AIMS Electronics and Electrical Engineering, 8(1): 104‒145.

DOI: 10.3934/electreng.2024005
Received: 30 January 2024
Revised: 02 March 2024
Accepted: 11 March 2024
Published: 20 March 2024
https://www.aimspress.com/journal/ElectrEng

Review

Control techniques of switched reluctance motors in electric vehicle

applications: A review on torque ripple reduction strategies

Ameer L. Saleh1,2,*, Fahad Al-Amyal1,3 and LászlóSzámel1

1
Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Department of Electric Power Engineering,
H-1111 Budapest, Hungary
2
Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Misan, Misan 62001, Iraq
3
Electronics and Communication Department, College of Engineering, University of Al-
Qadisiyah, Diwaniya, Iraq

* Correspondence: Email: [email protected].

Abstract: As electric vehicles (EVs) continue to acquire prominence in the transportation industry,
improving the outcomes and efficiency of their propulsion systems is becoming increasingly critical.
Switched Reluctance Motors (SRMs) have become a compelling option for EV applications due to
their simplicity, magnet-free design, robustness, and cost-effectiveness, making them an attractive
choice for the growing EV market. Despite all these features and compared to other electrical
machines, SRMs suffer from some restrictions, such as torque ripple and audible noise generation,
stemming from their markedly nonlinear characteristics, which affect their productivity and
efficiency. Therefore, to address these problems, especially the torque ripple, it is crucial and
challenging to enhance the performance of the SRM drive system. This paper proposed a
comprehensive review of torque ripple minimization strategies of SRMs in EV applications. It
covered a detailed overview and categorized and compared many strategies, including two general
categories of torque ripple mitigation encompassing optimization design topologies and control
strategy developments. Then, focused on control strategy improvements and divided them into
torque and current control strategies, including the sub-sections. In addition, the research also
provided an overview of SRM fundamental operations, converter topologies, and excitation angle
approaches. Last, a comparison between each method in torque control and current control strategies
was listed, including the adopted method, features, and drawbacks.

Keywords: switched reluctance motor; SRM drive system; torque ripple reduction strategies
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1. Introduction

Electric vehicles (EVs) have emerged as a revolutionary-changing alternative to reduce the

negative consequences of fossil fuel consumption in a time characterized by growing concerns about
environmental sustainability and the need for energy-efficient transportation [1]. The global
automotive industry is constantly looking for novel, innovative technologies that promise improved
effectiveness, lower emissions, and more energy economy. In the EV system, the electric motor
holds paramount importance, and selecting the appropriate electric motor is essential to meet the
specific requirements of EV applications. While permanent magnet synchronous motors (PMSMs)
have gained attention in EVs due to their efficiency and high-power density, their reliance on rare-
earth minerals for magnets presents challenges [2]. These include the high cost of extracting and
processing these materials, limited global reserves, environmental effects, and the magnets'
sensitivity to high temperatures, which can affect motor performance under demanding automotive
conditions.
Consequently, a growing imperative is to develop motors without rare-earth elements for high-
productivity electric vehicle (EV) applications [3]. As a result, motor development devoid of these
substances is becoming more and more necessary for superior productivity EV applications. Within
this framework, SRMs grow as powerful contenders to established electrical motors for EV
applications by offering an expensive-earth-free choice. SRMs are distinguished by their simple
double salient structure, low production and maintenance costs, and rotor built of electrical
steel [4,5]. The machine has built-in fault tolerance since independent focused windings are installed
on stator slots.
Furthermore, SRMs exhibit versatility and can operate under various temperature and speed
circumstances. Because of these features, the switching reluctance machine is a compelling choice
for variable speed applications and harsh conditions [6]. However, the performance of SRM is
restricted by some limitations, such as torque ripples and the nonlinearity of magnetic characteristics
imposed by the double salient structure and the current switching, which mitigates its dependability
and restricts its spread [7]. Also, acquiring accurate control utilizing only conventional methods is
challenging due to being influenced by the machine characteristics, the configuration of the
converter, and feedback variables. Therefore, the researchers have focused on overcoming these
drawbacks and enhancing the SRM performance by adopting many advanced control strategies
proposed in the literature [1,5,8] that aim to address the inherent challenges of SRMs, such as high
torque ripple and acoustic noise to enhance effectiveness and reliability in electric vehicle
applications.
The main contribution includes an extensive overview and evaluation of advanced control
strategies of SRMs, which encompasses a comprehensive analysis of existing strategies, including
advanced control techniques and design optimizations, focusing on torque ripple mitigation
strategies, which comprise torque and current control strategies, and a discussion of their benefits
and drawbacks. The organization of this paper is as follows: Section 2 gives the SRM drive system,
including SRM fundamentals, the nonlinear model of the SRM, and converter topologies for SRM
Drives. Section 3 comprises control strategies of SRM Drive Systems. Furthermore, the torque ripple
reduction technologies are introduced in section 4. Finally, section 5 is the conclusion.

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2. SRM drive system

The SRM is a special kind of synchronous machine with double salient construction for both the
stator and rotor and also no windings or permanent magnets on the rotor. This motor converts the
reluctance torque into mechanical power. Where the alignment tendency of poles produces the
torque, the rotor will move to a position where reluctance is lowest and, as a result, maximize the
excited winding's inductance. Figure 1 depicts an illustration of common arrangements of SRM.

Ph# 1

Ph# 3
Ph# 1 Ph# 1 Ph# 1 Ph# 1 Ph# 1 Ph# 1

Ph# 3
Ph# 1

(a) 3-ph 6/4 SRM (b) 4-ph 12/8 SRM (c) 3-ph 8/6 SRM

Figure 1. Typical configurations of SRM.

2.1. Nonlinear model of the SRM

An SRM has highly nonlinear characteristics because of its doubly salient construction and the
switching current excitation. Therefore, the nonlinear modelling of this motor is required to predict
the dynamic performance and analyze its magnetization characteristics [9,10]. These characteristics
can be computed by the function analysis approach [11,12], neural network approach [13], finite
element method (FEM), and indirect measurements [14]. First, it is necessary to describe the SRM's
mathematical model to calculate and analyze these characteristics. The voltage and flux linkage
equations are as follows:
𝑑𝜆(𝑖, 𝜃)
𝑉 = 𝑖𝑅 + (1)
𝑑𝑡

𝜆 𝑖, 𝜃 = 𝑉 − 𝑖𝑅 𝑑𝑡 (2)

where 𝑉 denotes the phase voltage, 𝑅 is the winding resistance per phase, 𝜆(𝑖, 𝜃) denotes the flux
linkage, which is a highly nonlinear function of rotor position and phase current 𝑖 and can be given
as:
𝜆(𝑖, 𝜃) = 𝑖𝐿(𝑖, 𝜃) (3)
where 𝐿 is phase inductance, the torque expression can be derived by substituting the flux linkage
expression from Eq 3 into Eq 1, which yields:
1 𝑑𝐿(𝐿,𝜃)
𝑇 = 𝑖2 (4)
2 𝑑𝜃

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The Simulink model of one phase of 8/6 SRM was built using finite-element methods (FEM)
based on the magnetic flux linkage characteristic. Figure 2 shows the magnetic flux linkage,
inductance, and torque characteristic curves at the aligned and unaligned rotor positions at 0°and
30°, respectively.

(a) The flux-position characteristics λ(i,θ) (b) The inductance-position curves L(i,θ)

(c) The torque-position characteristics T(i,θ)

Figure 2. The FEM-calculated magnetic characteristics.

2.2. Converter topologies for SRM drives

The power converter is a vital component of the SRM system because the SRM cannot operate
without a converter. Also, the converter's performance greatly affects the drive's cost and efficiency.
Since the stator's outer side and the rotor's inner side of the SRM contain salient poles. Therefore, the
power converters for SRM are different from the other machines. Recent years have seen
considerable advancements in the development of power converters and the commutation control
circuit employed to feed SRM [15,16]. The power converters utilized for SRM can be divided into
three main classifications: Half-bridge, self-commutating, and force-commutating, besides further
commutation circuits [4]. Each type of SRM power converter has benefits and drawbacks. As a
result, the best choice of converter configuration and control techniques is based on the nature of the
load and the applications' specific demands [17,18]. The most typical and often utilized converter of
SRMs is the asymmetric bridge converter due to its benefit of being ameliorated fault-tolerant, quick
demagnetization and regenerative braking ability. Figure 3 depicts the overall schematic diagram for
the SRM drive system with an asymmetric bridge converter and control circuit.

