SRM Control technique
SRM Control technique
DOI: 10.3934/electreng.2024005
Received: 30 January 2024
Revised: 02 March 2024
Accepted: 11 March 2024
Published: 20 March 2024
https://www.aimspress.com/journal/ElectrEng
Review
Abstract: As electric vehicles (EVs) continue to acquire prominence in the transportation industry,
improving the outcomes and efficiency of their propulsion systems is becoming increasingly critical.
Switched Reluctance Motors (SRMs) have become a compelling option for EV applications due to
their simplicity, magnet-free design, robustness, and cost-effectiveness, making them an attractive
choice for the growing EV market. Despite all these features and compared to other electrical
machines, SRMs suffer from some restrictions, such as torque ripple and audible noise generation,
stemming from their markedly nonlinear characteristics, which affect their productivity and
efficiency. Therefore, to address these problems, especially the torque ripple, it is crucial and
challenging to enhance the performance of the SRM drive system. This paper proposed a
comprehensive review of torque ripple minimization strategies of SRMs in EV applications. It
covered a detailed overview and categorized and compared many strategies, including two general
categories of torque ripple mitigation encompassing optimization design topologies and control
strategy developments. Then, focused on control strategy improvements and divided them into
torque and current control strategies, including the sub-sections. In addition, the research also
provided an overview of SRM fundamental operations, converter topologies, and excitation angle
approaches. Last, a comparison between each method in torque control and current control strategies
was listed, including the adopted method, features, and drawbacks.
Keywords: switched reluctance motor; SRM drive system; torque ripple reduction strategies
105
1. Introduction
The SRM is a special kind of synchronous machine with double salient construction for both the
stator and rotor and also no windings or permanent magnets on the rotor. This motor converts the
reluctance torque into mechanical power. Where the alignment tendency of poles produces the
torque, the rotor will move to a position where reluctance is lowest and, as a result, maximize the
excited winding's inductance. Figure 1 depicts an illustration of common arrangements of SRM.
Ph# 1
Ph# 3
Ph# 1 Ph# 1 Ph# 1 Ph# 1 Ph# 1 Ph# 1
Ph# 3
Ph# 1
(a) 3-ph 6/4 SRM (b) 4-ph 12/8 SRM (c) 3-ph 8/6 SRM
An SRM has highly nonlinear characteristics because of its doubly salient construction and the
switching current excitation. Therefore, the nonlinear modelling of this motor is required to predict
the dynamic performance and analyze its magnetization characteristics [9,10]. These characteristics
can be computed by the function analysis approach [11,12], neural network approach [13], finite
element method (FEM), and indirect measurements [14]. First, it is necessary to describe the SRM's
mathematical model to calculate and analyze these characteristics. The voltage and flux linkage
equations are as follows:
𝑑𝜆(𝑖, 𝜃)
𝑉 = 𝑖𝑅 + (1)
𝑑𝑡
𝜆 𝑖, 𝜃 = 𝑉 − 𝑖𝑅 𝑑𝑡 (2)
where 𝑉 denotes the phase voltage, 𝑅 is the winding resistance per phase, 𝜆(𝑖, 𝜃) denotes the flux
linkage, which is a highly nonlinear function of rotor position and phase current 𝑖 and can be given
as:
𝜆(𝑖, 𝜃) = 𝑖𝐿(𝑖, 𝜃) (3)
where 𝐿 is phase inductance, the torque expression can be derived by substituting the flux linkage
expression from Eq 3 into Eq 1, which yields:
1 𝑑𝐿(𝐿,𝜃)
𝑇 = 𝑖2 (4)
2 𝑑𝜃
The Simulink model of one phase of 8/6 SRM was built using finite-element methods (FEM)
based on the magnetic flux linkage characteristic. Figure 2 shows the magnetic flux linkage,
inductance, and torque characteristic curves at the aligned and unaligned rotor positions at 0°and
30°, respectively.
(a) The flux-position characteristics λ(i,θ) (b) The inductance-position curves L(i,θ)
The power converter is a vital component of the SRM system because the SRM cannot operate
without a converter. Also, the converter's performance greatly affects the drive's cost and efficiency.
Since the stator's outer side and the rotor's inner side of the SRM contain salient poles. Therefore, the
power converters for SRM are different from the other machines. Recent years have seen
considerable advancements in the development of power converters and the commutation control
circuit employed to feed SRM [15,16]. The power converters utilized for SRM can be divided into
three main classifications: Half-bridge, self-commutating, and force-commutating, besides further
commutation circuits [4]. Each type of SRM power converter has benefits and drawbacks. As a
result, the best choice of converter configuration and control techniques is based on the nature of the
load and the applications' specific demands [17,18]. The most typical and often utilized converter of
SRMs is the asymmetric bridge converter due to its benefit of being ameliorated fault-tolerant, quick
demagnetization and regenerative braking ability. Figure 3 depicts the overall schematic diagram for
the SRM drive system with an asymmetric bridge converter and control circuit.
