OTC-32374-MS

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Harnessing Leak Detection System in Offshore Pipeline Operation

Tedy Susanto, Muhammad Dedy Nurmansyah, and James Thomas Ladd, Schneider Electric

Copyright 2023, Offshore Technology Conference DOI 10.4043/32374-MS

This paper was prepared for presentation at the Offshore Technology Conference held in Houston, TX, USA, 1 – 4 May, 2023.

This paper was selected for presentation by an OTC program committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of
the paper have not been reviewed by the Offshore Technology Conference and are subject to correction by the author(s). The material does not necessarily reflect any
position of the Offshore Technology Conference, its officers, or members. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper without the written
consent of the Offshore Technology Conference is prohibited. Permission to reproduce in print is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words; illustrations may
not be copied. The abstract must contain conspicuous acknowledgment of OTC copyright.

Abstract
Delivery of crude oil from Single Point Mooring (SPM) through subsea pipeline to Onshore Receiving
Facility (ORF) play critical role for refinery processing and operation. The pipeline laid in seabed,
connecting oil tanker to storage facility on onshore side. Leak Detection System (LDS) is required to monitor
any oil leakage from the pipeline. If leak happens and no LDS in place, mitigation action will be late, cause
much oil or gas will be released to the environment, dangerous for ocean habitat, harmful for human and
asset safety i.e. explosion and fire, then it can impact on company reputation that own or operate the pipeline.
Tankers transport crude oil via subsea pipeline to oil refinery storage tank including activities such as
loading, unloading, and flushing line. Pipeline LDS project scope of works comprise hardware, software,
and service. The integration amongst these parts will determine project completion success criteria.
Supervisory Control and Data Acquistion (SCADA) system located in Central Control Room (CCR) is used
to monitoring all pipeline operation over long distance. The connected data start from smart field devices,
collected by Remote Telemetry Unit (RTU), transmit by telecommunication media, and finally reach the
CCR. All operation setting can be adjustable according to different kind of oil product LDS software is an
advanced high fidelity software application for the pipeline industry which meets the American Petroleum
Institute Recommended Practice (API RP) 1130 Computational Pipeline Monitoring (CPM) system.
When the SCADA and LDS system were installed, the project will continue into commissioning and
critical tuning phase where actual values and Standard Operation Procedure (SOP) is established or revised.
SPM's power availability from solar panel and telecommunication bandwidth should be monitoring all the
time. Parallel with that, there is the possible threshold setting should be estimated as per API 1149 that
impact on leak detection performance from several factors i.e. accuracy of pressure, flow, and temperature
transmitter, slack line condition, and properties of products. The crude oil coming with different API from
different oil producer. The system will continuously calculate imbalances using data gathered from field
devices. Dynamic threshold adjustment to mitigate transient alarm and avoid false alarms, which these
are temporary changes and are removed after time averaging period end. By have all these information
via SCADA and Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) system, it will reduce boat trip to the SPM, which
means reduce CO2 emission and operating cost. LDS system will monitor the pipeline leakage and provide
good mitigation plan by located the leak with Global Positioning System (GPS), delivering crude oil using
offshore pipeline will be safer to human safety and environment.
2 OTC-32374-MS

Introduction
Delivery of crude oil with some kind of API degree from SPM or Catenary Anchor Leg Mooring (CALM)
through subsea pipeline play critical role for oil refinery processing and operation. The pipeline laid in
seabed, connecting oil tanker to storage facility on onshore side.

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Field devices are installed on inlet and outlet pipeline, to capture the field data and transmit to the SCADA
system then interface with LDS is required to monitor any oil leakage from the pipeline. If leak happens
and there is no LDS in place, the oil or gas will be released to the environment, dangerous for ocean habitat,
human safety i.e. explosion and fire, then it can impact on company reputation that own or operate the
pipeline. It will cause big losses of production and energy if was not detected and mitigated immediately
and securely.

Scope of Work
All information start from field devices located in offshore SPM Buoy and onshore will be connected to the
RTU, transmitted via telecom system using Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM), processed
by SCADA server and LDS Server and displayed on operator's Human Machine Interface (HMI) in Control
Room.
Pipeline LDS project scope of works comprise hardware, software, and service. The integration amongst
these parts will determine project completion success criteria.