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Vdc + G1 D1
G1 D1
G1 D1
Current G1 D1
controller
ω i* G2 SRM
ωm* + Σ m Speed Σ Drive D2
D2 G G2
_ controller signals D2 G
2
2
D2
_
θon θoff
Current
i sensor
ωm Speed θ Rotor position
calculation detection

Figure 3. Schematic diagram of SRM drive system.

2.3. Switching angles approaches

The excitation angles (θon, θoff) significantly produce the SRM torque through the synchronous
excitation with the rotor position. They immediately impact the current profile, the torque generation,
and, consequently, the performance of SRM during the range of operating speeds. The excitation
process generally involves three parameters: The switch-on angle, the switch-off angle and the
reference current (Iref) through a wide speed range [19]. To maximize the performance of the SRM,
the switching angles (θon, θoff) should be selected to excite the motor in the increasing inductance
region (dL/dθ > 0) and de-energized before the negative inductance region (dL/dθ < 0) to prevent
negative torque generation as shown in Figure 4. Therefore, the switching angles (θon, θoff) are
essential parameters for SRM control [20]. However, due to the highly nonlinear characteristics of
SRMs, this process is not easy. Much research has been conducted to determine the optimal
switching angle values for enhancing SRM performance.

Figure 4. Current waveform with Ideal inductance profile.

Many techniques are used to obtain the appropriate excitation angles for phase current and rotor
speed functions. In [21–24], Analytical approaches have been employed to estimate the switching
angles to increase motor efficiency at various speed ranges. A closed-loop switch-on angle (CL θon)
is proposed in [25,26] without requiring motor parameters. In [27], an adaptive analytical
determination for optimum excitation angles (θon and θoff) of SRM drives along a broad range of
operating speeds by taking into account the influence of back-emf voltage by optimal computation of

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the θon angle and avoiding the production of negative torque through the whole operating range by
optimal the θoff angle.
However, this suggestion does not consider a good solution for torque ripple reduction. In [28],
a simple adaptive controller is introduced for online tuning of the switch-on angle depending on the
nonlinear inductance profile of SRM, and offline tuning by a multi-task optimization function for
optimized switch-off to mitigate the torque ripple and improving the efficiency of the motor. Also,
the paper [29] presented an analytical method to estimate the optimal switch-on angle online based
on the nonlinear inductance profile of SRM with consideration of back electromotive force. At the
same time, the switch-off angle is optimized offline through a secondary objective function to
minimize the torque ripple. To superior the performance of SRM with minimized torque ripple,
intelligent control methods like fuzzy logic and neural networks are employed in order to optimize
the switching angles [30–33]. A fuzzy adaptive control technique is proposed in [31] to
automatically control switching angles in SRM. This approach optimizes the switch-on and switch-
off angle timings depending on the online rotor position to produce high torque.
Recently, metaheuristics optimization algorithms have been suggested based on different
objective functions like output torque, torque ripple, and motor efficiency to optimize the switching
angles for better performance of SRM [34–39]. The Genetic algorithm (GA) has been utilized to find
the optimal current excitation angles based on a multi-objective optimization function to enhance the
output torque profile and decrease the torque ripple of the machine through various operating
ranges [34]. In [36], a modified PSO algorithm based on velocity-controllable (VCPSO) is suggested
for optimizing the switch-off angle of the SRM with the current chopping regulator strategy to
increase the efficiency of real-time tracking. The Grey Wolf (GW) algorithm, another powerful
optimization technique, achieved SRM's optimum performance [39].

3. Control strategies of SRM drive systems

SRM is an excellent alternative for the growing traction motor applications such as E-bikes and
Electric Vehicles due to its robustness, reliability, and broad constant power range of operation. In
contrast, it suffers from drawbacks such as torque ripple and sound noise. The control of the SRM
must be capable of considering operations under different operating conditions, which make the
controller's design more challenging due to the nonlinearity of magnetic characteristics caused by the
double salient structure [40]. These difficulties require highly accurate and sophisticated SRM
controls on the part of the designer. SRM drives are operated and controlled by synchronizing the
motor phase energization with the rotor position. The control method can be accomplished utilizing
a position sensor feedback signal or a senseless method that estimates the rotor position based on the
machine's magnetic properties [41–43]. Generally, numerous control schemes are suggested to
enhance the SRM's performance in terms of increased efficiency, reduced torque ripple, consistent
torque, and a wide speed range. Various well-known machine control systems exist depending on the
applications, including position, speed, current, and torque control, as depicted in Figure 5 [44]. Due
to its pole saliency and nonlinear magnetic characteristics, the SR machine differs from conventional
DC and AC machine types. Moreover, the current control scheme in SRM is different from torque
control despite these two being synonyms in DC drives.

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Types of Control Strategy

Speed Position Torque Current

Control Control Control Control

Figure 5. Types of Control Strategy of SRM.

4. Torque ripple reduction technologies

Torque ripple is the primary restriction to the dependability of utilizing the SRM drives in high-
performance applications such as electric vehicles (EVs). The torque ripple occurs because of the
double salient structure, which causes extremely nonlinear magnetic characteristics and
discontinuous current commutation [44], as shown in Figure 6. These reasons increase the torque
ripple and complicate the control of SRM drives. The torque ripple can be mitigated by either
enhancing the geometry of the machine design or by adopting different control techniques. Figure 7
demonstrates the classification of torque ripple reduction strategies used for SRM and the
improvements made to each control approach [2,5,6]. The optimal performance of the SRM drive
system depends on the machine characteristics, the control technique, the converter configuration,
and feedback variables. However, the SRM drive system has a lot of feedback variables. At least one
current sensor must be needed to measure the motor's current and a position sensor [41,42]. The
motor’s torque strongly depends on the rotor position and switching current angles; these variables
can be stored in look-up tables for simpler control processing. In this context, we introduce a
comprehensive categorization of control strategies to mitigate torque ripple and enhance the
performance of SRM drives.

Figure 6. The torque ripple in phase torque and total torque waveforms.

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Open loop current profiling

Torque sharing current

Indirect Torque Control
Average torque control

Vector control
Torque Control
Direct instantaneous torque
control

Advanced Direct
Direct Torque Control
instantaneous torque control

Model predictive torque

Control Strategy
control
Developments

Iterative learning control

Fuzzy logic control

Torque Ripple
Intelligent Control Artificial neural network
Migration Techniques
Neuro fuzzy inference system

Machine learning

Optimization Feedback linearization

Design Topologies control

Variable structure control

Other methods
Nonlinear internal mode
control

Sliding mode control

Current chopping control

Model independent
control
Intelligent current control
Current Control
Linear control

Sliding mode current control

Model based control
Adaptive current control

Model Predictive current

control

Figure 7. Classification of torque ripple reduction strategies for SRM.

4.1. Optimization design topology

SRMs are known for their simple and robust construction characterized by the absence of
permanent magnets, and stator and rotor poles are normally symmetrically and evenly distributed
around the motor's circumference [45,46]. This innovative design enables engineers to optimize the
motor's performance by strategically shaping the stator and rotor poles. Optimization often employs
sophisticated software programs and algorithm methods, such as finite element analysis (FEA) and
PSO algorithms, to find the most effective pole designs, sizes, and configurations [47]. By carefully
tuning these parameters, researchers can mitigate the torque ripple, maximize the torque average
production, and improve the overall efficiency of this motor. An optimal topology design is essential
to ensure that SRMs play a crucial role in EV applications [48]. Recently, there has been a trend by
researchers to focus on the design optimization of SRM to fulfil the requirements of EVs, such as
maximizing the output torque and reducing torque ripple [49]. In [50], the design and optimization of
SRM are presented to produce a consistent output torque at high-speed operation. This paper focuses
on the initial design of this motor and optimizes the electromagnetic design to achieve a high output
power of 8 kW at a high speed of 100,000 rpm. A novel magnetic parameter design approach of

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SRM is presented in [51]. This methodology is based on the nonlinear characteristic of flux linkage,
and the multi-objective optimization function is utilized to accurately calculate the design parameters
without overly depending on the designer's experience. In [52], the SRM design optimization using
the layered technique has been presented based on a multi-physical analytical model of SRM.
Taguchi algorithm is employed to examine the level of effect of the primary geometric dimensions
on the dynamic performance. In [53], A two-step design optimization procedure is proposed to
reduce the torque ripple of the DSAFSRM without compromising its efficiency.
Additionally, the suggested DSAF-SRM is compared with a double-sided radial flux SRM in
output torque, torque ripple, power density and efficiency. In [54], a 6/4 SRM with a misaligned
segmental rotor is introduced in order to produce maximum torque with a low torque ripple. The
segmental rotor has a 15-degree misalignment to achieve a one-layer 2D structure with a short flux
path structure. In [55], a new geometry for SRM depending on the rotor pole skewing is presented to
mitigate the torque ripple. This paper uses a differential evolutionary algorithm based on a multi-
objective function to build an asymmetrical skew rotor-SRM. The optimization parameters are
selected for an enhanced design with a lower torque ripple than a conventional structure. In [56], a
comprehensive analysis of the advancements in the modelling and design optimization of SRMs
using Machine Learning (ML) based Intelligent methods.