Vdc + G1 D1
G1 D1
G1 D1
Current G1 D1
controller
ω i* G2 SRM
ωm* + Σ m Speed Σ Drive D2
D2 G G2
_ controller signals D2 G
2
2
D2
_
θon θoff
Current
i sensor
ωm Speed θ Rotor position
calculation detection
The excitation angles (θon, θoff) significantly produce the SRM torque through the synchronous
excitation with the rotor position. They immediately impact the current profile, the torque generation,
and, consequently, the performance of SRM during the range of operating speeds. The excitation
process generally involves three parameters: The switch-on angle, the switch-off angle and the
reference current (Iref) through a wide speed range [19]. To maximize the performance of the SRM,
the switching angles (θon, θoff) should be selected to excite the motor in the increasing inductance
region (dL/dθ > 0) and de-energized before the negative inductance region (dL/dθ < 0) to prevent
negative torque generation as shown in Figure 4. Therefore, the switching angles (θon, θoff) are
essential parameters for SRM control [20]. However, due to the highly nonlinear characteristics of
SRMs, this process is not easy. Much research has been conducted to determine the optimal
switching angle values for enhancing SRM performance.
Many techniques are used to obtain the appropriate excitation angles for phase current and rotor
speed functions. In [21–24], Analytical approaches have been employed to estimate the switching
angles to increase motor efficiency at various speed ranges. A closed-loop switch-on angle (CL θon)
is proposed in [25,26] without requiring motor parameters. In [27], an adaptive analytical
determination for optimum excitation angles (θon and θoff) of SRM drives along a broad range of
operating speeds by taking into account the influence of back-emf voltage by optimal computation of
the θon angle and avoiding the production of negative torque through the whole operating range by
optimal the θoff angle.
However, this suggestion does not consider a good solution for torque ripple reduction. In [28],
a simple adaptive controller is introduced for online tuning of the switch-on angle depending on the
nonlinear inductance profile of SRM, and offline tuning by a multi-task optimization function for
optimized switch-off to mitigate the torque ripple and improving the efficiency of the motor. Also,
the paper [29] presented an analytical method to estimate the optimal switch-on angle online based
on the nonlinear inductance profile of SRM with consideration of back electromotive force. At the
same time, the switch-off angle is optimized offline through a secondary objective function to
minimize the torque ripple. To superior the performance of SRM with minimized torque ripple,
intelligent control methods like fuzzy logic and neural networks are employed in order to optimize
the switching angles [30–33]. A fuzzy adaptive control technique is proposed in [31] to
automatically control switching angles in SRM. This approach optimizes the switch-on and switch-
off angle timings depending on the online rotor position to produce high torque.
Recently, metaheuristics optimization algorithms have been suggested based on different
objective functions like output torque, torque ripple, and motor efficiency to optimize the switching
angles for better performance of SRM [34–39]. The Genetic algorithm (GA) has been utilized to find
the optimal current excitation angles based on a multi-objective optimization function to enhance the
output torque profile and decrease the torque ripple of the machine through various operating
ranges [34]. In [36], a modified PSO algorithm based on velocity-controllable (VCPSO) is suggested
for optimizing the switch-off angle of the SRM with the current chopping regulator strategy to
increase the efficiency of real-time tracking. The Grey Wolf (GW) algorithm, another powerful
optimization technique, achieved SRM's optimum performance [39].
SRM is an excellent alternative for the growing traction motor applications such as E-bikes and
Electric Vehicles due to its robustness, reliability, and broad constant power range of operation. In
contrast, it suffers from drawbacks such as torque ripple and sound noise. The control of the SRM
must be capable of considering operations under different operating conditions, which make the
controller's design more challenging due to the nonlinearity of magnetic characteristics caused by the
double salient structure [40]. These difficulties require highly accurate and sophisticated SRM
controls on the part of the designer. SRM drives are operated and controlled by synchronizing the
motor phase energization with the rotor position. The control method can be accomplished utilizing
a position sensor feedback signal or a senseless method that estimates the rotor position based on the
machine's magnetic properties [41–43]. Generally, numerous control schemes are suggested to
enhance the SRM's performance in terms of increased efficiency, reduced torque ripple, consistent
torque, and a wide speed range. Various well-known machine control systems exist depending on the
applications, including position, speed, current, and torque control, as depicted in Figure 5 [44]. Due
to its pole saliency and nonlinear magnetic characteristics, the SR machine differs from conventional
DC and AC machine types. Moreover, the current control scheme in SRM is different from torque
control despite these two being synonyms in DC drives.
Torque ripple is the primary restriction to the dependability of utilizing the SRM drives in high-
performance applications such as electric vehicles (EVs). The torque ripple occurs because of the
double salient structure, which causes extremely nonlinear magnetic characteristics and
discontinuous current commutation [44], as shown in Figure 6. These reasons increase the torque
ripple and complicate the control of SRM drives. The torque ripple can be mitigated by either
enhancing the geometry of the machine design or by adopting different control techniques. Figure 7
demonstrates the classification of torque ripple reduction strategies used for SRM and the
improvements made to each control approach [2,5,6]. The optimal performance of the SRM drive
system depends on the machine characteristics, the control technique, the converter configuration,
and feedback variables. However, the SRM drive system has a lot of feedback variables. At least one
current sensor must be needed to measure the motor's current and a position sensor [41,42]. The
motor’s torque strongly depends on the rotor position and switching current angles; these variables
can be stored in look-up tables for simpler control processing. In this context, we introduce a
comprehensive categorization of control strategies to mitigate torque ripple and enhance the
performance of SRM drives.
