1

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
1.1 Introduction
A Differential Equation is a mathematical equation that
relates some functions with its derivatives. Differential equations play a
prominent role in many disciplines including engineering, physics,
economics and biology. In biology and economics, differential equations
are used to model the behaviour of complex systems. Many fundamental
laws of physics and chemistry can be formulated as differential equations.
In mathematics, differential equations are studied from several different
perspectives, mostly concerned with their solutions, the set of functions
that satisfy the equation. We solve the static problems by using ‘Algebra’
but we can not solve the dynamic problems by the help of algebra.
Therefore, to solve the dynamic problems such as speed or rate of change
quantity we used differential equations.

Differential Equation: -
An equation involving derivatives of one or more
dependent variable with respect to one or more independent variable is
called a Differential Equation.

For example,

is differential equation where λ is a constant, x is an

independent variable and y is a dependent variable.

1.2 Differential Equation Are of Three Types

1. Ordinary differential equation
2. Partial differential equation
3. Total differential equation
 2

Ordinary differential equation:

A differential equation involving derivatives with respect
to a single independent variable is called an ordinary differential
equation. For example,

is an ordinary differential equation where x is an

independent variable and y is a dependent variable.

Partial differential equation: -

A differential equation involving derivatives with
respect to more than one independent variable is called a partial
differential equation.

For example,

is a partial differential equation where the domain of

definition Ω is the open unit rectangle of dimension 2

1.3 Order of Differential equation: -

The order of a differential equation is the order of the highest order

derivative occurring in it.

For example,

is the second order ordinary differential equation.

 3

1.4 Degree: -
The degree of a differential equation is the degree of the highest
order derivative which occurs in it, after the differential equation has been
made free from radicals and fractions as far as the derivatives are
concerned.

For example,

is the third order differential equation of degree one

1.5 Solutions of Differential Equations: -

A real or complex valued function defined on an
interval I is called a solution or an integral of the differential equation
g(x,y, y’,...yn’ )=0 if is n times differentiable and if
satisfy this equation for all x in I.

For example, the first-order differential equation

1.6 Classification of solutions: -

Solutions of differential equations is broadly divided

into two types i.e.
1. General solutions
2. Particular solutions
 4

1.6.1 General solution:

The solution of the nth order differential equation which
contains arbitrary constants is called its general solution.

1.6.2 Particular Solution:

Any solution which is obtained from the general solution by giving

values to the arbitrary constants called particular solution.

For example,
z=a cos 2x+b sin 2x, involving two arbitrary constants a and b, is the
𝑑2𝑦
general solution of the second order equation 𝑑𝑥2 + 4z(x) = 0

whereas, y = a cos 2x+ b sin 2r is its particular solution.

1.7 Initial Value Problem:-

An initial value problem involves solving a given differential

equation subject to one or more initial conditions, such as
y(x0) = y0 , y’(x0) = y1

The solution of the differential equation yl (x) = f(x,y) is

called first order initial value problem and y (x0) =y0, is called an initial
condition, with y0, a prescribed constant.

𝑑2 𝑦
The solution of differential equation 𝑑𝑥 2 = f(x,y,y1) subject
to y(x0) = y0 and y1(x0) = y1 is called Second order initial value problem
where y0 and y1 are given constants .
 5

1.8 Boundary Value Problem:-

A differential equation together with boundary conditions is called

boundary value problem.
For example,

Is a boundary value problem.

The mathematical description of many problems in

science and engineering involve second order IVP or two point BVP.

The boundary value problem on the interval (x0,x1)of the equation

y” =f(x,y,y’) is to find a solution y= y (x), which satisfy one of the
following pairs of conditions :

(i)y(x0) = a , y(x0) = b
(ii)y(x0) = a , y’(x1) = b
(iii) )y’(x0) = a , y’(x1) = b

Where a and b are prescribred costants.

 6

CHAPTER 2
HISTORY OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Isaac Newton

Differential equations have been a major branch of pure

and applied mathematics since their inauguration in the mid 17th century.
While their history has been well studied, it remains a vital field of on-
going investigation, with the emergence of new connections with other
parts of mathematics, fertile interplay with applied subjects, interesting
reformulation of basic problems and theory in various periods, new vistas
in the 20th century, and so on. In this meeting we considered some of the
principal parts of this story, from the launch with Newton and Leibniz up
to around 1950. `Differential equations' began with Leibniz, the Bernoulli
brothers and others from the 1680s, not long after Newton's `fluxional
equations' in the 1670s.