4.2. Control strategy improvements

Today, control technology has become the most appropriate choice for reducing torque ripple
due to the developments in semiconductors, Integrated circuits, and power electronics converters.
This development has brought a significant revolution in the possibility of controlling and improving
the performance of the SRM. According to the operational theory of the SRMs, the tiny gradients of
inductance in the minimum and maximum inductance zones lead to low phase torque in these
regions. Therefore, the torque falls in the region of phase commutation and produces a high torque
ripple [44]. Control technique enhancements are simpler and more affordable than motor topology
design to mitigate the torque ripple. The enhanced control strategies for reducing torque ripple can be
categorized into two major techniques: Torque control and current control [5,6], as shown in Figure
7. To get a superior control strategy performance, the following techniques should be improved to be
compatible with the overall drive system.

4.2.1. Torque control strategy

Torque Control is essential for the electric propulsion system in EV applications. It should
follow the torque reference fed by the torque controller unit with fast response to enhance the
dynamic performance at different operating situations of the electric vehicle, such as accelerate,
decelerate [57]. As for SRM, torque control can be categorized into direct, indirect, intelligent
control, and other methods, which will be covered in more detail in the following subsections.
4.2.1.A. Indirect torque control
1. Open loop current sharing
The open loop current control technique is utilized to acquire the average torque directly from
the phase current of the SRM. The basic concept is computing the shape of phase current offline to
achieve zero torque ripple, which depends on the capability to track the current profile [58], as
shown in Figure 8. This approach directly utilizes the taken values of three currents from the lockup

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table I = f(T, θ), which is calculated according to the rising and falling capability of the current (as
well as concerning minimizing torque ripple or another imposed requirement) for each operating
case. This approach has the benefit of being able to achieve a minimum torque ripple that is
restricted only by switching frequency. In addition, the motor's efficiency can be maximized in this
method. However, this method suffers from some drawbacks, such as the sensitivity to any changes
in the variables of this motor. Also, it needs a large memory space to store the current profile
data [58]. In [59], the current sharing method uses the simulation to determine the inductance and the
rate it varies with the rotor position for each motor phase involved in producing positive torque. The
current magnitude is changed using the PWM approach following the rotor position to reduce torque
ripple. Two positive generating phases are simultaneously turned on to minimize the torque during
commutation with various PWM. In [60,61], an effective methodology is developed to reduce torque
ripple through coupled simulations of finite element analysis and dynamic simulation. This coupled
simulation is used to detect the required current profile and fine the tuning of the current shape. The
suggested approach was built to operate from zero to maximum speed, as the application would
allow. In [62], a new method for computing current profiles will reduce the torque ripple SRM
produces under normal and one open-phase fault conditions. In addition, a new scheme to the current
profile calculation offline for torque ripple mitigation is proposed. To suppress the torque ripple in
SRM, [63] suggests five new optimization techniques. The phase-current profile has been optimized
in these techniques using the simplex approach based on a genetic algorithm. These optimization
processes are tailored to two optimization techniques: The simplex method and the genetic
algorithm. The torque ripple during commutation is minimized in [64] using closed-loop control and
the speed signal ripple. It is simpler and less expensive to utilize a speed sensor or estimator to get
the speed signal than it is to use a torque sensor. This method can capture the torque ripple data using
a signal processing approach from the speed signal.

Offline control variables

Tref θ Rotor position
iref detection
θon θoff

+ Current Power Switching

_ Controller Converter signals

iph SRM
Current
sensor

Figure 8. Open loop current sharing.

The results demonstrate that the torque ripple reduced through the commutation period by
finding the appropriate shaping of current. A comparative study was conducted for a different
precomputed current profiling approach for torque ripple reduction [65]. Additionally, the suggested
approach provides lower average currents and allows for applying a peak current restriction.
Additionally, it aids in quantifying the variables affecting torque ripple that are problematic for other
approaches. A hybrid speed ripple minimization solution for SRM is presented in [66], which
combines current profiling, effective tracking error elimination, and excitation approaches. The
suggested method can accomplish the decrease of stator vibration and the enhancement of torque
generating capacity. A common sharing approach for current and flux-linkage control is presented
in [67] for the high-performance control of SRM. This method shares current and flux linkage
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between the phases, significantly reducing the torque ripple. However, it also has the ability to
mitigate the torque ripple drastically.
2. Torque sharing function (TSF)
TSF is one of the most effective and popular indirect control approaches for torque ripple
mitigation in the SRM drive system. This strategy is performed by employing the static
characteristics of this motor through TSF, which distributes the total torque among the motor phases
utilizing TSF, as shown in Figure 9. The output of TSF is the reference torque for each phase, which
is transformed into a reference phase current utilizing the torque inverse model (i-T-θ) of SRM.
Then, a current controller is employed to control the feedback current to follow its reference current
by hysteresis or PWM control. Moreover, to ensure that the produced torque from each phase is
stable, the TSF employs the turn-on, turn-off, and overlap angles according to the rotor position to
independently generate reference torque signals for each phase [68]. The TSF could be utilized in a
linear or nonlinear function. Due to the nonlinear SRM features considered, the linear TSF is not
quite effective because the torque ripple is extremely problematic according to the rotor position.
In [69], a genetic algorithm is employed to identify the turn-on and overlap angles for various TSFs.
This optimization algorithm tries to mitigate the torque ripple and cooper loss in SRMs running at a
wide range of speeds. In [70], an offline optimized TSF based on a multi-objective function is
proposed for minimizing torque ripple. The suggested TSFs with various Tikhonov factors are
compared with the classical TSFs, such as linear, cubic, and exponential, considering efficiency and
torque–speed characteristics. In [71], an off-line Optimization algorithm is used to identify the
optimal switch-on and overlap angles of sinusoidal TSF for every operational point of SRM. An
optimized TSF based on modified ant colony optimization (ACO) is presented in [72] to improve the
output torque and minimize the RMS phase current of SRM during a broad range of operating speeds.
An improved TSF was utilized in [73] to compensate for the torque error with the incoming motor
phase due to its lower rate of change of flux linkage based on the absolute changing rate of flux
linkage. The suggested method is compared with traditional TSFs (sinusoidal, cubic, and linear) to
effectively investigate minimizing the torque ripple and enhancing performance during abroad range
of speeds. An optimal current profile is achieved in [74] by utilizing a developed TSF. In addition, a
robust current controller is derived using the Lyapunov stability theory to follow the current
accurately. The suggested approach offers minimal torque ripple, higher efficiency, and enhanced
anti-disturbance capabilities. In [75], a new TSF is presented to provide a lower current following
error by adopting a new current reference generation approach and optimization algorithm. An
offline calculation based on an optimization algorithm is employed to obtain the phase current
reference from the torque command for minimizing the torque ripple and copper losses. Two-torque
ripple mitigation control techniques based on TSF are presented in [76]. The first method uses the
torque to minimize current ripple, and the other method is the direct instantaneous torque control
method, which leads to a reduced torque ripple. A novel IITC approach based on hybrid TSF is
introduced in [77]. The hybrid TSF originated to overcome the torque following error issue during
phase demagnetization by re-profiling the reference torque section of the incoming phase to be the
perfect mirroring of the measured torque of the outgoing phases. Thus, the torque profile is improved
with less torque ripple due to excellent torque monitoring capabilities in this approach. The torque
ripple and disturbance for an SRM drive are reduced by a piecewise TSF presented in [78] based on
an enhanced linear active disturbance rejection control (LADRC) and modified coyote optimization
algorithm (MCOA). First, the piecewise TSF is used with an enhanced linear extended state observer
to minimize the torque ripple, which has minimal influence on the current peak value and the rate of

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change in the current value. Then, the MCOA is suggested to find the optimum switching angles and
the coefficients in the piecewise function and LADRC to get better comprehensive performance.
SRM
Ta* ia*
+_
Tref Tb* i-θ-T ib* Current Power
TSF +_
Table Controller Converter
Tc* ic*

..
+_
ia
ib
ic

θ Rotor position
detection

Figure 9. Schematic diagram of a torque control strategy based on TSF.