Figure 6. The torque ripple in phase torque and total torque waveforms.
Vector control
Torque Control
Direct instantaneous torque
control
Advanced Direct
Direct Torque Control
instantaneous torque control
Machine learning
SRMs are known for their simple and robust construction characterized by the absence of
permanent magnets, and stator and rotor poles are normally symmetrically and evenly distributed
around the motor's circumference [45,46]. This innovative design enables engineers to optimize the
motor's performance by strategically shaping the stator and rotor poles. Optimization often employs
sophisticated software programs and algorithm methods, such as finite element analysis (FEA) and
PSO algorithms, to find the most effective pole designs, sizes, and configurations [47]. By carefully
tuning these parameters, researchers can mitigate the torque ripple, maximize the torque average
production, and improve the overall efficiency of this motor. An optimal topology design is essential
to ensure that SRMs play a crucial role in EV applications [48]. Recently, there has been a trend by
researchers to focus on the design optimization of SRM to fulfil the requirements of EVs, such as
maximizing the output torque and reducing torque ripple [49]. In [50], the design and optimization of
SRM are presented to produce a consistent output torque at high-speed operation. This paper focuses
on the initial design of this motor and optimizes the electromagnetic design to achieve a high output
power of 8 kW at a high speed of 100,000 rpm. A novel magnetic parameter design approach of
SRM is presented in [51]. This methodology is based on the nonlinear characteristic of flux linkage,
and the multi-objective optimization function is utilized to accurately calculate the design parameters
without overly depending on the designer's experience. In [52], the SRM design optimization using
the layered technique has been presented based on a multi-physical analytical model of SRM.
Taguchi algorithm is employed to examine the level of effect of the primary geometric dimensions
on the dynamic performance. In [53], A two-step design optimization procedure is proposed to
reduce the torque ripple of the DSAFSRM without compromising its efficiency.
Additionally, the suggested DSAF-SRM is compared with a double-sided radial flux SRM in
output torque, torque ripple, power density and efficiency. In [54], a 6/4 SRM with a misaligned
segmental rotor is introduced in order to produce maximum torque with a low torque ripple. The
segmental rotor has a 15-degree misalignment to achieve a one-layer 2D structure with a short flux
path structure. In [55], a new geometry for SRM depending on the rotor pole skewing is presented to
mitigate the torque ripple. This paper uses a differential evolutionary algorithm based on a multi-
objective function to build an asymmetrical skew rotor-SRM. The optimization parameters are
selected for an enhanced design with a lower torque ripple than a conventional structure. In [56], a
comprehensive analysis of the advancements in the modelling and design optimization of SRMs
using Machine Learning (ML) based Intelligent methods.
Today, control technology has become the most appropriate choice for reducing torque ripple
due to the developments in semiconductors, Integrated circuits, and power electronics converters.
This development has brought a significant revolution in the possibility of controlling and improving
the performance of the SRM. According to the operational theory of the SRMs, the tiny gradients of
inductance in the minimum and maximum inductance zones lead to low phase torque in these
regions. Therefore, the torque falls in the region of phase commutation and produces a high torque
ripple [44]. Control technique enhancements are simpler and more affordable than motor topology
design to mitigate the torque ripple. The enhanced control strategies for reducing torque ripple can be
categorized into two major techniques: Torque control and current control [5,6], as shown in Figure
7. To get a superior control strategy performance, the following techniques should be improved to be
compatible with the overall drive system.
Torque Control is essential for the electric propulsion system in EV applications. It should
follow the torque reference fed by the torque controller unit with fast response to enhance the
dynamic performance at different operating situations of the electric vehicle, such as accelerate,
decelerate [57]. As for SRM, torque control can be categorized into direct, indirect, intelligent
control, and other methods, which will be covered in more detail in the following subsections.
4.2.1.A. Indirect torque control
1. Open loop current sharing
The open loop current control technique is utilized to acquire the average torque directly from
the phase current of the SRM. The basic concept is computing the shape of phase current offline to
achieve zero torque ripple, which depends on the capability to track the current profile [58], as
shown in Figure 8. This approach directly utilizes the taken values of three currents from the lockup
table I = f(T, θ), which is calculated according to the rising and falling capability of the current (as
well as concerning minimizing torque ripple or another imposed requirement) for each operating
case. This approach has the benefit of being able to achieve a minimum torque ripple that is
restricted only by switching frequency. In addition, the motor's efficiency can be maximized in this
method. However, this method suffers from some drawbacks, such as the sensitivity to any changes
in the variables of this motor. Also, it needs a large memory space to store the current profile
data [58]. In [59], the current sharing method uses the simulation to determine the inductance and the
rate it varies with the rotor position for each motor phase involved in producing positive torque. The
current magnitude is changed using the PWM approach following the rotor position to reduce torque
ripple. Two positive generating phases are simultaneously turned on to minimize the torque during
commutation with various PWM. In [60,61], an effective methodology is developed to reduce torque
ripple through coupled simulations of finite element analysis and dynamic simulation. This coupled
simulation is used to detect the required current profile and fine the tuning of the current shape. The
suggested approach was built to operate from zero to maximum speed, as the application would
allow. In [62], a new method for computing current profiles will reduce the torque ripple SRM
produces under normal and one open-phase fault conditions. In addition, a new scheme to the current
profile calculation offline for torque ripple mitigation is proposed. To suppress the torque ripple in
SRM, [63] suggests five new optimization techniques. The phase-current profile has been optimized
in these techniques using the simplex approach based on a genetic algorithm. These optimization
processes are tailored to two optimization techniques: The simplex method and the genetic
algorithm. The torque ripple during commutation is minimized in [64] using closed-loop control and
the speed signal ripple. It is simpler and less expensive to utilize a speed sensor or estimator to get
the speed signal than it is to use a torque sensor. This method can capture the torque ripple data using
a signal processing approach from the speed signal.