Applications were made largely to geometry and

mechanics; isoperimetric problems were exercises in optimisation. Most
18th-century developments consolidated the Leibnizian tradition,
 7

extending its multivariate form, thus leading to partial differential

equations. Generalisation of isoperimetric problems led to the calculus of
variations. New figures appeared, especially Euler, Daniel Bernoulli,
Lagrange and Laplace. Development of the general theory of solutions
included singular ones, functional solutions and those by infinite series.
Many applications were made to mechanics, especially to astronomy and
continuous media. In the 19th century: general theory was enriched by
development of the understanding of general and particular solutions, and
of existence theorems. More types of equation and their solutions
appeared; for example, Fourier analysis and special functions. Among
new figures, Cauchy stands out.

Applications were now made not only to

classical mechanics but also to heat theory, optics, electricity and
magnetism, especially with the impact of Maxwell. Later Poincar\'e
introduced recurrence theorems, initially in connection with the three-
body problem. In the 20th century: general theory was influenced by the
arrival of set theory in mathematical analysis; with consequences for
theorisation, including further topological aspects. New applications
were made to quantum mathematics, dynamical systems and relativity
theory.
 8

CHAPTER 3
FIRST ORDER AND FIRST DEGREE
ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

3.1 Definition: -

The differential equations in which except

dependent and independent variable only 1st order derivatives are present
are called, First order differential equations.

For Example: -
𝑑𝑦
1. 𝑑𝑥 + f(x) = f(y)

𝑑𝑦
2. 𝑑𝑥 + f(x,y)=0

3.2 Variable – Separable Method :-

• The process of collecting all functions of with dx and all functions

of y with dy ( So that integration may be possible) is known as
the process of separation of variable.
• A first order first degree differential equation is of the from
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) ………… (1 )
𝑑𝑥
• The equation (1) is called a separable or equation in variable
separable form, if f(x,y) can be put in the form f(x,y) = X(x) .
Y(y), ………….(2)
Where X and Y are given function of x and y respectively.

Now that differential equation (1) takes form

𝑑𝑦
= 𝑋(𝑥 ). 𝑌(𝑦) ………… (3)
𝑑𝑥
 9

If Y(y) ≠ 0 , separating the variables, equation (3) can be written

as

…………….. (4)

………….. (5)

Hence, equation (5) provides the solution of the given differential

equation (3) in the form F(y) =G (x) + C.

Example-1:Find the general solution of the differential equation

𝑑𝑦
=ex+y +x2ey
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
Solution :- =ex+y +x2ey
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
➢
=ex . ey + x2 . ey
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
➢ =ey (ex + x2 )
𝑑𝑥

➢ e-y dy = (ex +x2)dx

➢ ∫ 𝑒-y dy = ∫(𝑒x + x2) dx
𝑥3
➢ −e-y = ex + +c
3
Which is the required separable equation.
 10

3.2 Homogenous Equations & it’s Solution:-

An ordinary differential equation is said to be
homogenous equation of degree n, where n is a real number if
𝑑𝑦
= f(x,y)
𝑑𝑥
is represented as
𝑑𝑦 𝑦
=𝑔 ( )
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
Or
f(tx,ty) = tnf(x,y)
Example -1

is a homogenous differential equation since

Example -2
f(x,y) =x2 +2xy +4y2 is a homogenous function of degree 2
since f(tx , ty) = t2 (x2 + 2xy + 4y2)

Theorem -

If M(xy)dt + N(x,y)dy= 0 ……………………….(1)

is a homogeneous equation, then the change of variables y = vx

transforms (1) into a separable equation in the variable v and x.

