X2 – X3.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Wt. of Wt of filter Rough Wt.

S dpi Settling Settling
filter paper paper & of residue
No. µm velocity, ut m/s time, secs
(g) residue (g) (g)
1 60

2 60/2

3 30

4 30/2

CALCUATION TABLE:

Corrected
S. N dpi m dpi m Wt. of residue Xi Øi 1- Øi Xi / dpi
g
0 84.853 -

1 60 72.43

2 42.426 51.21

3 30 36.21

4 21.213 25.61

Total

Calculate the average size of the mixture by differential and cumulative analysis and report
the values of average size.

Average size of particles by differential analysis = 1

xi
d
pi

1
Average size of particles by cumulative analysis =
 d / D P

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Formulae:

g D2 ( p −  )
Ut= = ...........................................=............ m/s
18 
Time of settling, t=distance/velocity=………/…………..=…………sec
SPECIMEN CALCULATION:
Calculation of terminal settling velocity and time of settling

For 60μ particle:

g dPi2 ( p −  )
Ut = = ...........................................=............ m/s
18 
Time of settling, t=distance/velocity=………/…………..=…………sec
60
For  particle:
2
g dPi2 ( p −  )
Ut = = ...........................................=............ m/s
18 
Time of settling, t=distance/velocity=………/…………..=…………sec
For 30  particle:
g dPi2 ( p −  )
Ut = = ...........................................=............ m/s
18 
Time of settling, t=distance/velocity=………/…………..=…………sec
30
For  particle:
2
g dPi2 ( p −  )
Ut = = ...........................................=............ m/s
18 
Time of settling, t=distance/velocity=………/…………..=…………sec

1
Average size of particles by differential analysis = =
xi
d
pi

1
Average size of particles by cumulative analysis =
 d / D P

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NATURE OF GRAPH
GRAPH I: Plot Φi Vs dpi and 1 - Φi Vs dpi

1.0

Øi and 1 - Øi 0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0
8e-5 1e-4 1e-4 1e-4 2e-4 2e-4 2e-4

dpi

GRAPH II: plot 1/dpi Vs Φi. (Surface mean diameter)

12000

10000

8000
1/dpi

6000

4000

2000

0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Øi

RESULTS:
Average size of particles from graph I =
From Surface:
Average size of particles by differential analysis = ,m
Average size of particles by cumulative analysis = ,m

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EXPERIMENT 8
ICI SEDIMENTATION
AIM & OBJECTIVE: To determine the average particle size of the given sample of CaCO3
powder by ICI sedimentation method both analytically and graphically.

DESCRIPTION OF THEORY & BACKGROUND INFORMATION:

The ICI sedimentation apparatus is useful in the sub sieve range. The settling of particles in a
fluid due to gravitation may occur as free settling or hindered settling. In the derivation of
stokes equation the NRe, P is less than 0.2 and the terminal settling velocity is expressed as
2
d pi g ( ρp - ρ)
Ut = If the particles are of different size they will take different times to
18 
settle. In this apparatus particles are collected at pre determined time intervals and from the
size distribution in the range the average particles size is calculated.

APPARATUS, EQUIPMENTS & CHEMICALS REQUIRED:

Stop clock, Filter papers (6), Funnel (6), sample collection dish (6)
Weight Box, Measuring Scale, CaCO3 sample, Oven.
NOTATION:
t = Settling time, sec
h = height of settling, m
dpi = diameter of particle, m
p = density of the particle Kg/m3
 = density of the fluid, Kg/ m3
 = viscosity of the fluid at room temp. Kg/m.s
g = acceleration due to gravity =9.81m/s2
Ut = settling velocity, m/s
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:
The setup made of the glass apparatus; it consists of the two limbs, left and right limbs,
the right limb connected to the left limb at the bottom. The top of the two limbs are provided
with stop valves. Above the bottom of the left limb is provided with opening for air blowing. At
the bottom, the left limb is open, so that the sample can be collected.