iph SRM
Current
sensor
The results demonstrate that the torque ripple reduced through the commutation period by
finding the appropriate shaping of current. A comparative study was conducted for a different
precomputed current profiling approach for torque ripple reduction [65]. Additionally, the suggested
approach provides lower average currents and allows for applying a peak current restriction.
Additionally, it aids in quantifying the variables affecting torque ripple that are problematic for other
approaches. A hybrid speed ripple minimization solution for SRM is presented in [66], which
combines current profiling, effective tracking error elimination, and excitation approaches. The
suggested method can accomplish the decrease of stator vibration and the enhancement of torque
generating capacity. A common sharing approach for current and flux-linkage control is presented
in [67] for the high-performance control of SRM. This method shares current and flux linkage
AIMS Electronics and Electrical Engineering Volume 8, Issue 1, 104–145.
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between the phases, significantly reducing the torque ripple. However, it also has the ability to
mitigate the torque ripple drastically.
2. Torque sharing function (TSF)
TSF is one of the most effective and popular indirect control approaches for torque ripple
mitigation in the SRM drive system. This strategy is performed by employing the static
characteristics of this motor through TSF, which distributes the total torque among the motor phases
utilizing TSF, as shown in Figure 9. The output of TSF is the reference torque for each phase, which
is transformed into a reference phase current utilizing the torque inverse model (i-T-θ) of SRM.
Then, a current controller is employed to control the feedback current to follow its reference current
by hysteresis or PWM control. Moreover, to ensure that the produced torque from each phase is
stable, the TSF employs the turn-on, turn-off, and overlap angles according to the rotor position to
independently generate reference torque signals for each phase [68]. The TSF could be utilized in a
linear or nonlinear function. Due to the nonlinear SRM features considered, the linear TSF is not
quite effective because the torque ripple is extremely problematic according to the rotor position.
In [69], a genetic algorithm is employed to identify the turn-on and overlap angles for various TSFs.
This optimization algorithm tries to mitigate the torque ripple and cooper loss in SRMs running at a
wide range of speeds. In [70], an offline optimized TSF based on a multi-objective function is
proposed for minimizing torque ripple. The suggested TSFs with various Tikhonov factors are
compared with the classical TSFs, such as linear, cubic, and exponential, considering efficiency and
torque–speed characteristics. In [71], an off-line Optimization algorithm is used to identify the
optimal switch-on and overlap angles of sinusoidal TSF for every operational point of SRM. An
optimized TSF based on modified ant colony optimization (ACO) is presented in [72] to improve the
output torque and minimize the RMS phase current of SRM during a broad range of operating speeds.
An improved TSF was utilized in [73] to compensate for the torque error with the incoming motor
phase due to its lower rate of change of flux linkage based on the absolute changing rate of flux
linkage. The suggested method is compared with traditional TSFs (sinusoidal, cubic, and linear) to
effectively investigate minimizing the torque ripple and enhancing performance during abroad range
of speeds. An optimal current profile is achieved in [74] by utilizing a developed TSF. In addition, a
robust current controller is derived using the Lyapunov stability theory to follow the current
accurately. The suggested approach offers minimal torque ripple, higher efficiency, and enhanced
anti-disturbance capabilities. In [75], a new TSF is presented to provide a lower current following
error by adopting a new current reference generation approach and optimization algorithm. An
offline calculation based on an optimization algorithm is employed to obtain the phase current
reference from the torque command for minimizing the torque ripple and copper losses. Two-torque
ripple mitigation control techniques based on TSF are presented in [76]. The first method uses the
torque to minimize current ripple, and the other method is the direct instantaneous torque control
method, which leads to a reduced torque ripple. A novel IITC approach based on hybrid TSF is
introduced in [77]. The hybrid TSF originated to overcome the torque following error issue during
phase demagnetization by re-profiling the reference torque section of the incoming phase to be the
perfect mirroring of the measured torque of the outgoing phases. Thus, the torque profile is improved
with less torque ripple due to excellent torque monitoring capabilities in this approach. The torque
ripple and disturbance for an SRM drive are reduced by a piecewise TSF presented in [78] based on
an enhanced linear active disturbance rejection control (LADRC) and modified coyote optimization
algorithm (MCOA). First, the piecewise TSF is used with an enhanced linear extended state observer
to minimize the torque ripple, which has minimal influence on the current peak value and the rate of
change in the current value. Then, the MCOA is suggested to find the optimum switching angles and
the coefficients in the piecewise function and LADRC to get better comprehensive performance.
SRM
Ta* ia*
+_
Tref Tb* i-θ-T ib* Current Power
TSF +_
Table Controller Converter
Tc* ic*
..