 11

Proof:

Since M(x, y) dx + N(x, y)dy =0is homogeneous, it may be written in the form

Example:
Verify that the following equations are homogeneous and solve them.
𝑑𝑦 𝑥 2 −2𝑥𝑦+5𝑦 2
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 2 +2𝑥𝑦+𝑦 2
 12

Solution: First to show that the given equation is homogeneous by writing it in

the form
 13

3.3 Non-Homogenous Equations & it’s Solution

Definition:-
• A Differential equation which is not homogenous is called Non-
Homogenous Differential equation
• To solve non-Homogenous differential equation first we have to convert
it into Homogenous differential equation and then proceed to solve
Theorem : Consider the equation
 14

Now the solution (3) can be obtained by means of the substitution ax + by = t ,

 15

Example: Solve the differential equation

Solution : The given differential equation

 16

Is the solution of the given differential equation.

 17

CHAPTER – 4
Exact And Non-Exact
Differential Equation & It’s Solutions

4.1 Standard Form of First order Differential Equations

The first order differential equation may be expressed in either the
derivative form
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) or the differential form M(x,y)dx + N(x,y)dy=0
𝑑𝑥

An equation in one of the above forms can be easily written in the other
form.
𝑑𝑦 𝑥+𝑦+1
For example : The equation 𝑑𝑥 = can be written in the form
𝑦 2 −𝑥−3

( x+ y+1)dx+ (x-y2+3)dy=0
 18

4.2 Exact Differential Equations

𝑑𝑦
The differential equation 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) also be written as
M(x,y)dx + N(x,y)dy= 0 …………………(1)
This differential equation is exact iff
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
=
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
Example :- Check xdy+ydx=0 is exact or not ?
Solution: -Given xdy+ydx=0
Here 𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑦 and N(x,y)=x
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
=1 and 𝜕𝑥 =1
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
Since = 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑦

Therefore, it is exact.

4.3 Solution of Exact Differential Equation: -

The solution of exact differential equation proceeds through the
following steps: -
Consider a given differential equation is M(x,y)dx+N(x,y)dy = 0
STEP-1: -
Find ∫ 𝑀𝑑𝑥………………………………………… (1)
(Integrate M w.r.t x treating ‘y’ on constant)
STEP-2: -
Find ∫(𝑁 − 𝑥 )𝑑𝑦…………………………………..(2)
(Integrate those terms of N w.r.t y which do not contain x)
 19

STEP-3: -
Atlast putting the values ∫ 𝑀𝑑𝑥 and ∫(𝑁 − 𝑥 )𝑑𝑦 in the equation
∫ 𝑴𝒅𝒙 + ∫(𝑵 − 𝒙)𝒅𝒚 = c……………(3)
Which is the required solution.
Example: -
Find the exact solution of (2x-y+1)dx + (2y-x-1)dy = 0 ?
Solution: -
STEP-1: -
Given M(x,y) = 2x-y+1 and N(x,y) = 22y-x-1
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
= -1 and = -1
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
Since = 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑦

Therefore, the differential equation is exact.

STEP-2: -
∫ 𝑀𝑑𝑥 = ∫(2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 1)𝑑𝑥
=x2-xy+x…………………………………….(1)
STEP-3:-
∫(𝑁 − 𝑥 )𝑑𝑦 = ∫(2𝑦 − 1)𝑑𝑦
=y2-y…………………………………...(2)
STEP-4:-
Putting these values in
∫ 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + ∫(𝑁 − 𝑥 )𝑑𝑦 = c
=>x2-xy+x+y2-y = 0…………………….(3)
Which is required solution of Exact Differential Equations.
 20

4.4 Non - Exact Differential Equations: -

• A differential equation which is not exact is called non-Exact
differential equation i.e in non-exact differential equation
if M(x,y)dx + N(x,y) = 0 then
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
≠
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
• For example, (x2+y2+x)dx+(xy)dy= 0is non exact differential
equation.
Since here M=x2+y2+x
N=xy
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
=2y and =y
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
And ≠
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

4.5 Integrating Factor: -

• A factor which when multilocked with a non-exact differential
makes it exact, is known as an integrating factor.
• The number of integrating factors of the equation
M(x,y)dx + N(x,y)dy= 0 is infinite.
• The term integrating factor 1st introduced by Fatio de Duillier in
1687