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STOP CORK

Clear
Liquid Sedimentation Tube
Reservoir

A/C Inlet

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
1. Five filter papers are weighed are numbered 1 to 5.
2. 5 g of CaCO3 powder are weighed and kept ready
3. The settling velocities and the settling time for different particle sizes of 60, 60/2, 30,
2
d pi g ( ρp - ρ)
30//2, 15 mm are pre-calculated using the formula Ut =
18 
h
Where Ut = settling velocity, m/s; t =
Ut
The particles are expected to be <602 m the settling times for the above 5 sizes, using
p=2.6x103 Kg/m3,  = 1x103 Kg/m3, =1 x103 Kg/m sec, height of fall H=20cm=0.2m are
entered in the observation table.
4. The left limb of the apparatus is filled with water and the stop cock closed
5. The right limb is then filled with water about 0.5cm below the 20cm mark on the scale.
6. The caco3 powder is then added to the right limb with agitation using air.
7. The agitation is stopped and the stop clock started.
8. The stop clock of the right limb is closed and the stop cork of the left limb is opened.
9. The particles are allowed to settle for the pre-calculated time and the pinch cork at
the bottom of the right limb is opened to collect the sediments (scurry), which are
filtered on a filter paper.
10. Steps 4-9 are repeated and this time the sediments are collected for the second or
subsequent pre-calculated time in resulting in 5 filter papers along with residue.

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11. Filter the settled solids separately for all sizes in previously weighted filter papers, dry
and weigh again to get the rough weights of different fractions W1, W2, W3 W4 and
W5. Calculate the correct weights as shown below the tabulated.

X1 = W1 – W2, X2 = 2W2 – W3, X3 = 2W3 – W4, X4 = 2W4 –

W5,

X5 = Total – X1 – X2 – X3– X4.

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Settling Wt. of Wt of filter Rough Wt.
Settling
S. No. dpi µm time, filter paper paper & of residue
velocity, ut m/s
secs (g) residue (g) (g)
1 60

2 60/2

3 30

4 30/2

5 15

CALCUATION TABLE:
Corrected
S. N dpi m d pi m Wt. of Xi Øi 1- Øi 1/ dpi
Xi / d pi
residue, g
0 84.853 -

1 60 72.43

2 42.426 51.21

3 30 36.21

4 21.213 25.61

5 15 18.11

6 - 7.5

Total

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SPECIMEN CALCULATION:
Calculate the terminal settling velocity and time of settling from the following equations.
For 60μ particle:
g dPi2 ( p −  )
Ut = = ...........................................=............ m/s
18 
Time of settling, t=distance/velocity=………/…………..=…………sec
60
For  particle:
2
g dPi2 ( p −  )
Ut = = ...........................................=............ m/s
18 
Time of settling, t=distance/velocity=………/…………..=…………sec
For 30 particles:

g dPi2 ( p −  )
Ut = = ...........................................=............ m/s
18 
Time of settling, t=distance/velocity=………/…………..=…………sec
30
For  particle:
2
g dPi2 ( p −  )
Ut = = ...........................................=............ m/s
18 
Time of settling, t=distance/velocity=………/…………..=…………sec
For 15  particles:
g dPi2 ( p −  )
Ut = = ...........................................=............ m/s
18 
Time of settling, t=distance/velocity=………/…………..=…………sec
Average size of particles (dpi) = Volume mean diameter
Average size of particles by differential analysis =  xi d pi
=

Avg. size of particles by cumulative analysis (from graph) =  d d pi

= area =

Average size of particles (dpi) = Surface mean diameter

1
Average size of particles by differential analysis = =
xi
d
pi

1 1
Avg. size of particles by cumulative analysis (from graph) = = =
d
1
area
0 d pi

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NATURE OF GRAPHS:

1.0

0.8

Øi and 1 - Øi
0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0
8e-5 1e-4 1e-4 1e-4 2e-4 2e-4 2e-4

dpi

GRAPH I: Plot Φi Vs dpi and 1 - Φi Vs dpi. (Average diameter of the particles)