Figure 1—Scope of Work

System Architecture
LDS project consists of the following servers :

• Two Online Redundant LDS Servers at Oil Movement (OM) Control Room
OM support the process of discharge crude oil from tanker or load the product from Refinery
Unit back to the tanker.
• One SCADA Operator workstations at OM Control Room

Two LDS production servers will perform the role of redundant online LDS servers. The LDS and
SCADA server will contain LDS software to run the LDS. It will also contain SCADA Server for HMI
Development and to run the SCADA Open Platform Communications (OPC) data server. SCADA data will
be provided to the LDS from the SCADA OPC Server. The LDS will communicate to the SCADA system
via OPC communications protocol to obtain the required flows, temperatures, pressures, device statuses,
with corresponding quality flags (fresh flag), and time stamps. The LDS servers will synchronize their time
clocks with the SCADA servers automatically using the Windows Time Server. One Light Emitting Diode
(LED) Monitor can be used to monitor both LDS and SCADA machines using a Keyboard Video Mouse
OTC-32374-MS 3

(KVM0 Switch, these materials are installed in the RTU & Server Cabinet in OM Control Room, Buzzer
Alarm is also installed on RTU & Server Cabinet to alert the operator when a Leak Detection Alarm occurs.
The SCADA Operator Work Station (OWS) will function as the operator console with SCADA Client
installed. A LED Monitor that will be used by Operators to monitor and operate the LDS in OM Control
Room. SCADA and LDS graphics will both be displayed on the SCADA workstation.

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Two RTU are installed in the RTU Cabinet to measure the 4-20mA Analog Input (AI) from Flow,
Pressure, and Temperature Transmitter and two other RTU are installed on SPM Offshore to measure the
4-20mA AI from Flow, Pressure, and Temperature Transmitter.
Following is the System Architecture showing the layout of the hardware as it will be installed on-site.

Figure 2—System Architecture

Pipeline Infrastructure
On the below diagram, it clearly shows the process flow start from crude oil tanker load or off-load the
material via subsea pipeline to the Onshore Receiving Facility (ORF).
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Figure 3—Crude Oil via Subsea Pipeline Process Flow Diagram

The figure below show the Piping and Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID) marked up to represent the
pipeline and required equipment for LDS.

Figure 4—Overview P&ID

SPM Buoy Operation

Crude oil come from Very Large Crude Carrier (VLCC) tanker which can carry SPM will discharge various
crude oil from tanker's storage to ORF.
The SPM Buoy location has selected due to the following criteria :
OTC-32374-MS 5

1. The 35 m water depth is more than sufficient to accommodate a fully loaded VLCC maximum 250,000
Dead Weight Tonnage (DWT) which minimum depth requirement of 28.5 m.
2. The 6 km manuevering radius available between the SPM centre and the shoreline exceeds the 1200
m minimum radius(measured from the SPM centre) requirement for maximum 250,000 DWT tanker.
3. The 1.8 km radius requirement if the tanker had to head into prevailing seas by locating itself between

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the shoreline and the SPM is also met.
Here are step by step operation :
1. A tanker approaches the SPM terminal at slow speed. Vessel messenger line will connect mooring
hawsers.
2. The vessel's winches and haul the tanker to proper distance and engines are shut down. Tanker slowly
weather-vanes around the buoy in response to influence of wave, current, and wind.
3. The floating hose strings connects to the tanker's manifold.
4. Fluid cargoes can be on- or off-loaded now.
5. After transfer process has been completed, the operator simply disconnects the hoses and casts off
the mooring hawsers.
The design criteria of building SPM Buoy depend on some factors such as maximum wave height, wind
speed, and current speed. These parameters impact to survival conditions which correspond for 100 years
period of data taken and operational conditions which tanker can stay securely moored or there is no tanker
moored during maximum condition.

Telemetry SCADA
Telemetry or remote SCADA is a control system that uses computer, network communication, and Graphical
User Interface (GUI) for process supervisory management, for long distance and remote location such as
SPM. It has some components such as field device, RTU, telecommunication, and SCADA system.

Figure 5—Telemetry SCADA Monitoring

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Figure 6—Telemetry SCADA Map

Field device
Field device like pressure, flow, and temperature sensor are required to get all information at inlet and outlet
of the pipeline. For some cases flow transmitter would be Ultra Sonic Meter (USM) beside flange type.
Some flow elements that include elbows, valves, pumps, reducers, diffusers, etc. distort the flow profile. The
most important thing that chosen measuring point is at sufficient distance from any disturbance's sources.
Recommended straight run of inlet and outlet pipe lengths depend on flow device's manufacturer, at least
10D for upstream and 5D for downstream from the flow measurement point, where D is pipeline's diameter.