3. Average torque control (ATC)

ATC is one of the most significant traditional torque control methods for SRM drive systems.
The main benefit of this approach is that the reference phase current remains fixed throughout one
excitation cycle. It can be utilized at a broad speed range and requires constant reference torque and
discrete rotor position [79]. The drawbacks of this strategy are that it generates significant speed
oscillations and fluctuations at low speeds due to torque ripples throughout the phase commutation.
In this method, to produce a constant average torque, the torque of each phase can be obtained from
the saved data using the torque sharing look-up table according to iref , θon, and θoff, as depicted in
Figure 10. The commended torque in this strategy can be divided into phases according to the
reference current (iref) and motor speed (ωm), where the current ripple should be minimized as low as
possible to generate output torque with a low ripple. In addition, to achieve precise operating
conditions, the control factors, including reference current, turn-on angle, and turn-off angle, can also
be optimized.
The SRM for light electric vehicle (LEV) applications is accurately and dynamically controlled
by a control method that combines offline pre-calculated control variable sets and closed-loop
control [79,80]. The open loop control system is sensitive to changes in machine parameters, which
are affected by operating conditions. The control variables that are estimated off-line usually diverge
from the reference commands. To avoid the undesirable divergence between reference and actual
torque, it becomes desirable to follow the average torque by altering the closed-loop control
parameters with online computation. To determine the online average torque of an SRM, a new
technique was developed in [80]. This new method of estimating the average torque and energy ratio
can be applied to closed-loop torque control. In addition, this paper developed an approach to
calculate the average torque by estimating the machine variables, such as phase current and phase
voltage for one phase of the motor. This calculated torque can be utilized for on-line feedback
control. In [81], a simple quadratic equation is utilized to determine the switching angles based on
the motor's speed and phase current values to enhance the efficiency of low low-power SRM motor.
An improvement of the ATC method was proposed in [82], based on a current-peak regulation
approach to the control torque in low-speed chopping mode and high-speed single pulse control. This
technique provides a smooth transition between two modes of operation. A speed control approach
based on average torque control was proposed in [83]. The control parameters are determined
according to multi-objective criteria to optimize the performance of SRM.
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In [84,85], a search algorithm based on a multi-objective function was employed to optimize the
excitation angles offline. This algorithm produces high-output torque and mitigates torque ripple
using the ATC technique for electric scooters and EV applications. In [86], a new method of ATC
strategy of SRM is proposed to get high operating performance for EVs. This method uses an online
average torque estimator with Current chopping control-angle position control (CCC-APC) hybrid
crossover control to improve performance over a broad speed range. In addition, a genetic algorithm
(GA) is utilized to identify the optimal excitation angles to provide high efficiency and low torque
ripple. In [87], a novel ATC technique of SRM based on a hybrid flux–current locus control strategy
with a micro-stepping process is proposed. Despite its complexity, the benefit of the suggested ATC
is that it generates the commended average torque over any given range of rotor angles.
Commutation
controller
θon θoff SRM
Speed Tref Totque Current Switching Power
ω* +_ +_ +_
controller controller controller signals Converter

ω Tave
Average iph
Torque Phase current
Torque
estimation detection
calculation

θ Rotor position
dθ/dt
detection

Figure 10. Schematic diagram of ATC method of SRM.

4. Vector control (field‑oriented control)

The vector control strategy is widely utilized in AC machines to enhance torque control
performance due to Park’s transformation. Regretfully, there is no such transformation to isolate the
position from the flux-linkage and torque of SRMs in the early development of SRM control
techniques, even in the linear situation, as shown in Figure 11. However, in the last decades, the
field‑oriented control was developed based on the average value of the first-order inductance and the
relationship between the q-axis current and torque was derived, but only for the unsaturated
SRM [88].
In the vector control method of SRM, a sinusoidal current is applied to each circuit along with a
DC offset, constituting the unipolar excitation current. This excitation current comprises DC and AC
components, generating the virtual rotor flux and a rotating stator field. Hence, the SRM can be
operated similarly to traditional AC machines. Notably, it has been demonstrated that continuous
current excitation can reduce the vibration and the acoustic noise of the SRM in the vector control.
Nevertheless, it is essential to note that the application of vector control to SRMs operating in high-
speed regions hasn’t been fully utilized because of uncertainties surrounding factors such as bus
voltage, switching frequency, and inverter specifications required to facilitate vector control in high-
speed drives. In [89], vector control was proposed for the SRM drive. The drive conditions for the
SRM drive system in high-speed regions, such as switching frequency and bus voltage, are
established in the high-speed region and can realize low vibration. A complex rotating vector control
strategy is suggested in [90] for estimating the air gap torque of an SRM. The Vector method can
handle an arbitrary number of spatial harmonics of the inductance saliency and saturation for
enhancing the air gap torque of the SRM. The d-q control method-based flux-weakening control for
SRMs has been introduced in [91]. The d-q control of SM has been modified to operate with SRMs
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by eliminating negative aspects and nonlinearities. The suggested controller has a simple structure
and effectively eliminates the requirement of switching angles controller from the SRM control
structure. To mitigate the torque ripple by controlling torque within a specified hysteresis band, a
vector control method of SRM is introduced in [92] that employs a combination of fuzzy logic and
ANN controllers. Vector control for SRM drives with unipolar current excitation has been suggested
in [93]. This method involves the application of a sinusoidal current with a DC offset to each circuit,
resulting in an excitation current comprising both DC and AC components. A novel approach for
torque ripple reduction based on vector control of SRM is presented in [94]. The proposed strategy
used a non-sinusoidal dq transform and the derivatives of inductance as main variables to mitigate
the torque ripple average current and enhance the efficiency while minimizing the copper losses.
SRM
Sa
Tref +_ Voltage
Sb Power
Vector
Converter
ϕref +_ Selection Sn

ϕ
δ
Flux vector V
estimator

Test Torque i
estimator

Figure 11. Vector control method of SRM.

4.2.1.B. Direct torque control

1. Instantaneous Torque Control (ITC)
Recently, the algorithm of instantaneous torque control has made significant advancements and
has been widely used to solve the issues of indirect torque control approaches. The important
advantages of this approach are that instantaneous torque is taken into account as a control variable
directly; torque to current conversion and closed-loop currents control is no longer necessary.
Besides, ITC can rapidly eliminate errors instantly with an excellent dynamic response, as well as
torque ripples, which will be minimized [95]. The ITC scheme has three approaches: indirect ITC
(IITC) dependent on torque sharing function (TSF), direct torque flux control (DTFC), as well as
direct ITC (DITC). Figure 12 depicts the schematic diagram of the DITC approach for the SRM
drive system. The instantaneous torque is estimated online, and then the torque error (∆T) is utilized
as a control variable input without any current loop to generate an appropriate switching signal for
the SRM drive. An improved DITC-based adaptive commutation algorithm is suggested in [96] to
enhance the average torque and efficiency of SRM by appropriately adjusting the switching angles in
real-time. In [97], a modified ant colony optimization (ACO) is employed to precisely find the
optimum excitation angles to enhance the performance of the DITC approach for SRMs. This
strategy focuses on minimizing the torque ripple and improving the efficiency of the SRM. An
enhanced DITC with adaptive switching angles is proposed in [98] for enhancing the SRM's
performance. In this control approach, the switching angles are dynamically tuned to enhance the
commutation interval so that the DITC can flexibly set this process. An enhanced DITC method of
SRM is presented in [99]. The proposed scheme includes a torque error compensation and an

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uncomplicated online torque estimator. The switching angles are optimized to achieve high torque
per ampere (MTPA), low torque ripple, and highest efficiency. Besides, this paper thoroughly
compares the proposed DITC, IITC, and ATC strategies. The comparison results demonstrate that
the proposed DITC performs better with a low torque ripple. In [100], the researchers suggest a TSF
based on adaptive turn-on angle for improving a DITC strategy to mitigate the torque ripple in
commutation overlap regions. This method presents TSF and provides the appropriate candidate
voltage values for various sectors, where the working cycle is divided into six sectors in this method.
A modified PWM-DITC based on a fixed switching frequency is suggested to suppress the
torque ripple [101]. The PWM is employed to modulate the torque deviation, and the optimum
excitation angles are chosen according to the PWM modulation signal and the rotor sector position.
This method provides an effective solution for the issue of shaft breaking in the starting and
generating system of SRM. In [102], an optimized DITC approach for SRM and a new adaptive
dynamic excitation technique is proposed. In terms of torque tracking during commutation areas, two
operational modes have been established. Besides, the excitation angles are dynamically adopted by
a phase current endpoint detector and a torque error regulator throughout each electrical cycle. This
strategy generates full torque to mitigate the torque ripple and improve system efficiency. In [103], a
new control strategy is suggested, which combines adopted hysteresis and PWM in DITC. This
proposed approach accounts for the benefits of the PWM and the hysteresis methods. With this
method, the torque error will be minimized by PWM in DITC. In [104], an improved IITC approach
of SRMs for EVs is introduced to satisfy the vehicle's requirements, which include low torque ripple,
maximum torque per ampere (MTPA), and excellent efficiency throughout the full speed range. An
online analytical method is utilized to achieve the optimal torque production turn-on (θon) angle. In
addition, an improved TSF is proposed to compensate for torque following errors.