Fatio de Duillier
 21

4.6 Rules to Find Integrating Factor for Solution of Non - Exact

Differential Equations

Sometimes a given differential equation is not exact , but can be made

exact by multiplying it by some suitable factor , called the integrating
factor (I.F.). For example, consider the differential equation
-ydx+xdy = 0
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
Here M=-y and N = x so that = −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =1
𝜕𝑌 𝜕𝑥
1
Hence the equation is not exact. But if we multiply it by 𝑥 2 , we get
(-y/x2)dx + (1/x)dy = 0 ……………………(1)
M = -y/x2 and N=1/x , therefore
𝜕𝑀 −1 𝜕𝑁
= =
𝜕𝑌 𝑥2 𝜕𝑥

Thus equation(1) becomes exact. Write this equation as

d(y/x) =0 ………………………………….(2)
integrating equation (2),we get y/x =c as the general solution of the
given equation. Thus we see that an Integrating factor is a factor which
changes a non - exact differential equation into an exact differential
equation.

Rules For Finding Integrating Factors:-

RULE (1): If M(x, y) dx + N(x, y) dy = 0

1 𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
is not exact and 𝑁 ( 𝜕𝑌
− 𝜕𝑥
) =f(x), function of x alone

then 𝑒 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 is an integrating factor of differential equation (1)

 22

Proof:
Let µ be an integrating factor of equation (1), then by hypothesis µMdx
+ µNdy=0
Is an exact differential equation. Thus

Example:- Solve the differential equation

(3xy2+2 y) dx+(2x2y+x)dy = 0
Solution:
Here M= 3 xy2+2 y and N = 2x2y+x
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
So that = 6𝑥𝑦 + 2 , = 4𝑥𝑦 + 1
𝜕𝑌 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
Since ≠ , therefore the given equation is not exact. However
𝜕𝑌 𝜕𝑥
 23

And

is an integrating factor . Multiplying the given equation by x, we get

(3x2 y²+2 xy) dx+(2x3 y+x2) dy = 0 ……………….(1)
from which M = 3x2 y+2 xy and N = 2x3 y+x2
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
Then = 6𝑥 2y+2x =
𝜕𝑌 𝜕𝑥

Hence equation (1).is exact and its general solution is given by the
formula

RULE (2): If M(x,y) dx + N(x,y) dy = 0 is not exact and if

A function of y alone,
Then 𝑒 − ∫ 𝑔(𝑦)𝑑𝑦 is an integrating factor of differential equation (1)
Proof: Let µ be an integrating factor of differential equation (1), then by
hypothesis
µMdx+µNdy =0 is an exact differential equation.
 24

𝜕 𝜕
Thus (µ𝑀) = (µ𝑁)
𝜕𝑌 𝜕𝑌

Or

𝜕µ
Since µ is a function of y alone, =0
𝜕𝑥

Therefore

Or

Or

and so In

is the required integrating factor.

Example: Solve the differential equation

(2xy2-y)dx+(2x2-xy) dy =0
 25

Solution:-
Here M= 2xy2-y and N=2x-x2y
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
So that = 4xy-1 and = 2-2xy
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
Since ≠ , therefore the given is not exact. However
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

1
Is an integrating factor. Multiplying given equation by 𝑦 3, we get

Hence the equation is exact and the general solution is given by the
formula
∫ 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + ∫(𝑁 − 𝑥 )𝑑𝑦 = c
𝑥 1
Or ∫(2 𝑦 − 𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 0𝑑𝑦 = c
𝑥2 𝑥
Or – 𝑦 2 = c or x2y-x = cy2
𝑦

RULE (3):
If M(x,y)dx + N(x,y) = 0………………………………..(1)
1
is homogenous and Mx+Ny≠ 0, then 𝑀𝑥+𝑁𝑦 is an integrating factor the
give differential equation.
 26

Proof:
1
If is an integrating factor of the given differential
𝑀𝑥+𝑁𝑦
equation, then we are to show that-

Subtracting equation (3) from equation (2)

using Euler's theorem on homogeneous function

Example - Solve the differential equation (x4 +y4)dx-xy3 dy = 0.