Figure 7—Field device

RTU
All information from these field instruments are going to be wired to RTU. The field instrument's parameter
and setting are configurable in RTU. The RTU has support IEC-61131-3 program language capabilities and
embedded I/O channel, which can be expanded. It supports most world class certification such as UL, CSA,
CE, RCM, ATEX, Class 1 Div 2 and operate from −40 to +70°C. With field-proven reliability, RTU provide
ease-of-use, enhanced serviceability, and lower cost of operations.
OTC-32374-MS 7

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Figure 8—RTU, Solar System & CCTV Camera

Solar System
The 3 main components are photovoltaic modules, solar controller, and battery.

Communication
The typical communication infrastructure for offshore pipeline is using GSM or radio. It connects between
RTU and SCADA server. CCTV camera also use this communication link to share live video or picture
surrounding SPM environment and loading/unloading activity from/to tanker. The solar system information
status is monitored by operator in Control Room.

SCADA
SCADA system located in Oil Movement Control Room is used to monitoring all pipeline operation over
long distance. Operator able to configure and manage the oil transportation via pipeline (include offshore
and onshore). All operation setting can be adjustable according to different kind of oil product and displayed
on HMI screen. SCADA software focus on connectivity, IoT, industry specific features and easy to use. It
designs to transform field data into relevant business information by optimizing remote assets along with
the pipeline infrastructure.

Figure 9—RTU, SCADA HMI Display

8 OTC-32374-MS

CCTV
CCTV used for monitoring the tanker operation and SPM Buoy situation. Because CCTV is an addition and
the priority of this LDS project is for RTU, the CCTV image quality will be lowered to the minimum setting
to get the smallest bandwidth so that traffic is small to minimize disruption to RTU data transmission.
The CCTV's software opened by the Internet Explorer browser for type the Camera or Network Video

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Recorder (NVR) IP Address is used to open camera monitoring on SPM. The NVR is compatible with
numerous third-party devices, which make it the perfect solution for surveillance systems that work
independently of Video Management System (VMS). It features an open architecture that supports for multi-
user access and is compatible with Open Network Video Interface Forum (ONVIF) 2.4 protocol.
NVR will receive image data from CCTV through OpenVPN network that has been integrated with image
quality parameters adjusted to the data packet size.

Figure 10—CCTV Monitoring

Pipeline Modelling
The Pipeline Model is a full transient model and is based on the LDS software toolset which is designed to
be an extremely flexible pipeline-modeling tool, allowing it to handle the wide variety of pipeline systems in
the pipeline industry. It has components for calculating the dynamics for Heavy-Oil blend, synthetic crude
Oil and other refined products as necessary.
The system is a two phase (Gas and Liquid) multi-component (CH4, C2H8, N2, air, crude oil, products,
water, Drug Reducing Agents (DRA), odorant etc.) non-thermal equilibrium model. It is however designed
to allow the engineer to select any combination of these options to reduce computer execution time. For
example, a dry natural gas pipeline could be configured as only CH4 and only gas phase. This would result
in very efficient code using minimum computer power. Alternatively, a system could be configured for
liquid and gas phase with multi-components in each phase to give the most accurate simulation of complex
systems.
The end user is able to add and configure additional components. Saturation properties, viscosities,
adiabatic and isothermal bulk modulus, heat capacities, reference enthalpies, densities are fully configurable
as functions of temperature and/or pressure.
The system has separate dynamic Mass, Momentum, and Energy Balances for each phase. This removes
any requirement that the two phases be in equilibrium. It is also possible to have any combination of liquid/
gas concurrent or counter-current flow pattern. No steady state assumptions are used.
All of the necessary physical properties are calculated by the system. This includes pressures, gas and
liquid flows, enthalpies, (gas, liquid, and wall temperatures), heat transfer rates (gas-wall, liquid-wall,
OTC-32374-MS 9

gas-liquid, wall-ambient), gas and liquid phase concentrations, boiling and condensation rates, viscosities,
densities, etc.
The dynamic thermal model includes the capacity of the fluid (gas and liquid), pipe, and surrounding
environment, above and below ground effects. It also includes heat from pump work, frictional heating, and
compressive work. The user can also define any additional heat sources.