Commutation
controller
θon θoff
SRM
Tref Hysteresis
ω* PI Switching Power
+_ Torque
controller signals Converter
controller

ω Test

Torque iph Phase current

estimation detection

θ Rotor position
dθ/dt
detection

Figure 12. Direct instantaneous torque methods.

2. Model predictive torque control (MPC)

Model predictive control (MPC) has been used successfully in industrial control applications
and, recently, in industrial power electronic systems. The major goal of model predictive control in
electric motor drives is to identify the converter's optimum switching state at each switching instant
to satisfy specific constraints and meet the stated performance objectives using a system's predictive
model. The MPC has been used in the SRM to predict the torque, current, and flux of the SRM, as
shown in Figure 13 [105–107]. The MPC is considered an appropriate strategy to handle the
nonlinearity of the magnetic characteristics of SRM and address the complicated switching rules.
Different MPC techniques for SRM have been suggested [107]. An MPC strategy based on choosing
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candidate voltage vectors in six regions is presented in [108]. The cost function is established to find
the optimal voltage vector from candidate voltage vectors to reduce the torque ripple and copper loss.
A model predictive control strategy is suggested in [109] to suppress torque ripple. This
approach predicts the torque and current through the torque-current-position and the current-flux-
position two-dimensional look-up tables, respectively. The cost function is based on torque and
current and then optimized to acquire an ideal control signal. Authors in [110] employed the
candidate voltage vectors (CVVs) algorithm based on the modified model predictive torque control
(MPTC) method for SRM to minimize torque ripple and increase system efficiency successfully.
This method of MPTC is modified in three ways. The first way, the flux linkage estimation, is
omitted compared to traditional MPTC. Second, the commutation region of the SRM is redefined,
and according to the optimal torque contribution profile, the motor's electric cycle is split into six
sectors. The total number of CVVs is then minimized to 2 or 3 at each control period, and each
sector's CVVs are adopted depending on phase torque characteristics. The cost function is
established to minimize torque ripple and reduce copper loss by choosing the optimal voltage vector
from CVVs.
A modified MPTC-based TSF approach for SRM is presented in [111]. This strategy distributes
the torque reference to each phase through a sinusoidal TSF approach. Then, the predictive torque
control strategy is employed to follow the phase torque reference and minimize the torque ripple.
In [112], an online adaptive approach is presented to modify the excitation angles for SRM via the
finite control set model predictive control (FCS-MPC) approach to decrease the negative torque
generation. The proposed method uses a simple online scheme to modify the switch-off angle for a
single prediction horizon FCS-MPC to eliminate negative torque generation. As discussed, the FCS-
MPTC strategy is considered one of the most effective methods to minimize the commutation torque
ripple. The limited voltage vectors lead to high-frequency torque ripples. To solve this problem and
improve the torque control performance, a continuous control set (CCS) model predictive torque
control (MPTC) approach with low torque ripple is presented in [113]. This approach is established
based on the optimal torque references, which can be optimized by the Lagrange multiplier method.
In [114], a four-quadrant operation strategy of SRM based on the PWM-MPC method with an online
adaptive commutation angle was proposed. In this strategy, a composed of MPC and deadbeat
predictive control (DPC) is utilized in the commutation region to improve the performance of SRM.
A new indirect MPTC method is presented in [115] to suppress the torque ripple of SRM in EV
applications. The proposed method is established by two aspects: Torque inverse model to provide
an additional error compensator and robust predictive current controller seeks out all possible
switching states and utilizes the switching state that minimizes cost function as the optimum output.
The proposed IPTC technique, which is simple to implement as well as suitable for electric vehicle
driving, indirectly achieves immediate torque control through accurate current following. In [116],
two novel strategies are introduced based on TSF, DITC, and MPC to suppress the torque ripple of
SRM further. The first method combines TSF with DITC strategy, and the second approach
integrates MPC and TSF. According to the results, both strategies can successfully reduce torque
ripple, but the TSF + MPC strategy can follow the reference torque more precisely and provide low
torque ripple.

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SRM
Optimal
Switching state
Tref Cost function Power
minimization converter

iph(k+1) Te(k+1)

Predictive iph(k)
λ(k) Flux linkage
model
estimation
θ(k)
θ(k) iph(k)

Figure 13. Model predictive torque control (MPC) for SRM.

4.2.1.C. Intelligent control

1. Iterative learning control
Iterative learning control (ILC) is particularly well suited to improve output tracking
performance uncertain non-linear systems together with high-precision analysis without the
requirement to determine the system's parameters [117]. The main concept is repeatedly applying a
simple algorithm to the system or plant to obtain perfect tracking, as shown in Figure 14. Therefore,
it is an iterative technique for determining the optimal system input to ensure the output is as near the
required one as possible [118]. As a result, it is considered for SRMs' dynamic torque control to
mitigate torque ripple. To enhance torque control performance SRM, a developed ILC is built in two
stages [119], including determining optimal phase voltages for accurate waveform tracking and
suitable phase current waveforms for the specified torques. In [120], a control system for SRM using
a direct instantaneous torque controller called (DITC), which is based on the ILC method, is
suggested.
Moreover, the ILC performs efficiently to reduce torque ripples in steady-state operations.
Because ILC learning takes a limited time, performance loss will occur over transient periods. The
proposed method employed a sliding mode controller (SMC) combined with ILC to get torque track
and improve control response during transient periods. An adaptive ILC strategy based on the
accurate magnetization characteristics of the SRM is suggested in [121]. The proposed method
included torque ripple controller (TCIL) and energy conversion loss controller (ECIL) schemes to
reduce the torque ripple and energy conversion loss. A novel direct torque controller based on a
spatial ILC approach for SRM is suggested in [122] to emphasize torque ripple reduction. The ILC
employed a linearized magnetization characteristic and a straightforward learning rule to produce the
appropriate control signal. This approach is appropriate for applications needing ripple-free constant
torque at low speeds. An optimal torque controller combining the TSF method and the current
controller is presented in [123] for reducing the torque ripple along with the stator current-oriented
approach. To optimize the TSF scheme, a current controller based ILC considers the mutual
inductance with simultaneous two-phase commutation. An improved control method is presented to
mitigate the torque ripple of SRM using the ILC approach [124]. In the proposed method, a feed-
forward learning compensator is employed to control the torque pulsations produced in SRM due to
the overlapping of phase currents by finding the appropriate current profile for a reference torque and
then applying it to the phase winding.

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I0 SRM
Ik _ Ik Commutation Power
Ik+1 Memory +
method converter

Tk Learning
Tref +_
control law
Tk i
Torque
estimator
θ

Figure 14. Schematic diagram of iterative learning control.

2. Artificial intelligence techniques

Artificial intelligence techniques have recently been utilized to convert human knowledge into a
form that computers can understand. The intelligent control can be utilized for offline or online
current optimization to optimize the SRM problems further and minimize the torque ripple. It has
significant self-learning and adaptive capabilities such as fuzzy logic, neural networks, neural-fuzzy
networks, and evolutionary algorithms [125].

Fuzzy logic control

Fuzzy Logic control is a popular intelligent control method that deals with nonlinear or complex
control systems for better performance because it has strong stability and flexibility. Besides, having
an exact mathematical model of the controlled item is unnecessary when designing a fuzzy controller.
Figure 15 depicts the fuzzy logic controller to control the torque of SRM. In [126], a fuzzy logic
controller is presented to suppress the torque ripple and modify the performance of SRM. Then, a
performance comparison between the fuzzy and PI controller is implemented to depict the validity of
the suggested controller. In [127], a fuzzy logic control based on the current modulation approach for
direct torque control of SRM. The proposed modulated reference phase current uses a fuzzy logic
controller in order to address the system's nonlinearities so that the torque ripples are further reduced.
A novel adaptive TSK fuzzy sliding mode controller based on DITC without a torque sensor is
suggested in [128]. The sliding mode controller (SMC) executes fast responses to mitigate the impact
of uncertainties and external disturbances. The coefficients of the adaptive method (AFC) are tuned
online by Lyapunov stability theory to improve the performance of SRM. An enhanced fuzzy logic
control based on the TSF strategy is suggested in [129] to mitigate the torque ripple and enhance the
dynamic response of the speed controller of SRM. This approach employs a combination of fuzzy
and PID control to adjust the proportion factor automatically. In fuzzy control, the scale factors for
speed and torque are self-tuned by the output torque characteristics. In [130], a fuzzy controller
based IITC strategy is proposed to minimize the torque ripple of SRM. First, a fuzzy controller is
implemented to produce a compensation current in accordance with the torque error. Then, the input
factor is reset by human experience, and the output factor is properly designed depending on the
inductance deviation.