+_
ia
ib
ic
θ Rotor position
detection
In [84,85], a search algorithm based on a multi-objective function was employed to optimize the
excitation angles offline. This algorithm produces high-output torque and mitigates torque ripple
using the ATC technique for electric scooters and EV applications. In [86], a new method of ATC
strategy of SRM is proposed to get high operating performance for EVs. This method uses an online
average torque estimator with Current chopping control-angle position control (CCC-APC) hybrid
crossover control to improve performance over a broad speed range. In addition, a genetic algorithm
(GA) is utilized to identify the optimal excitation angles to provide high efficiency and low torque
ripple. In [87], a novel ATC technique of SRM based on a hybrid flux–current locus control strategy
with a micro-stepping process is proposed. Despite its complexity, the benefit of the suggested ATC
is that it generates the commended average torque over any given range of rotor angles.
Commutation
controller
θon θoff SRM
Speed Tref Totque Current Switching Power
ω* +_ +_ +_
controller controller controller signals Converter
ω Tave
Average iph
Torque Phase current
Torque
estimation detection
calculation
θ Rotor position
dθ/dt
detection
by eliminating negative aspects and nonlinearities. The suggested controller has a simple structure
and effectively eliminates the requirement of switching angles controller from the SRM control
structure. To mitigate the torque ripple by controlling torque within a specified hysteresis band, a
vector control method of SRM is introduced in [92] that employs a combination of fuzzy logic and
ANN controllers. Vector control for SRM drives with unipolar current excitation has been suggested
in [93]. This method involves the application of a sinusoidal current with a DC offset to each circuit,
resulting in an excitation current comprising both DC and AC components. A novel approach for
torque ripple reduction based on vector control of SRM is presented in [94]. The proposed strategy
used a non-sinusoidal dq transform and the derivatives of inductance as main variables to mitigate
the torque ripple average current and enhance the efficiency while minimizing the copper losses.
SRM
Sa
Tref +_ Voltage
Sb Power
Vector
Converter
ϕref +_ Selection Sn
ϕ
δ
Flux vector V
estimator
Test Torque i
estimator
uncomplicated online torque estimator. The switching angles are optimized to achieve high torque
per ampere (MTPA), low torque ripple, and highest efficiency. Besides, this paper thoroughly
compares the proposed DITC, IITC, and ATC strategies. The comparison results demonstrate that
the proposed DITC performs better with a low torque ripple. In [100], the researchers suggest a TSF
based on adaptive turn-on angle for improving a DITC strategy to mitigate the torque ripple in
commutation overlap regions. This method presents TSF and provides the appropriate candidate
voltage values for various sectors, where the working cycle is divided into six sectors in this method.
A modified PWM-DITC based on a fixed switching frequency is suggested to suppress the
torque ripple [101]. The PWM is employed to modulate the torque deviation, and the optimum
excitation angles are chosen according to the PWM modulation signal and the rotor sector position.
This method provides an effective solution for the issue of shaft breaking in the starting and
generating system of SRM. In [102], an optimized DITC approach for SRM and a new adaptive
dynamic excitation technique is proposed. In terms of torque tracking during commutation areas, two
operational modes have been established. Besides, the excitation angles are dynamically adopted by
a phase current endpoint detector and a torque error regulator throughout each electrical cycle. This
strategy generates full torque to mitigate the torque ripple and improve system efficiency. In [103], a
new control strategy is suggested, which combines adopted hysteresis and PWM in DITC. This
proposed approach accounts for the benefits of the PWM and the hysteresis methods. With this
method, the torque error will be minimized by PWM in DITC. In [104], an improved IITC approach
of SRMs for EVs is introduced to satisfy the vehicle's requirements, which include low torque ripple,
maximum torque per ampere (MTPA), and excellent efficiency throughout the full speed range. An
online analytical method is utilized to achieve the optimal torque production turn-on (θon) angle. In
addition, an improved TSF is proposed to compensate for torque following errors.
Commutation
controller
θon θoff
SRM
Tref Hysteresis
ω* PI Switching Power
+_ Torque
controller signals Converter
controller
ω Test
θ Rotor position
dθ/dt
detection
candidate voltage vectors in six regions is presented in [108]. The cost function is established to find
the optimal voltage vector from candidate voltage vectors to reduce the torque ripple and copper loss.
A model predictive control strategy is suggested in [109] to suppress torque ripple. This
approach predicts the torque and current through the torque-current-position and the current-flux-
position two-dimensional look-up tables, respectively. The cost function is based on torque and
current and then optimized to acquire an ideal control signal. Authors in [110] employed the
candidate voltage vectors (CVVs) algorithm based on the modified model predictive torque control
(MPTC) method for SRM to minimize torque ripple and increase system efficiency successfully.
This method of MPTC is modified in three ways. The first way, the flux linkage estimation, is
omitted compared to traditional MPTC. Second, the commutation region of the SRM is redefined,
and according to the optimal torque contribution profile, the motor's electric cycle is split into six
sectors. The total number of CVVs is then minimized to 2 or 3 at each control period, and each
sector's CVVs are adopted depending on phase torque characteristics. The cost function is
established to minimize torque ripple and reduce copper loss by choosing the optimal voltage vector
from CVVs.