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General Assumptions
In the design of the pipeline model, some assumptions are made that have no impact on the LDS sensitivity
and performance. These are:

• No pump bearing, cooling and lubrication oil systems models will be included.

• The custody transfer/metering model will cover the pipeline from supplier's injection point through
the flow control system to the pump station. The flow meter prover will be simulated as a constant
flow resistance.
• The storage tank model (if any) will be based on the telemetered volumes and incoming/outgoing
flow balance.
• Tanks will not be used in the leak detection or batch tracker models. LDS batch and flow
information will be available at the pump station batch meter. It is assumed that all new batch cuts
will be done at the pump station meter, not at the custody transfer meter.
• No manual vents, drains and other valves will be simulated unless they are specified as remote
functions.
• No valves for launcher and receiver pressure relief, ventilation, or filling will be simulated.

System Initialization
It refers to the first server system start-up from a recorded or generated initial condition. All other normal
state change transitions or backtrack synchronization enabled processes don't require the initialization step.
During system initialization (re-start or initial start-up) the system uses a previously snapped condition as
a starting point. If the previous condition was snapped recently, no major auto-tuning should be expected.
Minimal auto-tuning will take place after minor updates of the models on the online system, assuming
recently snapped backtrack conditions exist.
If no previously saved backtrack is available, the default condition, as defined by initial values for all
variables in the LDS software database, will be used. If the system starts from a default condition, it must
go through a set of initialization steps before it will be fully functional. The steps are set by the initialization
module and each of them is responsible for a specific task. The whole process normally takes around 3-4
minutes.
Starting without a previously snapped backtrack requires the model to converge with the current pipeline
conditions. The shorter averaging periods are required to initialize with current model data. Any changes
in equipment statuses will be received as soon as the system reconnects to the SCADA. Any changes in
analogs and rates within the downtime will not be used.
The shortest averaging period of the LDS will be available almost immediately after completion of the
initialization process. All other averaging periods are also active, but require more history to function at
the lowest thresholds.

LDS Software Interface with SCADA

Communication from the Real-Time database to the leak detection (SCADA/LDS) will take place via Open
Platform Communications Data Access (OPC DA) protocol. Data that is sent from Leak Detection to the
SCADA system (such as leak alarms) will also use the OPC DA protocol. The LDS software requires
10 OTC-32374-MS

incoming and outgoing communications to use Distributed Data Services over Internet Protocol (DDSIP)
Protocol. The LDS software's DDSIP OPC application will be used as a converter to convert from OPC DA
to DDSIP for incoming communications and from DDSIP to OPC DA for outgoing communications.

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Figure 11—SCADA and LDS Redundancy Mechanism

The SCADA data server must be installed and configured on each server that will be used as a data
source for LDS software. The data server on the SCADA system will run continuously. The data server
will also periodically communicate with the SCADA system to determine the state of the SCADA system.
The SCADA data server that will provide data will be the data server on the primary (hot and operational)
SCADA computer. The SCADA data server that is in standby will continue to monitor the state of the
SCADA system. Upon a change in state of the SCADA system (i.e. a fail-over), the previously active
SCADA data server will disconnect its client connections. One of the previously standby data servers will
become active and will allow client connections. The LDS client applications will reconnect to the active
SCADA data server. The applications will then re-register all data points and synchronize to the active data
server.
Note that if a point in the gather file does not exist in the SCADA database database, then the LDS
software model will write a message into a run log and continue normal operation for all the points that
do exist in the database database.
If the LDS client cannot connect to the SCADA data server or loses its existing connection, it will attempt
to reconnect to this server based on the scan cycles defined in the configured in simpoint gather files. At
each scan cycle, the client will make three (3) connection attempts at a configurable timeout interval. This
process will continue until one of the following conditions is met:

• The SCADA server is connected

• The LDS system is shut down

When communication is re-established, the DDSIP process (client side) will clear the loss of
communication alarm. Since the communication to the SCADA system is bad at this time, the ability to
write this status back to the data server does not exist.