0.0025 12000

10000
0.0020

8000
0.0015
1/dpi
dpi

6000

0.0010
4000

0.0005
2000

0.0000 0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Øi Øi

GRAPH II: Plot dpi Vs Φi. (Volume mean GRAPH III: plot 1/dpi Vs Φi. (Surface mean
diameter) diameter)
RESULTS:
Average size of particles size from graph I =
Volume Mean Diameter
Average size of particles by differential analysis = ,m
Average size of particles by cumulative analysis from graph= ,m
Surface Mean Diameter
Average size of particles by differential analysis = ,m
Average size of particles by cumulative analysis from graph= ,m

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EXPERIMENT 9
AIR PERMEABILITY
AIM & OBJECTIVE: To determine the surface area of the given sample of powder by the
air permeability apparatus.
DESCRIPTION OF THEORY & BACKGROUND INFORMATION: In a number of
chemical operations, fluid flows through a packed bed. The pressure drop through the bed
for a laminar flow of fluid is given by the Carman’s equation. The pressure drop is dependent
on the porosity, the height of bed, the viscosity of fluid, velocity of bed etc and hence the
surface area related by the following equation is found out.

ΔP  3 1
A= m2/kg
Vo (1−  ) 2 5μ L S2

DESCRIPTION OF EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:

The apparatus consists of a permeable cell of internal diameter 3.156 cm. A brass perforated
plate supports the packing. A pressure tapping to the manometer is connected below the cell.
The top of the cell can be closed by a rubber cork © which is provided with a T and a pinch
cork one side of the T is connected to the manometer. The bottom of the cell is connected
to a water reservoir as shown. The reservoir is filled with a glass tube level indicator, an air
tight water inlet opening at the top and a drain cork at the bottom. A stop watch, measuring
jar, brass plunger, weight box, brush is required to conduct the experiment.
APPARATUS, EQUIPMENTS & CHEMICALS REQUIRED
1. Stop clock
2. Measuring jar
3. Rubber cork
4. Granite powder.
NOTATION:
t = Settling time, sec
h = height of settling, m
dpi = diameter of particle, m
p = density of the particle kg/m3
 = density of the fluid, kg/ m3
 = viscosity of the fluid at room temp. kg/m.s
g = acceleration due to gravity =9.81m/s2
Ut = settling velocity, m/s

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EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
1. 10 g of the given sample is weighed.
2. The reservoir is filled with water as confirmed by the level in the glass tube.
3. The cell is cleaned with the brush and the sample transferred in to the cell and made
uniform by means of the brass plunger.
4. The height of the bed is noted.
5. The drain cock is adjusted and water allowed draining out uniformly as seen by the
steady difference in the level in the manometer leg.
6. The time taken to drain 250ml of water is noted, simultaneously the manometer
reading is noted down.
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:

PACKED BED CELL

LEVEL
INDICATOR

MANOMETER

WATER RESERVOIR

DRAIN CORK

MEASURING JAR

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Manometer reading Time to fill 250 ml jar, Flow rate Q=V/t
S. No.
H1 H2 H = H1-H2 secs m3/sec
1

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SAMPLE CALCULATION:
GRANITE POWDER (-72+200),  = 2.56 g/cc
Weight of sample = 10g
Height of the bed = …………. =L
Cell diameter = 3.156 cm
π 2 π
C/s area of bed = d = x (3.156) 2 = 7.823 cm2
4 4
Volume of Bed = C/S Area x Height = 7.823x………= …………… cm3
Mass of Material 10
Volume of material = = = 3.91cm3
Density of Material 2.56
Trail – 1:
Q
V0 = = = .................m/sec
C/S Area 7.823 x 10 − 4
ΔP1 = ( H)1 pg = ..................x 1 x 10 3 x 9.81 = 618.03 N/m 2

Volume of bed - Volume of material

=
Volume of bed

P1  3 1
Specific Surface area A 1 =
VO (1 −  ) 5LPS2
2

μ air = 0.18 x 10 -3 Kg/m.sec

.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ..........