A modified MPTC-based TSF approach for SRM is presented in [111]. This strategy distributes
the torque reference to each phase through a sinusoidal TSF approach. Then, the predictive torque
control strategy is employed to follow the phase torque reference and minimize the torque ripple.
In [112], an online adaptive approach is presented to modify the excitation angles for SRM via the
finite control set model predictive control (FCS-MPC) approach to decrease the negative torque
generation. The proposed method uses a simple online scheme to modify the switch-off angle for a
single prediction horizon FCS-MPC to eliminate negative torque generation. As discussed, the FCS-
MPTC strategy is considered one of the most effective methods to minimize the commutation torque
ripple. The limited voltage vectors lead to high-frequency torque ripples. To solve this problem and
improve the torque control performance, a continuous control set (CCS) model predictive torque
control (MPTC) approach with low torque ripple is presented in [113]. This approach is established
based on the optimal torque references, which can be optimized by the Lagrange multiplier method.
In [114], a four-quadrant operation strategy of SRM based on the PWM-MPC method with an online
adaptive commutation angle was proposed. In this strategy, a composed of MPC and deadbeat
predictive control (DPC) is utilized in the commutation region to improve the performance of SRM.
A new indirect MPTC method is presented in [115] to suppress the torque ripple of SRM in EV
applications. The proposed method is established by two aspects: Torque inverse model to provide
an additional error compensator and robust predictive current controller seeks out all possible
switching states and utilizes the switching state that minimizes cost function as the optimum output.
The proposed IPTC technique, which is simple to implement as well as suitable for electric vehicle
driving, indirectly achieves immediate torque control through accurate current following. In [116],
two novel strategies are introduced based on TSF, DITC, and MPC to suppress the torque ripple of
SRM further. The first method combines TSF with DITC strategy, and the second approach
integrates MPC and TSF. According to the results, both strategies can successfully reduce torque
ripple, but the TSF + MPC strategy can follow the reference torque more precisely and provide low
torque ripple.
SRM
Optimal
Switching state
Tref Cost function Power
minimization converter
iph(k+1) Te(k+1)
Predictive iph(k)
λ(k) Flux linkage
model
estimation
θ(k)
θ(k) iph(k)
I0 SRM
Ik _ Ik Commutation Power
Ik+1 Memory +
method converter
Tk Learning
Tref +_
control law
Tk i
Torque
estimator
θ
Commutation
controller
θon θoff
SRM
Fuzzy logic iref Hysteresis Power
Tref +_ +_
controller controller Converter
iph
Test Phase current
Torque
estimation detection
θ Rotor position
detection
SRM
Ta* ia*
+_
Tref Tb* ANN ib* Current Power
TSF +_
(T-θ-i) Controller Converter
Tc* ic*
..
+_
ia
ib
ic
θ Rotor position
detection
Figure 16. TSF based on ANN control for torque control of SRM.
Fuzzy-neural network
The neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) incorporates the merits of both approaches, artificial
neural networks and fuzzy logic systems [137]. The schematic diagram of the ANFIS controller for
torque control is the same in Figure 15 or maybe in Figure 16, with replacing the control unit,
depending on the suggested approach. To mitigate the torque ripple of SRM, a hybrid ANFIS
method is presented in [138]. The proposed approach is employed to find the optimal switch-off
angle while the switch-on angle is estimated analytically. Then, the ANFIS method is compared with
the analytical method and fuzzy logic controller to depict the ANFIS controller's ability to decrease
torque ripple. To enhance the torque control performance of SRM, a genetic neural network is
integrated with a DTC approach is suggested in [33]. The proposed scheme chooses the appropriate
data bits for GA training and testing. Also, the artificial network fuzzy inference system-based DTC
strategy is presented in [139] to provide high torque with minimized torque ripple of SRM
throughout a broad speed range. In [140], an improved intelligent control based on the Lyapunov
stability theory controls SRM to improve the speed response and minimize the torque ripple. The
suggested method is divided into two sections; the main section is the speed controller, and the other
part is the torque controller. The speed controller uses an adaptive fuzzy controller based on the
Hamilton–Jacobi–Bellman theory to optimize the controller's parameters. Moreover, the torque
controller is implemented using an ANN for torque estimation, reducing the torque ripple. In [141],
ANFIS based on space vector Modulation is utilized to choose voltage space vectors better. The
SVM-DTC provides a fixed switching frequency, while the suggested ANFIS technique controls the
torque and stator flux. This technique improves the torque profile with low torque ripple and flux
ripple.
Machine learning
Machine learning is a modified generation of intelligent control systems with a high rate of
automatic learning with a simple structure, making it ideal for use on an industrial scale [142].
In [143], a machine-learning approach is presented based on two pre-trained ANN models to
minimize the torque ripple throughout a broad speed range of SRM. The proposed pre-trained ANN
is utilized to predict the actual torque according to the motor's current and position and to compute
the optimal reference currents for each phase to minimize the torque ripple. A novel intelligent
technique based on a computational model of the mammalian limbic system and emotional processes
(BELBIC) is suggested in [142] to control the speed of SRM with a focus on torque ripple mitigation.
In this technique, simple and effective controls are achieved by employing machine learning without
the requirement of any classical controllers and completely independent of the motor parameters.
The suggested approach offers fast auto-learning and high tracking potency, which leads to improved
speed response with reduced torque ripple. The same intelligent controller (BELBIC) method
combined with the PI conventional controller is presented in [144] to control the torque of SRM
indirectly. This technique is employed to modify the transient state and improve dynamic response.