SCADA Data Transfer to LDS (DDSIP Gather)

The LDS system will require telemetry information from all metered stations and from pressure and
temperature transmitters along the pipeline. Each data point retrieves value, timestamp, and quality
information, which are then used to evaluate the validity of the data. Valid data is used to update the LDS
calculations. Invalid data is discarded. Additionally, the LDS system will require the status of all valves and
pumps that are part of the modelled pipeline.
OTC-32374-MS 11

The LDS to SCADA clients resides on the LDS servers. A SCADA data server also resides on the LDS
servers and provides data to client applications (i.e. LDS, SCADA Client). The LDS application will provide
the SCADA data server a list of data points that the LDS application requires. The format of the requested
data points will be compatible with the existing SCADA system data architecture. The SCADA data server
provides the necessary linkage between the LDS client and the SCADA database.

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The LDS client application will register data points for which the client wants to retrieve values on a
periodic basis. The SCADA data server will determine which points’ values have changed and will respond
back to the client with a message containing only those point values that have changed. The LDS client
applications will schedule data retrieval at various rates by grouping together the data points according to
the required update rate. The data retrieval intervals can be adjusted during the project commissioning phase
if necessary.
The point categories are broad in that they do not address specific SCADA data points, but rather
categorize the type of point that is expected. The SCADA database table and column entries outlined are
from the specific table definitions.
The following sections define broad categories of telemetry information that the LDS Online Model is
expecting to retrieve from the SCADA system. The LDS requires the majority of the telemetry information.
It is assumed that all categories of data are available.
Field device or transmitter types include pressure, temperature, flow, and density. All transmitter values
are analog values and can be found in the SCADA HMI.

Table 1—Analog Table Data Attributes

Requested Data Attribute Description Corresponding SCADA field

Value The current analog reading xxxxxxxxxx.CurrentValue

The time when the current reading was

Timestamp xxxxxxxxxx.CurrentTime
taken & converted

Quality State of the point value xxxxxxxxxx.CurrentQuality

The pipeline simulation needs to be aware of the state of all modeled valves. The open/close status of
valves, respectively, will be available in the SCADA HMI.

LDS Data Transfer to SCADA

The LDS application will send status and analog points back to the SCADA system using the Simulation
Data Interchange (SDI). This will be performed by the LDS system sending a deposit message to the
SCADA data server. This deposit message will contain the name(s) of the data point(s) and value(s). The
SCADA data server will write the value to the specified corresponding data point in the SCADA database.
The SCADA configuration of the data point in the database will determine the type and/or severity of the
alarm based on the value.
Each SDI process reads a static configuration file at startup (sdi.dat) that defines what information is to be
written back into the SCADA database, on a user configurable time frequency. If database is not available,
SDI generates a message to the SDI log file and will try to reconnect to database every ten (10) seconds.
This process will continue until one of the following conditions is met:

• The SDI is connected

• The LDS software system or SDI process is shut down

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Lost Communication between SCADA and LDS Server

When communication between the LDS and the SCADA server is lost, pipeline data is not retrieved from
the data server and information from the LDS is not available to the SCADA database. LDS displays will
eventually show system status "disabled" and degraded transmitter confidence levels.
When communication to the SCADA server is restored, the LDS models will once again retrieve

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pipeline data to perform its calculations. The LDS displays will show system status "normal" and good
transmitter confidence levels. Impact to the LDS models will be dependent on the latency with which the
communications to the SCADA server is restored.

How LDS Works ?

The accuracy of a LDS is determined mostly by the accuracy with which the line pack is calculated. Software
solution is based on a real time transient mass balance method that provides the highest fidelity of all the
mass balance methods.
The proposed Leak Detection System is fully compliant to the following standards:

• API-1130 standard for Computational Pipeline Monitoring (USA).

• CZA Z662-03 standard for Leak Detection Systems (Canada).

• API-1149 standard to estimate leak alarm thresholds is followed.

• API-1161 standard for training of Liquid Pipeline Personnel.

• Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) approved solution for sensitive areas (Los Angeles,
Hawaii, Thessalonica, Black Sea, Chesapeake Bay, Gulf of Mexico)

Figure 12—SCADA and LDS Data Flow Diagram

The current state of the pipeline is obtained by the SCADA system from the field devices. This
information includes pressures, temperatures, flows, valves status and/or positions; pump status and/or
speeds, etc.
OTC-32374-MS 13

LDS Segments
For each network, overall leak detection sections will be defined. The connection of these overall leak
detection sections will be based on the configuration of the pipeline. As the configuration of the pipeline
changes, the leak detection system will recognize this and adjust accordingly. During flowing conditions,
each section will be bounded by flow transmitters. During non-flowing conditions, each section will be