 27

The given equation is homogeneous since it can be written as

1
So 𝑥 5 is an integrating factor of the given differential equation
1
Multiplying the given equation by 𝑥 5 we get
……….(1)

Hence equation (1 ) is exact and its general solution is given by the

formula

RULE (4): If M(x,y)dx+N (x, y) dy= 0……………….(1)

Is not exact and can be written in the form yf(xy) dx +xg (xy) dy =0
………………………….(2)
1
And if Mx-Ny ≠ 0 , then 𝑀𝑥−𝑁𝑦 ls an integrating factor of differential
equation
EXAMPLE –
Solve the differential equation
y (x2 y2 + 2)dx+x (2-2 x2 y2 ) dy = 0
 28

SOLUTION:
The equation is of the form y f(x y) dx +xg (xy)dy = 0
Here M = y(x2 y2+ 2 ), N = x (2 -2 x²y2)
And Mx-Ny = x3 y3+2 xy -2 xy+2 x3 y3 = 3 x3 y3 ≠ 0

Thus equation (1) is exact and its general solution is given by the
formula
 29

CHAPTER- 5
SPECIAL TYPE OF
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS &
ITS SOLUTIONS

5.1 Linear Differential Equations

A first order differential equation is said to be linear if it can be written
in the form
𝑑𝑦
+ 𝑃𝑦 = 𝑄 where P and Q arc functions of x (or constants).
𝑑𝑥
For example, the differential equations
𝑑𝑦 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 2
(i) + 2𝑦 = 6𝑒 (ii) 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥= 9
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
(iii) +𝑦 =5 (iv) + 3𝑥𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
Are linear while 𝑑𝑥 + 3𝑥𝑦2 = sin x is not
Let us find a formula for the general solution of equation (1) in some
interval I, assuming that P and Q are continuous in I.
𝑑𝑦
First consider the homogeneous equation + 𝑃𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
By separating the variables, we have = −𝑃𝑑𝑥
𝑦

If we take C = 0, we obtain the trivial solution y = 0.

Next, consider the non-homogeneous equation (1). It will be seen that it
has the property of possessing an integrating factor depending only on
x. We first write equation (1) as
 30

depends only on x , we see that 𝑒 ∫ 𝑃(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 is an integrating factor.

Multiplying by this factor , equation (1) becomes
𝑑𝑦
𝑒 ∫ 𝑝𝑑𝑥 (𝑑𝑥 + 𝑝𝑦) = Q𝑒 ∫ 𝑝𝑑𝑥
𝑑
Which can written as 𝑑𝑥(𝑒 ∫ 𝑝𝑑𝑥 y) = Q𝑒 ∫ 𝑝𝑑𝑥
Then on integrating, we have
𝑒 ∫ 𝑝𝑑𝑥 y = Q𝑒 ∫ 𝑝𝑑𝑥 + c
Which is the general solution of equation (1). We may put it as
y(I.F) = Q𝑒 ∫ 𝑝𝑑𝑥 + c

𝑑𝑥
In case, the first order linear differential equation is in the form + P1x = Q1
𝑑𝑦

where, P1 and Q1 are constants or functions of y only. Then I.F =𝑒 − ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑦 and
the solution of the differential equation is given by
 31

x.(I.F) = ∫(𝑄 (𝐼. 𝐹))dy + c

Example: -
Find the general solution of the differential equation

Solution: -
Given differential equation is of the form
 32

5.2 Bernoulli’s Equation:-

Example:-
1 𝑑𝑦
Solve 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑙𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑥
33
 34

CHAPTER- 6
APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

6.1Radioactivity & Exponential Decay Model :-

Basic assumptions :
(i) We assume that the process is continuous in time
(ii) We assume that a fixed rate of decay is occurring for an element.
(iii) We assume that no increase in mass of the body of material occurs.
Balance Equation :

(Rate of change of radio active material at time t)= -(Rate of decay of radioactive
material)
Formulating Mathematical Model:
Let N(t) be the number of radio active nuclei at time t. We know that the rate
of change in number of nuclei is proportional to the number of nuclei at the starting time, we
can write with the aid of balance equation that
𝑑𝑁
= -kN…………………………….(3.1)
𝑑𝑡
where k is constant of proportionality indicating the rate of decay per nucleus in unit time. K
has different value for different elements/isotopes.
Though N(t) should be an integer (number of nuclei), to attribute continuity to N we may
consider N to be the mass in grams.
Given a sample of radio active element at some initial time, say n0, nuclei at t0, we can able
to predict the mass of nuclei at some later time t. The value of k is usually found through
 35

experiment with known k and an initial condition N (t0)=n0, the differential equation (3.1)
becomes the initial value problem (IVP) as follows:
𝑑𝑁
= -kN , N(t0)= n0 ……………………………………………….(3.2)
𝑑𝑡

Putting (ii) in (i) we have N(t) = n0𝑒 −𝑘(𝑡−t0)

This is the solution of ( IVP) .The solution shows that the decay is exponential.