4.2.1.D. Other torque control strategies
There are many other strategies for reducing the torque ripple; a general overview of a few of
these methods is covered in this section. The feedback linearization (FBL) technique applies state
feedback to the nonlinear system in order to linearize the closed-loop system [145–147], thereby
compensating the motor's nonlinear properties. This approach has significant limitations, such as the
need for a precise motor model that requires high currents during low-speed operation and the
measurement of state variables (position, velocity, and stator currents). To overcome these
disadvantages, an adaptive feedback linearization approach has been utilized based on multi-
objective optimization by genetic algorithm [148] to identify the optimal coefficients of the feedback
linearization control approach. Another method utilized to enhance the torque control strategy’s
performance is the non-linear control method [149,150]. A nonlinear internal model control (IMC),
depending upon an appropriate commutation technique for SRM, is proposed in [151]. This control
approach is robust for internal and external disturbances caused by modeling uncertainties. It can
successfully offset the system's nonlinearity.
Also, researchers have utilized non-linear control methods called variable structure control
methods for reducing the torque ripple [152–155]. In [155], the variable structure control strategy is
utilized to mitigate the torque ripple of SRM with robust torque control. To enhance the performance
of the structure control method to suppress the torque ripple, a combination of variable structure
control theory and fuzzy logic control is suggested in [154]. In [156], a sliding mode control is used
based on variable structure control, which has many features of fast response, insensitivity to
adjusting parameters and disturbances, and strong robustness. Besides that, this method is not
dependent on the parameters and disturbances. References [157–159] developed the sliding mode
control as a torque control strategy to mitigate the torque ripple.
Comparison of torque control methods for torque ripple reduction
The torque control strategies discussed in this paper are categorized into four methods,
including their sub-sections, as shown in Figure 4, and all these methods are utilized to minimize
torque ripple with control of the average torque. The effectiveness of these strategies is assessed and
compared through a list of some key aspects of each strategy, as shown in Table 1. The table offers a
general comparison regarding advantages, disadvantages and complexity, but it does not specify the
best way to mitigate torque ripple. Therefore, it is essential to carefully assess the application's
specific requirements to select the most suitable control strategy. The choice of the torque control
method of SRM application is based on the vehicle itself and factors such as the desired torque
precision, speed range, cost constraints, and available computational resources.
The current control is the most popular scheme to mitigate the torque ripple acoustic noise and
vibrations in SRMs. In addition, Torque control is greatly impacted by setting the current profile in
each phase of SRM. The phase current is shaped according to several predetermined parameters to
achieve various speed, torque, power, and efficiency goals across various operating conditions. A
control stage usually tracks the current and demands excitation angles θon and θoff. Where the output
of the current controller is the reference voltage provided to the inverter via hysteresis current control
(HCC) or a modulation stage in the form of PWM [160]. Generally, there are many major
classifications of current control in SRM based on HHC or PWM techniques, which are detailed
discussion in the following subsections in accordance with the block diagram in Figure 7.
4.2.2.A. Model-Independent methods
1. Current chopping control (CCC)
Current chopping control is a common strategy employed for controlling the current of SRM
due to its simplicity and independence on the machine parameters [161]. A hysteresis controller with
a predefined hysteresis band is employed in the strategy. Hard and soft chopping methods are based
on defining upper and lower boundaries and modifying the excitation signal to maintain the
instantaneous current within the error band [162]. These techniques are characterized using positive,
AIMS Electronics and Electrical Engineering Volume 8, Issue 1, 104–145.
126
negative and zero voltage levels. The discrete number of possible duty cycles (1, 0 and ‒1) and the
limited sampling frequency substantially impact this strategy's ability to track the reference current.
Various approaches have been used in the literature to enhance the current tracking capabilities.
Figure 17 depicts the general diagram of a hysteresis current control strategy. The CCC approach is
presented in [163] to keep the current within a set hysteresis band, which leads to improved
performance at low and medium speeds. The CCC strategy is improved in [164] to keep the SRM's
torque within a set of hysteresis bands using an appropriate source voltage. To examine the effect of
SRM's control settings on the dynamic response of the EV. A Fix angle current chopping control
(FA-CCC) and adaptive variable angle current chopping control (AVA-CCC) is proposed in [165] to
enhance the torque speed characteristics of SRM. To achieve high performance with minimal torque
ripple at the low switching frequency, a current chopping controller based on fuzzy logic control is
suggested in [30]. The proposed controller achieves this by altering the duty cycle of each interrupted
period. In [166], a modified current chopping controller based on a segmented PWM variable duty
cycle according to the inductance characteristic curve is used to mitigate the torque ripple.
Commutation
controller
θon θoff
SRM
Hysteresis
Speed iref Power
ω* +_ +_ current
controller Converter
controller
ω iph
Phase current
detection
Rotor position
dθ/dt
detection
Figure 17. General schematic diagram of SRM hysteresis current control.
torque ripple. The Levenberg–Marquardt algorithm is employed for optimizing the parameters of the
ANN for both controllers, resulting in efficient and faster convergence during training and testing.