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bounded by the exit of one station and the inlet of the next station. If a non-flowing section does not include
pressure transmitters at the bounding station, then the section will be disabled, and thus there will be no leak
detection for that section. In the event that inline flow meters become unavailable, adjacent overall sections
can combine into one overall section. An inline flow meter could be inactive due to the following reasons:

• communication failure

• fresh flag is bad

• station bypass valve is open

• meter is manually disabled

If a section is inactive due to an inactive flow meter, if possible it will be included (combined) in
the upstream section. The upstream section thresholds will be adjusted automatically to reflect increased
section length (linepack). If a section is isolated from the upstream section and downstream section, it will
automatically transition to a shut-in leak detection section with significantly reduced thresholds (no flow
meter accuracy uncertainty).

LDS Alarms and Events

For each overall leak detection section, the following is the naming convention for the alarms and events
that will be generated and sent to the SCADA system. ‘XXX’ represents the overall leak detection section
name, irrespective of the number of characters.

Table 2—Alarms and Events Naming Conventions

SCADA Status Point LDS Software Point Description

XXX_ALARM (value field) XXX_leakf_alarms Leak section alarm

XXX_ALARM (description
XXX_leakf_desc Leak section alarm message
field)

Leak section state (0=normal,

XXX_DISA XXX_leakf_disa
3=disabled)

For each overall leak detection section, the following is the naming convention for the analog points that
will be sent to the SCADA system. ‘XXX’ represents the overall leak detection section name, irrespective
of the number of characters. ‘#’ represents the averaging period, and ranges from 1 to 4.

Table 3—Analog Points Naming Conventions

SCADA Analog Point SimSuite Point Description

XXX_vdiff# XXX_leakf_vdif(#) Leak section linepack change for each averaging period

XXX_fdiff# XXX_leakf_fdif(#) Leak section flow difference for each averaging period

XXX_mflow# XXX_leakf_mflow(#) Leak section imbalance for each averaging period

XXX_thrsh# XXX_leakf_thrsh(#) Leak section alarm threshold for each averaging period

XXX_thwrn# XXX_leakf_thwrn(#) Leak section warning threshold for each averaging period
14 OTC-32374-MS

SCADA Analog Point SimSuite Point Description

XXX_thbse# XXX_leakf_thbse(#) Leak section base threshold for each averaging period

XXX_vmod# XXX_leakf_vmod(#) Leak section volume uncertainty modification for each averaging period

XXX_shmod# XXX_leakf_shmod(#) Leak section shut-in modification for each averaging period

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XXX_loca XXX_leak_loca(1) Leak section leak location

XXX_locaerr XXX_leak_loca(2) Leak section leak location error

XXX_time XXX_leak_time(1) Leak section leak start time

XXX_mloss XXX_leak_mloss(1) Leak section total leak volume loss

XXX_flow XXX_leak_flow(1) Leak section leak flowrate

XXX_flowerr XXX_leak_flow(2) Leak section leak flowrate uncertainty

XXX_volunc XXX_leakf_vol_unc Leak section volume uncertainty

XXX_lvol XXX_leakf_lvol Leak section total volume

Methods to Detect and Locate Leaks

The Leak Detection Application will use a combination of methods to detect and locate leaks. Large and
small leaks are detected using multiple mass balance calculations. Pressure drop calculations are used to
locate the leak. The LDS will use a multi-level mass balance monitoring system to cover a wide range of
possible leak sizes. The mass balance method will apply the conservation of mass equation, based on the
SCADA flows in and out of the section and the change in mass between flow transmitters, averaged over
several different time periods.
The Leak Detection model divides the pipeline into multiple control volumes. For each of the control
volumes it calculates solutions to the mass, momentum and energy conservation equations. The mass in
the pipeline is the total mass from all of the control volumes and is dependent on the product properties,
temperature, and pressure. The history of total pipeline mass is stored for use in each time averaging period.
This allows for an accurate calculation of the line pack in the pipeline under steady state, transient and shut-
in conditions.
Multiple averaging periods are used to insure detection of large leaks quickly and have maximum fidelity
for the small leaks. The number and interval of the averages are completely variable, up to a maximum
of four averaging periods. The averaging periods for this pipeline are 5, 15, 60, & 120 minutes. These
averaging periods can be modified or newly added if necessary, during on-site tuning. With this method,
the multiple time averages act as redundant verification of the leak, as well as provide different resolution
on the leak size that may be detected.
The mass balance method is also used to locate leaks in the system. A local mass balance is done between
all block valves which have pressure transmitters. This provides a quicker response for larger leaks and a
more accurate location of the leak. This is a local location method which does not use SCADA flow rates
for its calculations. Instead, the simulated flow rates into and out of each local section are used.
The accuracy of the local location method is determined by the fidelity of the pressure transmitters. The
local level utilizes the same averaging periods as an overall leak section. These averaging periods are used
only internally by local sections for history collection and they are not used to generate alarms. The local
leak section information won't be accessible to the operators through the HMI, but the LD engineers will
be able to view it using the LDS software debugging tools. In addition to the precise numerical location,
the local leak section where the suspected leak is occurring will also be shared through the HMI to aid the
operators. Data calculated by local sections are used by the overall leak detection section.
OTC-32374-MS 15