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Commutation
controller
θon θoff
SRM
Fuzzy logic iref Hysteresis Power
Tref +_ +_
controller controller Converter

iph
Test Phase current
Torque
estimation detection

θ Rotor position
detection

Figure 15 Fuzzy logic control for torque control of SRM.

Artificial neural network

The artificial neural network (ANN) technique is inspired by the human brain model. Its
benefits include self-repair capacity fault tolerance, organic learning, and linear data
processing [131]. An artificial neural network (ANN) is introduced in [132] to mitigate the torque
ripple of SRM. In this scheme, the ANN technique is employed to predict the stator current and flux
to improve current and speed response regarding reduced torque ripple during a broad speed range.
In [133], a genetic neural network controller-based DTC approach is suggested to minimize the
torque ripple of SRM. In the proposed approach, suitable data are selected for training and testing,
which leads to weight adjustment in the network. Therefore, the error is decreased, demonstrating the
accuracy of the voltage vectors chosen from the vector table and producing improved torque
response throughout a wider speed range. In [134], An improved TSF technique-based artificial
neural network for four quadrants operation of the SRM is presented to mitigate the torque ripple as
depicted in Figure 16. The ANN is employed to translate the torque reference to the appropriate
current. An online reference torque neural network (RTNN) based on the TSF approach is proposed
in [135] to modify the reference torque. The RTNN is constructed on the TSF approach as a single-
input and single-output network. Then, the parameters of RTNN are trained according to the torque
error to reduce the torque ripple. Last, the suggested approach is compared with the fuzzy torque
compensation and PD current compensation methods to demonstrate the successfulness of the RTNN
method. An intelligent torque control method based on the BP neural network is suggested in [136].
At first, the fitting generalization capability of the BP neural network is used to establish the
nonlinear relationship between speed, load torque, and turn-on angle. After that, the control method
can automatically tune the turn-on angle according to the operation conditions to reduce the torque
ripple.

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SRM
Ta* ia*
+_
Tref Tb* ANN ib* Current Power
TSF +_
(T-θ-i) Controller Converter
Tc* ic*

..
+_
ia
ib
ic

θ Rotor position
detection

Figure 16. TSF based on ANN control for torque control of SRM.

Fuzzy-neural network
The neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) incorporates the merits of both approaches, artificial
neural networks and fuzzy logic systems [137]. The schematic diagram of the ANFIS controller for
torque control is the same in Figure 15 or maybe in Figure 16, with replacing the control unit,
depending on the suggested approach. To mitigate the torque ripple of SRM, a hybrid ANFIS
method is presented in [138]. The proposed approach is employed to find the optimal switch-off
angle while the switch-on angle is estimated analytically. Then, the ANFIS method is compared with
the analytical method and fuzzy logic controller to depict the ANFIS controller's ability to decrease
torque ripple. To enhance the torque control performance of SRM, a genetic neural network is
integrated with a DTC approach is suggested in [33]. The proposed scheme chooses the appropriate
data bits for GA training and testing. Also, the artificial network fuzzy inference system-based DTC
strategy is presented in [139] to provide high torque with minimized torque ripple of SRM
throughout a broad speed range. In [140], an improved intelligent control based on the Lyapunov
stability theory controls SRM to improve the speed response and minimize the torque ripple. The
suggested method is divided into two sections; the main section is the speed controller, and the other
part is the torque controller. The speed controller uses an adaptive fuzzy controller based on the
Hamilton–Jacobi–Bellman theory to optimize the controller's parameters. Moreover, the torque
controller is implemented using an ANN for torque estimation, reducing the torque ripple. In [141],
ANFIS based on space vector Modulation is utilized to choose voltage space vectors better. The
SVM-DTC provides a fixed switching frequency, while the suggested ANFIS technique controls the
torque and stator flux. This technique improves the torque profile with low torque ripple and flux
ripple.

Machine learning
Machine learning is a modified generation of intelligent control systems with a high rate of
automatic learning with a simple structure, making it ideal for use on an industrial scale [142].
In [143], a machine-learning approach is presented based on two pre-trained ANN models to
minimize the torque ripple throughout a broad speed range of SRM. The proposed pre-trained ANN
is utilized to predict the actual torque according to the motor's current and position and to compute
the optimal reference currents for each phase to minimize the torque ripple. A novel intelligent
technique based on a computational model of the mammalian limbic system and emotional processes
(BELBIC) is suggested in [142] to control the speed of SRM with a focus on torque ripple mitigation.
In this technique, simple and effective controls are achieved by employing machine learning without

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the requirement of any classical controllers and completely independent of the motor parameters.
The suggested approach offers fast auto-learning and high tracking potency, which leads to improved
speed response with reduced torque ripple. The same intelligent controller (BELBIC) method
combined with the PI conventional controller is presented in [144] to control the torque of SRM
indirectly. This technique is employed to modify the transient state and improve dynamic response.
4.2.1.D. Other torque control strategies
There are many other strategies for reducing the torque ripple; a general overview of a few of
these methods is covered in this section. The feedback linearization (FBL) technique applies state
feedback to the nonlinear system in order to linearize the closed-loop system [145–147], thereby
compensating the motor's nonlinear properties. This approach has significant limitations, such as the
need for a precise motor model that requires high currents during low-speed operation and the
measurement of state variables (position, velocity, and stator currents). To overcome these
disadvantages, an adaptive feedback linearization approach has been utilized based on multi-
objective optimization by genetic algorithm [148] to identify the optimal coefficients of the feedback
linearization control approach. Another method utilized to enhance the torque control strategy’s
performance is the non-linear control method [149,150]. A nonlinear internal model control (IMC),
depending upon an appropriate commutation technique for SRM, is proposed in [151]. This control
approach is robust for internal and external disturbances caused by modeling uncertainties. It can
successfully offset the system's nonlinearity.
Also, researchers have utilized non-linear control methods called variable structure control
methods for reducing the torque ripple [152–155]. In [155], the variable structure control strategy is
utilized to mitigate the torque ripple of SRM with robust torque control. To enhance the performance
of the structure control method to suppress the torque ripple, a combination of variable structure
control theory and fuzzy logic control is suggested in [154]. In [156], a sliding mode control is used
based on variable structure control, which has many features of fast response, insensitivity to
adjusting parameters and disturbances, and strong robustness. Besides that, this method is not
dependent on the parameters and disturbances. References [157–159] developed the sliding mode
control as a torque control strategy to mitigate the torque ripple.
Comparison of torque control methods for torque ripple reduction
The torque control strategies discussed in this paper are categorized into four methods,
including their sub-sections, as shown in Figure 4, and all these methods are utilized to minimize
torque ripple with control of the average torque. The effectiveness of these strategies is assessed and
compared through a list of some key aspects of each strategy, as shown in Table 1. The table offers a
general comparison regarding advantages, disadvantages and complexity, but it does not specify the
best way to mitigate torque ripple. Therefore, it is essential to carefully assess the application's
specific requirements to select the most suitable control strategy. The choice of the torque control
method of SRM application is based on the vehicle itself and factors such as the desired torque
precision, speed range, cost constraints, and available computational resources.

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Table 1. Comparison of the SRM torque control strategies.