A1 =

A1 = ……………….. m2 / kg
Trail – 2: Cond…
Trail – 3: Cond…

RESULTS:
Surface area of the given sample of powder is: m2

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EXPERIMENT 10
BATCH SEDIMENTATION
AIM & OBJECTIVE: To determine the minimum cross-sectional area of a continuous
thickener by conducting a single batch sedimentation test.
Specific aim: A 5OT/ day (30%) solids underflow capacity using 8% / wt. caco3 slurry in 700
ml

DESCRIPTION OF THEORY & BACKGROUND INFORMATION: This is explained

with reference to the sketch which traces the settling of solid particles in slurry, as described
by the various zones. The Kynch theory states that the settling rate and the concentration of
the layer which limits the capacity of a thickener can be determined by a single batch
sedimentation test, with certain underlying assumptions since settling can be either free or
hindered.

Zo B

Zo

1 2 3 4 5

APPARATUS, EQUIPMENTS & CHEMEICALS REQUIRED

1. Measuring Jar graduated in Millimeters
2. Stop watch
3. Weighing balance
4. Stirring device

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
The weight of caco3 required for the given volume and given concentration is pre-
calculated (58.9g). The jar graduated in mm henceforth called the sedimentation jar is cleaned
and placed vertically 700ml of water form measuring jar (2) is poured into the sedimentation

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jar and a mark made corresponding to this volume, which gives us the initial height of the
slurry. Now, about 50-100ml is poured out of the sedimentation jar and the caco3 powder
added and made into slurry by the stirring device. The stirring device is removed & the slurry
made up with water up to the earlier mask.
The stirring device is introduced again & the slurry thoroughly mixed to obtain uniform
concentration throughout the height. The stirring is stopped and the stop watch stated. The
height of the interface between the clear liquid and slurry with respect to time is noted for
every 0.5cm change in interface height. This is continued till there is no change in the interface
height for about 5 minutes.
OBSERVATION TABLE:

Z x 102  Z x 102  Z x 102 

m Min:sec m Min:sec m Min:sec

……
32 19 10.5
31 18 10
30 17 9.5
29 16 9
28 15 8.5
27 14.5 8
26 14 7.5
25 13.5 7
24 13 6.5
23 12.5 6
22 12 5.5
21 11.5 5
20 11

SAMPLE CALCULATIONS:
DATA:
Concentration of slurry = 8%
Volume of slurry = 700ml
Density of CaCO3 = 2.6x103 kg/m3
Density of H2O = 1x103 kg/m3

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Initial Height of the slurry = …………. cms

STEP 1: The weight of CaCO3 sample to be taken

WS = weight of CaCO3: WH2O = weight of water or
WS
x 100 = 8 ⎯
⎯→ 0.08 WH2O + 0.08 WS = WS
WS + WH2O

0.92
WH2O = WS
0.08

Again

WH2O WS
V= +
 H20
S

WH2O WS 0.92 W
700 = + = WS + S
 H 2O
 s
0.08 2.6

 700 
700 = WS   = 58.899 = 58.9 gms
 11.89 

700
 WS = = 58.899 = 58.9 gms
11.89
STEP 2:
a. Plot a graph of Z (Height) Vs  (time) GRAPH I

b. Take points on the curve in the region of change of slope and draw tangets at
these points and determine the slope.