The reference [178] uses a novel compensation scheme-based fuzzy logic control and ANFIS to
compensate for the phase current and produce the optimum possible phase current waveform. In the
suggested method, the fuzzy logic and ANFIS controllers control the motor current to reduce the
torque ripple, where a compensating signal is added as input to the current loop control. In [171], An
improved ANFIS based on a Hybrid SSD-SFO algorithm for speed and current control of SRM to
mitigate the torque ripple. In the proposed strategy, two ANFIS controllers control the speed and
current. Additionally, the Hybrid SSD-SFO (social ski-diver-based sunflower optimization)
algorithm was used to optimize the switching angles of SRM and the parameters of the ANFIS
controller for both the current and speed controller. The simulation results demonstrate that the
suggested approach performs effectively with less torque ripple.
Other intelligent control techniques offer adequate current tracking for SRMs based on machine
learning presented in [172]. A new Q-learning scheduling strategy for controlling the current of SRM
is proposed in this paper to minimize the torque ripple. The reference current path is followed using a
table of Q-cores originating on an SRM model's nonlinear surface without including any model
parameters data to schedule the infinite horizon linear quadratic trackers (LQT) handled by Q-
learning algorithms, as illustrated in Figure 18.
SRM
Current ik
Detection
Figure 18. The Q-learning scheduling control scheme for optimal current control of SRM.
the desired speed. In [177], a linear controller is implemented for a small signal model of SRM. Two
PI controllers are utilized for both speed and current loops. The machine's back-EMF is a disturbance
that influences SRMs' current control. Therefore, some methods employ EMF compensation as a
solution. A digital PI current controller based on an improved back-EMF decoupling scheme is
suggested in [174]. This technique improved the performance of SRM by adjusting the PI parameters.
In [178], a simple current control approach depending on narrow voltage pulse injection and a single
threshold is presented for an SRM to achieve senseless control. A two PI-PWM closed-loop control
is implemented to enhance the response of the suggested method. In [175], an adapted parameter of
the PI-PWM current controller of SRM is introduced to achieve a fast dynamics response with a less
current ripple of the proposed current controller. This method proposes a modified sampling scheme
to avoid the control loop's PWM delay. To superior the performance of the linear current control, an
adaptive PI-based current control is developed [179]. Two speed and current control loops are
utilized to minimize the torque ripple.
SRM
PWM
iref Linear V Power
+_ ++
controller Converter
iph
Bck-Emf Vdc
compensation θ
Phase current
detection
addition, an optimized PWM control is introduced by precisely predicting the duty ratio of the
voltage using the data of the motor running parameter.
Moreover, an MPC method based on a fixed-switching frequency utilizing a multiplexed
current sensor for SRM is presented in [185]. In this method, the only current sensor used in this
system was time division multiplexing for phase current sampling, and the duty ratio of PWM was
constrained to maintain an adequate sampling time for A/D conversion. This strategy aimed to
reduce costs with guaranteed performance. In [186], A virtual-flux finite control set MPC (FCS-
MPC) approach of SRM is developed to control the phase current through a flux linkage-tracking
algorithm indirectly. This technique uses a discrete voltage equation to predict a virtual flux and
determines the switching mode, resulting in the minimum error concerning the flux reference.
SRM
Optimal
Switching state Switching
iref Cost function Power
state
minimization modulator converter
iph(k+1)
Predictive
model Vdc(k)
θ(k) iph(k)
Figure 20. Schematic diagram of model predictive current control for SRM.
the reference phase current at a consistent switching frequency. It presents a powerful tracking
response during a wide operating range of the SRM with low current ripple.
SRM
PWM
Sliding mode V Power
iref +_
controller Converter
L(i, θ)
iph
Inductance θ
LUT
Phase current
detection
5. Conclusions
To fulfill the growing demand for effective and sustainable transportation solutions, electric
vehicle (EV) propulsion systems have grown quickly. SRMs have captured significant attention for
EV applications due to their inherent simplicity, robustness, high reliability, and rare-earth-free
composition. However, the SRM encounters numerous challenges requiring the widespread adoption
of innovative solutions. Among the primary issues is the torque ripple issue resulting from its
inherent structure, which can lead to noise and vibration that affect the SRM performance for EV
applications and constraints further developments. Therefore, to achieve the requirements of the
propulsion system in the EV market, the performance of SRM must be outstanding with low torque
ripple and high energy efficiency. As a result, the improvements in modeling and simulation
techniques are crucial for accurately predicting motor performance and optimizing design parameters
to minimize these effects. Furthermore, developing advanced control strategies is essential to
mitigate torque ripple and improve the efficiency and reliability of SRMs. Additionally, the
innovations in power converter topologies for SRMs in EVs can lead to more compact, efficient, and
cost-effective solutions.
This review paper presented a comprehensively survey and analyzed torque ripple mitigation
strategies in SRMs. It discusses the converter topologies' switching angle schemes and focus on
control strategies to minimize the torque ripple. Each strategy's effectiveness, advantages, and
limitations are critically assessed, considering factors such as torque ripple, efficiency,
implementation, and computational complexity in real-world applicability. Besides that, it discusses
methods developed by the researcher. It summarizes the research status and predict future research
directions, aiming to guide for improving low-noise SRM drives in EV applications.
The authors declare that they have not used Artificial Intelligence (AI) tools in the creation of
this article.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest in this paper.
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