Control Adopted Technique Merits Drawbacks Implementation Ref.
Method &
Computational
Complexity
Current Intelligent current profiling Reduce the torque ripple during It needs large memory space to store Complex/Low [58-67]
Profiling online commutation; Detect the required the current profile data and sensitivity
current profile offline. to any changes in the actual variables
of SRM.
TSF A modified offline TSF Powerful and efficient; determined Need i-T-θ characteristics; offline Complex/High [68-78]
torque waveforms; smooth torque over designed torque waveform; A high
a wide speed range; Better current bandwidth current regulator is needed;
tracking performance. Cannot realize high torque commands.
online average torque High torque per ampere ratio; The torque ripple is high at low speed. Simple/low [79-87]
ATC estimator with optimized The reference phase current remains
switching angles offline. fixed through the excitation, easy
implementation and lower cost.
FOC Improved FOC based on a Removes the need for an excitation angle Vector control has not been applied at Complex/Mediu [88-94]
non-sinusoidal d-q controller; Less torque ripple high speed; Complicated d-q transform. m
transform
DTC Improved DTC based on Reduced the torque ripple; Direct Require prior knowledge of machine Medium/Low [95-104]
adaptive commutation controlled instantaneous torque. parameters.
strategy
MPC Online adaptive PWM- Torque ripple minimizes and reduces a Required accurate information about Simple/high [105-
MPC method theoretical delay; optimized current the machine's characteristics. 116]
profiles are not required.
ILC Adaptive iterative learning Effective tracking torque, reduced Complex learning control, finite time- Complex\High [117-
control torque ripple, do not require an limited 124]
accurate plant model.
Intelligent Independent controller on Strong, Self-learning, Adaptive Complex computational process. Complex/High [125-
control the SRM model using an Capability; Not requires model 144]
Adaptive Intelligent parameters; low torque ripple.
controller (ANN, FLC,
ANFIS)
Feedback Feedback linearization A feedback loop has no nonlinear Requires very high flux variations; Complex/ [145-
linearizatio control with PID variables; an accurate motor model is required; Medium 150]
n control controller provide the necessary decoupling Difficulties in practical
between currents. implementations.
Variable Sliding mode variable Low sensitivity to plant uncertainties, Chattering; difficult to build an Complex/High [150-
Structure structure fast response, and easy implementation. accurate nonlinear model. 159]
Control

4.2.2. Current control strategy

The current control is the most popular scheme to mitigate the torque ripple acoustic noise and
vibrations in SRMs. In addition, Torque control is greatly impacted by setting the current profile in
each phase of SRM. The phase current is shaped according to several predetermined parameters to
achieve various speed, torque, power, and efficiency goals across various operating conditions. A
control stage usually tracks the current and demands excitation angles θon and θoff. Where the output
of the current controller is the reference voltage provided to the inverter via hysteresis current control
(HCC) or a modulation stage in the form of PWM [160]. Generally, there are many major
classifications of current control in SRM based on HHC or PWM techniques, which are detailed
discussion in the following subsections in accordance with the block diagram in Figure 7.
4.2.2.A. Model-Independent methods
1. Current chopping control (CCC)
Current chopping control is a common strategy employed for controlling the current of SRM
due to its simplicity and independence on the machine parameters [161]. A hysteresis controller with
a predefined hysteresis band is employed in the strategy. Hard and soft chopping methods are based
on defining upper and lower boundaries and modifying the excitation signal to maintain the
instantaneous current within the error band [162]. These techniques are characterized using positive,
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negative and zero voltage levels. The discrete number of possible duty cycles (1, 0 and ‒1) and the
limited sampling frequency substantially impact this strategy's ability to track the reference current.
Various approaches have been used in the literature to enhance the current tracking capabilities.
Figure 17 depicts the general diagram of a hysteresis current control strategy. The CCC approach is
presented in [163] to keep the current within a set hysteresis band, which leads to improved
performance at low and medium speeds. The CCC strategy is improved in [164] to keep the SRM's
torque within a set of hysteresis bands using an appropriate source voltage. To examine the effect of
SRM's control settings on the dynamic response of the EV. A Fix angle current chopping control
(FA-CCC) and adaptive variable angle current chopping control (AVA-CCC) is proposed in [165] to
enhance the torque speed characteristics of SRM. To achieve high performance with minimal torque
ripple at the low switching frequency, a current chopping controller based on fuzzy logic control is
suggested in [30]. The proposed controller achieves this by altering the duty cycle of each interrupted
period. In [166], a modified current chopping controller based on a segmented PWM variable duty
cycle according to the inductance characteristic curve is used to mitigate the torque ripple.
Commutation
controller
θon θoff
SRM
Hysteresis
Speed iref Power
ω* +_ +_ current
controller Converter
controller
ω iph
Phase current
detection

Rotor position
dθ/dt
detection
Figure 17. General schematic diagram of SRM hysteresis current control.

2. Intelligent current control

The intelligent control method has been researched as an efficient candidate solution instead of
the hysteresis controller while falling within model-independent methods [167]. These approaches
commonly incorporate a learning mechanism to augment the controller's effectiveness. This may be
achieved either online, with the controller modified using experimental measurements, or offline,
using the results of consecutive simulations. These approaches offer several notable benefits,
including their capability to handle highly nonlinear behaviors and adapt to parametric changes over
time.
Furthermore, these methods can also be applied with PWM, leading to a consistent switching
frequency. In contrast, these approaches' primary limitations are the slow learning rate, the
requirement for training data, and their substantial complexity. In [168], a new current tracking
strategy using ILC for SRM is proposed for tracking the reference current with fewer PWM cycles.
The iterative learning current control approach utilizes real-time periodic learning at various rotor
positions to calculate the optimal duty ratio to track the reference current. A hybrid torque controller
that integrates optimal TSF and ILC approaches is presented in [169]. The TSF is used to optimize
the torque and current profiles to mitigate the torque ripple. The iterative learning control (ILC) is
used as a current controller to provide effective current tracking. An ANN-based algorithm is
proposed in [170] for speed and current controllers to enhance the performance of SRM with lower

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torque ripple. The Levenberg–Marquardt algorithm is employed for optimizing the parameters of the
ANN for both controllers, resulting in efficient and faster convergence during training and testing.
The reference [178] uses a novel compensation scheme-based fuzzy logic control and ANFIS to
compensate for the phase current and produce the optimum possible phase current waveform. In the
suggested method, the fuzzy logic and ANFIS controllers control the motor current to reduce the
torque ripple, where a compensating signal is added as input to the current loop control. In [171], An
improved ANFIS based on a Hybrid SSD-SFO algorithm for speed and current control of SRM to
mitigate the torque ripple. In the proposed strategy, two ANFIS controllers control the speed and
current. Additionally, the Hybrid SSD-SFO (social ski-diver-based sunflower optimization)
algorithm was used to optimize the switching angles of SRM and the parameters of the ANFIS
controller for both the current and speed controller. The simulation results demonstrate that the
suggested approach performs effectively with less torque ripple.
Other intelligent control techniques offer adequate current tracking for SRMs based on machine
learning presented in [172]. A new Q-learning scheduling strategy for controlling the current of SRM
is proposed in this paper to minimize the torque ripple. The reference current path is followed using a
table of Q-cores originating on an SRM model's nonlinear surface without including any model
parameters data to schedule the infinite horizon linear quadratic trackers (LQT) handled by Q-
learning algorithms, as illustrated in Figure 18.

SRM

iref Policy dk Power

Q-Scheduling ZOH PWM
Improvment Converter

Current ik
Detection

Policy ik , ik+1 Update xk

Evaluation Q-Table

Figure 18. The Q-learning scheduling control scheme for optimal current control of SRM.

4.2.2.B. Model-Based methods

1. Linear current control (PI-PWM)
In this strategy, the current control of SRM can be accomplished by linear control theory (PI,
PD, PID) to offer appropriate consideration. The PI(D) controller calculates a PWM signal's duty
cycle based on the tracking current error. In this approach, the dynamics of the current loop are
regulated by the sampling time and filtered to reduce the current ripple caused by the switching
frequency [173]. This technique is simple to implement with both digital and analogue electronic
circuits. However, the digital implementation is better for improving the performance of SRM.
Figure 19 shows the schematic diagram of a linear current control method of SRM. Besides, the
PWM technique has benefits like low current ripple and a consistent switching frequency than the
hysteresis controller [174]. However, because of the nonlinear behavior of the SRM, constructing
linear controllers is a difficult issue. To address this issue, researchers suggested a modified linear
current controller to improve the response of this approach.
A digital PWM current controller is implemented in [175,176] to enhance the performance of
SRM. The controller switches between two high and low states using a digital approach to achieve

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the desired speed. In [177], a linear controller is implemented for a small signal model of SRM. Two
PI controllers are utilized for both speed and current loops. The machine's back-EMF is a disturbance
that influences SRMs' current control. Therefore, some methods employ EMF compensation as a
solution. A digital PI current controller based on an improved back-EMF decoupling scheme is
suggested in [174]. This technique improved the performance of SRM by adjusting the PI parameters.
In [178], a simple current control approach depending on narrow voltage pulse injection and a single
threshold is presented for an SRM to achieve senseless control. A two PI-PWM closed-loop control
is implemented to enhance the response of the suggested method. In [175], an adapted parameter of
the PI-PWM current controller of SRM is introduced to achieve a fast dynamics response with a less
current ripple of the proposed current controller. This method proposes a modified sampling scheme
to avoid the control loop's PWM delay. To superior the performance of the linear current control, an
adaptive PI-based current control is developed [179]. Two speed and current control loops are
utilized to minimize the torque ripple.
SRM

PWM
iref Linear V Power
+_ ++
controller Converter

iph
Bck-Emf Vdc
compensation θ

Phase current
detection

Figure 19. Schematic diagram of a linear current controller.