Wt. of Solids 58.9x10 -3

Co = Initial Concentrat ion = = -6
= 84.128 Kg/m 3
Volume of Slurry 700 x 10
50x1000
LoCo = L L CL = 50T/day = 34.722 kg / min = 0.578 kg /sec
24x60

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Table 2:
Zi − Z L
Zi x 102 ZL x 102 L C Z VL= ,
S.No. CL= o o , (Kg/m3) L
m m sec Zi
(m/sec)
1
2
3
4
5
6

STEP 3
1. Plot CL VS VL GRAPH II
2. Draw up the following calculation table from graph II
WS
CU = underflow concentrat ion = = 30%
WS WH2O
+
 S
 H 2O

30
Cu = = 367.92 kg / m 3
30 70
3
+ 3
2.6x10 10
Table 3:
VL
1 1 1 1 ,
CL VL − 1 1
S. No. CL Cu CL C U −
kg/m3 m/sec CL CU
m3/kg m3/kg m3/kg
(kg/m2sec)
1
2
3
4
5
6

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STEP 4:
VL
1. plot VL VS GRAPH III
1 1
-
CL CU

VL
2. The graph is in the shape of a ‘u’, Locate the minimum value of and the
1 1
-
CL CU
corresponding VL, this gives the limiting condition for a continuous thickener.

STEP 5: From Graph III

VL
= ………….. Kg / m2sec at VL = ……………. m /sce
1 1
-
CL CU
Hence
L OCO
A = = .......................=…………..m2
 
 
 VL 
 1 1 
 - 
 C L CU 
Nature of Graphs:
GRAPH I:

35

30

25
Height,Z (cm)

20

15

10

5
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000

Time, (sec)

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GRAPH II:

0.00012

0.00010

0.00008
VL, m/Sec

0.00006

0.00004

0.00002

0.00000
100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280
3
CL.Kg/m

GRAPH III:

0.0070

0.0068

0.0066

0.0064
VL/[1/CL-1/CU]

0.0062

0.0060

0.0058

0.0056

0.0054

0.0052
1.5e-5 2.0e-5 2.5e-5 3.0e-5 3.5e-5 4.0e-5 4.5e-5 5.0e-5 5.5e-5

VL,m/Sec

RESULTS: The minimum c/s area of a continuous thickener for concentrating 50 T/ Day of
slurry of 8% concentration to 30% concentration is……………m2

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EXPERIMENT 11
LEAF FILTER
AIM & OBJECTIVE: To find the specific cake resistance of cake (α) and filter medium
resistance (Rm) for filtration through a leaf flitter.
DESCRIPTION OF THEORY & BACKGROUND INFORMATION: Filtration is the
process of removal of solid particles from a fluid by passing the fluid through a filtering medium
or a porous Layer of material. Due to deposition of solids as a cake on the filtering medium
filter works due to constant pressure produced by the vaccum pump, so that filtration rate
decreases. Volume of filtrate collected ‘V’ with respect of time (  ). The relation of V and t is
given by the equation.
d μ   CV 
=  + Rm  ⎯
⎯→(1)
dV AgC ΔP  A 
But P is constant so that the above equation can be written as
d 1
= KCV + ⎯
⎯→(2)
dV qO
μC  1 μR m
KC = and =
A ΔPg C
2
qo A ΔPg C
1
K C = slope ; and = intercept
qo
Formulae:

A 2 ΔPg CK C A ΔPg C 1
= and R m =
μC μ qo
1
K C = slope ; and = intercept
qo

DATA REQUIRED:
Density of filtrates w = 103 Kg/m3 (water)
Viscosity of filtrates w = 10-3 Kg/m sec
Diameter of leaf filtrates D= 0.085m
APPARATUS, EQUIPMENTS & CHEMEICALS REQUIRED
1. Measuring Jar, 2. Stop watch, 3. Weighing balance,
4. Stirring device, 5. Filter cloth, 6. Slurry tank
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:

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The setup consists of a small steel leaf filter covered with the filter cloth, placed in the small
slurry tank, the leaf connected to the filtrate tank with a glass indicator, the tank connected
to the vacuum pump. Mercury tube gives the vacuum pressure reading.