Half life:
The half-life z of the radioactive nuclei is the time required for half of the nuclei to decay.
 36

Example:
If half cycle is z, then find k in terms of z.
Solution: We have the solution of the (IVP).

Residence Time:
The mean time that an individual particle is in the compartment.
Example:
Find the residence time of exponential decay compartmental model.
Solution:
𝑑𝑁
If we start with no particles, then the solution of IVP occupy in exponential decay = -kN
𝑑𝑡

, N(0) =n0 is N(t) = n0𝑒 −𝑘𝑡

This can be given a probabilistic interpretation. In this interpretation, e is the fraction of
particles left in the compartment at time t.
Thus the quantity F(t) = 1 – e-kt represents the probability of an individual particle that has
left the compartment by time . This is the cumulative probability function for the time each
particle was in the compartment. That means, if T is the random variable representing the
time of residing each particle in the compartment, it follows that:
 37

F(t) = P(T≤ 𝑡) = 1 – e-kt

This is the comulative probability of the time of each particle in the compartment. Thus the
probability density function (pdf) of the random variable is given by
𝑑𝐹
F(t) = = ke-kt
𝑑𝑡

This shows that the time in the compartment T has an exponential distribution. Thus the
mean of this distribution is given by

Thus the reciprocal of rate constant k, is the mean time that a particle spends in the
compartment
1
That means, the residence time is .
𝑘

Radiocarbon Dating:
Example:
In the cave of Lascaux in France there are some ancient wall paintings. The current decay
rate of 14C in charcoal fragments collected from the cave is approximately 1.69 per minute
per gram. For living tissue in 1950, this measurement was 13.5 per minute. How long ago
was the radioactive carbon formed and, within an error margin the Lascaux cave paintings
painted ?
Solution: Let N(t) be the amount of 14C per gram in the charcoal at time t. Applying the
𝑑𝑁
model of exponential decay, = -kN
𝑑𝑡
We know that z = 30 years (half-life of 14C)
ln 2
We know that , k = ~ = 0.0001245
𝑧
 38

6.2 Lake Pollution Model

Definition : (Concentration of salt mixture) :

Concentration can be defined as the mass of salt per unit volume of the salt mixture.
Example-Find a differential equation for the amount of salt in the tank at any time.
Solution: The tank is taken as compartment. Let S(t) be the amount (mass) of salt in the
tank at time t. The diagram of the situation is given below.
 39

Example:
If the incoming mixture have constant concentration, then find out the amount of salt in the
tank at any time t.
 40

Example:
 41

Example:
How long will it take for the lake population level to reach 5% of its initial level if only fresh
water flows into the lake ?
Solution: The governing equation of this lake (pollutant) problem is
 42

CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION :-

Ordinary differential equation plays a major role in

the development of modern science and technology. It is a vast
topic in agricultural technology , aeronautical dynamics, and
engineering. There are many more applications of ordinary
differential equations which is used in our daily lives, such as
detecting of art forgeries, drugs assimilation into blood, limited
growth with harvesting in agriculture.
It is also used in exponential growth model for
measuring of the population. By using the differential equation,
we can also measure the rate of spreading of communicable
diseases. With help of prey and predator model we can easily
measures the growth of carnivorous prey and predator in the food
chain .
There are many more applications of Ordinary
differential equation but here we listed a small part of it for the
basic knowledge of differential equation in mathematics.
 43

BIBILOGRAPHY:-

1. J. Sinha Roy and S. Padhy: A Course of Ordinary and Partial

Differential Equations, Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi.
2. Martin Braun: Differential Equations and their Applications,
Springer International. 2
3. M.D. Raisinghania: Advanced Differential Equations, S. Chand
& Company Ltd., New Delhi. 3
4. G. Dennis Zill: A First Course in Differential Equations with
Modelling Applications, Cengage Learning India Pvt. Ltd. 4
5. S.L. Ross: Differential Equations, John Wiley & Sons, India,
2004.