2. Model predictive current control
Predictive current control is an excellent alternative to traditional current control strategies. It
can deal with nonlinearities and constraints with many features such as online optimization, low
current distortion, and effectiveness in dynamic response [180]. The MPC strategy consists of three
paradigms, which include the estimation phase, prediction phase, and cost function design step, as
shown in Figure 20. The states employed for estimation and prediction are chosen according to the
designed cost function [106]. In [181], a predictive control approach is presented to track the current
reference in an SRM accurately. The proposed technique tracks two reference currents to achieve a
fast dynamic response through a broad range of torque-speed characteristics. In addition, it offers a
better torque profile with a low torque ripple. In the variable switching frequency control, the
inverter could be within the range of audibility, which results in acoustic noise issues. Therefore, a
predictive current control strategy based on fixed switching frequency was suggested in [182]. The
proposed method employed deadbeat predictive current control to predict the desired duty ratio of
the PWM pulse for a certain reference current in each digital time step through a broad range of
speeds. To enhance the performance with minimized torque ripple for the SRM, the incorporation of
the predictive current control method with a TSF approach was presented in [183,184]. The proposed
strategy in [183] tracks the reference current at a low switching frequency to minimize the pulsation
torque ripple. In [184], An enhanced MPC strategy based on offline training and online adjustment
for the phase current to avoid the model mismatch issue. The proposed approach utilized a radial
basis function (RBF) neural network to adjust the model parameters, enhancing the tracking
performance and minimizing the torque ripple. A new control approach based on the TSF utilizing
predictive current control is suggested in [144] to mitigate the ripple of torque and current. In

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addition, an optimized PWM control is introduced by precisely predicting the duty ratio of the
voltage using the data of the motor running parameter.
Moreover, an MPC method based on a fixed-switching frequency utilizing a multiplexed
current sensor for SRM is presented in [185]. In this method, the only current sensor used in this
system was time division multiplexing for phase current sampling, and the duty ratio of PWM was
constrained to maintain an adequate sampling time for A/D conversion. This strategy aimed to
reduce costs with guaranteed performance. In [186], A virtual-flux finite control set MPC (FCS-
MPC) approach of SRM is developed to control the phase current through a flux linkage-tracking
algorithm indirectly. This technique uses a discrete voltage equation to predict a virtual flux and
determines the switching mode, resulting in the minimum error concerning the flux reference.
SRM
Optimal
Switching state Switching
iref Cost function Power
state
minimization modulator converter

iph(k+1)

Predictive
model Vdc(k)

θ(k) iph(k)

Figure 20. Schematic diagram of model predictive current control for SRM.

3. Sliding mode current controller

Sliding mode control (SMC) is one of the effective methods for addressing control of highly
nonlinear dynamic systems because it has a good dynamic response and superior robustness in
controlling power converters and motor drive systems [187]. Sliding mode control has been
suggested as a good solution to control the SRM, especially the speed control approach. It is
employed to control the current to minimize the torque ripple. Figure 21 illustrates the architecture of
sliding mode current control of SRM. In [188], an SMC-PI current controller is introduced to
mitigate the torque ripple and enhance the efficiency of SRM. A second-order sliding mode current
controller based on the super twisting algorithm is proposed in [189] to achieve high performance
and lower current ripples. In [190], a digital control scheme based on SMC is suggested to offer a
carrier-less pulse width modulation. The proposed algorithm presents a good dynamic response with
minimized torque ripple and a constant switching frequency. A fixed-switching-frequency SMC is
proposed in [191,192]. In [191], an integral SMC is presented as an inner control loop of the TSF
method to mitigate the torque ripple. In [192], an integral SMC is proposed to acquire a fixed
switching rate and low sampling rate for mutually coupled SRM and asymmetric bridge converters.
An adaptive SMC is suggested in [193] to improve the performance of SRM.
Additionally, a modified technique is adaptive to identify the combined uncertainties, enhancing
the robustness against coefficient uncertainties and other external disturbances. Moreover, the
suggested control employed the Lyapunov theory to investigate the stability. A PWM super-twisting
SMC for SRM with a fixed-gain construction is presented in [194] to achieve appropriate reference
tracking and torque ripple minimization. A digital SMC-based robust model-free PWM current
control technique of SRM is presented in [195]. The suggested method enables the total reduction of
the phase inductance or flux-linkage identification process. Besides, this method accurately tracks

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the reference phase current at a consistent switching frequency. It presents a powerful tracking
response during a wide operating range of the SRM with low current ripple.
SRM

PWM
Sliding mode V Power
iref +_
controller Converter

L(i, θ)
iph
Inductance θ
LUT

Phase current
detection

Figure 21. Block diagram of SMC for SRM.

Comparison of current control methods for torque ripple reduction

The current control strategies for SRMs are developed to exploit their specific characteristics
for EV applications. These strategies can be divided into two major sections with subsections that
aim to mitigate the torque ripple of SRM, as depicted in Figure 7. Here is a comparison of several
typical SRM current control strategies regarding advantages, limitations, model information,
complexity, and switching frequency, as shown in Table 2. The model-independent methods like
current hysteresis control are the most common due to their simplicity and effectiveness in tracking
the current profile without the need for the model information. However, it provides variable
switching frequency, may produce a high current ripple, and can present fixed switching frequency,
but it requires data and extensive training. On the other hand, model-based methods like MPC and
sliding mode control offer an optimal current profile, low torque ripple, and enhanced efficiency
while considering nonlinearities. However, they require accurate motor models and involve higher
computational demands.
Table 2. Comparison of current control methods.
Control Adopted Technique Merits Drawbacks Complexity Switching Model Ref.
Method frequency Information
Current Optimized the Minimized the torque ripple Complicated Low Variable No [161
chopping switching angles by improved the efficiency and optimization for offline -
control metaheuristics torque profile with low copper calculation, high current 166]
algorithm losses ripple, and variable
switching frequency.
Intelligent Offline optimization Provide adequate current Required training data, Medium Variable/Fixed No [167
current algorithm-based tracking with highly nonlinear slow learning process -
control artificial intelligence behavior, improving 172]
techniques (FLC, performance during a wide
ANN, ANFIS) range of torque-speed
characteristics.
Linear Adopted PI parameters Simplicity implementation for Required tuning PI Low Fixed No/Yes [173
current with back-EMF both digital and analog circuits, controller gains -
control compensation low current ripple 179]
Model A virtual-flux FCS- High precision control, ability High computational High Variable/Fixed No/Yes
predictive MPC method to handle constraints and requirements, [180
current disturbances, online implementation -
control optimization, and low current complexity 186]
distortion
Sliding An adaptive sliding Low sensitivity to high-frequency Medium Fixed No/Yes [187
mode mode-based PWM plant uncertainties, good oscillations (chattering) -
current dynamic response and superior 195]
control robustness

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5. Conclusions

To fulfill the growing demand for effective and sustainable transportation solutions, electric
vehicle (EV) propulsion systems have grown quickly. SRMs have captured significant attention for
EV applications due to their inherent simplicity, robustness, high reliability, and rare-earth-free
composition. However, the SRM encounters numerous challenges requiring the widespread adoption
of innovative solutions. Among the primary issues is the torque ripple issue resulting from its
inherent structure, which can lead to noise and vibration that affect the SRM performance for EV
applications and constraints further developments. Therefore, to achieve the requirements of the
propulsion system in the EV market, the performance of SRM must be outstanding with low torque
ripple and high energy efficiency. As a result, the improvements in modeling and simulation
techniques are crucial for accurately predicting motor performance and optimizing design parameters
to minimize these effects. Furthermore, developing advanced control strategies is essential to
mitigate torque ripple and improve the efficiency and reliability of SRMs. Additionally, the
innovations in power converter topologies for SRMs in EVs can lead to more compact, efficient, and
cost-effective solutions.
This review paper presented a comprehensively survey and analyzed torque ripple mitigation
strategies in SRMs. It discusses the converter topologies' switching angle schemes and focus on
control strategies to minimize the torque ripple. Each strategy's effectiveness, advantages, and
limitations are critically assessed, considering factors such as torque ripple, efficiency,
implementation, and computational complexity in real-world applicability. Besides that, it discusses
methods developed by the researcher. It summarizes the research status and predict future research
directions, aiming to guide for improving low-noise SRM drives in EV applications.

Use of AI tools declaration

The authors declare that they have not used Artificial Intelligence (AI) tools in the creation of
this article.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest in this paper.

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