SUCTION PUMP

FILTRATE

AGITATOR

S L U R RY L E A P F I LT E R A S S E M B LY

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
1. Slurry tank is washed and given amount of water 2.3 liters is taken. Calculated amount
of whitening powder is added to the tank. Mix with stirrer for uniform concentration.
2. Fix cloth to leaf with clamp and check assembly of apparatus for leaks etc.
3. Introduce leaf filter into slurry tank and adjust pressure valve mark to constant
pressure. Start stop watch and collect filtrate in chambers. For every increase of 0.5
cm height in collection chamber corresponding time is noted.
4. After filtrate attains a height of 25.0 cm the height of mercury noted. The filter is lifted
out of the slurry tank and immediately the deposit on the filter cloth is collected in a
watch glass.
5. The weight of wet cake with watch glass and after drying is noted.
Slurry preparation:
Volume of water for slurry = 2.3 lit
Required concentration of slurry = 2.6 % W

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 Weight of water = WH2O = 2.3 Lit = 2.3 Kg

 By material balance
Hence weight of whitening powder required = 61.396 g
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Z x 102  Z x 102 
m sec m sec
0 5.5
0.5 6.0
1.0 6.5
1.5 7.0
2.0 7.5
2.5 8.0
3.0 8.5
3.5 9.0
4.0 9.5
4.5 10.0
5 10.5
CALCULATION TABLE:
Height rise in Volume of 
Time  Vx106 Avg. Volume, V
S. No filtrate tank filtrate (V) V
(sec) m3 x 106 m3
x 102 m (sec) m3 sec/m3

SAMPLE CALCULATION:
40 cm ht in filtration tank = 900 ml
Volume of filtrate collected in each centimeters, that is h2 = 1, 2, 3… cm

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h 2 x 900
Volume of filterate collected (V2 ) =
40
x 900
= = cm3
40
Area of filtration = C/s area of leaf filtrate (A) = П/4D2 = , m2

 Pressure produced by the pump (ΔP) =Hg *g *h

Density of mercury (Hg) =13.6*103Kg/m3
Acceleration due to gravity (g) =9.81m/sec2
Height of mercury (h) = ,m
ΔP =
ΔP = , N/m2

1. Weight of empty watch glass = ,g

Wt. of watch glass & wet cake = ,g
Hence wet cake (mf) = ,g

2. Weight of dry cake+ watch glass = ,g

Weight of dry cake (mc) = ,g

CS = Initial concentration = [wt. of solids/volume of slurry] = , Kg/m3

CS
C = =
  mF C 
1 -  − 1 S 
  mC  W 

According to the equation (2)

Draw a graph of (/V) Vs V

Slope from graph (KC) =

Intercept from graph (1/qO) =

A 2 ΔPg CK C
Specific cake resistance,  = =
μC

A ΔPg C 1
Filter medium resistance, R m = =
μ qo

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NATURE OF GRAPH:
Graph between (/V) Vs V

1.2

1.0

0.8
V)

0.6
/
(

0.4

0.2

0.0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

Results:

Specific cake resistance,  =…………, m/kg

Filter medium resistance, Rm =…………, m-1

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Design of Experiments

Learning objectives: Students will conduct experiments on filtration and it’s based on
applications. Like removal of solid particles from a fluid by passing the fluid through a filtering
medium, or septum.
Problem 1:
1. A suspension containing 225 g of carbonyl iron powder, Grade E, per liter of a solution
of 0.01 N NaOH is to be filtered, using a leaf filter. Estimate the size (area) of the
filter needed to obtain 100 lb of dry cake in 1 h of filtration at a constant pressure
drop of 20 psi. The cake is incompressible. The specific cake resistance is 10 11 ft/lb.
The resistance of the medium is taken as 0.1 in-1
2. Tabulate the results
3. Compare with standards
4. Report preparation
Problem 2:
1. Streptomyces Filtration from an Erythromycin Broth. Using a test filter, we find the
following data for a broth containing the antibiotic erythromycin and added filter aid:

The filter leaf has a total area of 0.1 ft2 and the filtrate has a viscosity of 1.1 cp. The
pressure drop is 20 in. of mercury and the feed contains 0.015 kg dry cake per liter.
Determine the specific cake resistance a and the medium resistance RM.

2. Tabulate the results

3. Compare with standards
4. Report preparation

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