Thresholds Detection
Estimating Thresholds (API 1149). Before the leak detection model is configured and connected to the
pipeline, the thresholds that are theoretically achievable can be calculated using the API 1149 publication.
API 1149 details the variables affecting leak detection performance and is the best standards document for

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initial estimation of theoretical thresholds. The thresholds calculated using API 1149 are used as starting
values, and the actual thresholds are established during model tuning.
In practice, the final thresholds are generally different than those predicted by API 1149. This is a result
of several factors. First, the fidelity of the transmitters may be better (or worse) than the fidelity stated
by the manufacturer. In addition, because the leak detection model uses a real time model to calculate the
detailed temperature profile, it is much less sensitive to the inaccuracies of the temperature measurement
compared to API 1149.
Steady State Thresholds. The thresholds specified for leak detection are functions of the number, type,
and accuracy of the transmitters.

• The primary factors affecting the steady state leak detection thresholds are:

• Volume in the pipeline between transmitters

• Accuracy of the temperature measurement

• Accuracy of the pressure measurement

• Accuracy of the flow measurement

• Properties of the product(s) in the pipeline

• Outside diameter, wall thickness, and grade of the pipe

• DRA (if applicable)

• Slack line

• Length of time averaging period

The parameters with the largest effect on short term thresholds are:

• Accuracy of the temperature transmitter

• Slack line conditions

• Volume in pipeline

• Properties of the product(s) in the pipeline

The parameters with the largest effect on long term thresholds are:

• Accuracy of the flow meters

• Slack line conditions

Dynamic Threshold Adjustment. During transient conditions, alarm thresholds will be temporarily
increased and later restored for the affected pipeline section to avoid false alarms. These are temporary
changes only and are removed based on the time averaging period. The algorithm that determines the
thresholds is configured such that the threshold response is controllable by the user in order that the user
will determine the appropriate threshold response to pipeline events, such as:
16 OTC-32374-MS

• Start/stop an injection or delivery

• Large changes in amount of slack in pipeline

• Pump start/stop

• Setpoint change

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This determination is made such that an acceptable balance is achieved between minimizing false alarms
and maintaining the most robust leak detection possible. Figure 5 illustrates how thresholds increase in the
presence of transients and then decay back to their original level.
Dynamic Base Thresholds
A pipeline network, in many cases, is not static by nature. Dynamic overall leak sections have been defined
to allow greater sensitivity when the system is operated as multiple pipelines with multiple injections and
deliveries. This dynamic nature has a direct effect on the Leak Section current total volume (with direct
correlation to the proximity of pressure transmitters). Therefore, when sections of pipeline are added/
removed to/from an overall leak section, the base threshold is adjusted instantaneously.
No delay is applied for base threshold calculations. Similarly, for a leak detection section where the
flowing condition remains the same, but a pressure transmitter in a block valve location has failed, the base
threshold will be recalculated as soon as the failure is detected by the LDS, created as an increase in the
base threshold value due to increase in the volume uncertainty.
Dynamic Warning or Alarm Thresholds
Certain transient conditions can cause a temporary increase in warning thresholds. Such conditions are
categorized as either generic events or custom events. Generic events are default conditions defined by
LDS Software and are available for all projects. Custom events are conditions defined specifically for the
pipeline. For both categories of transient conditions, a trigger occurring in the model is defined, and this
will cause the temporary increase in the warning thresholds. Note that the change in the alarm threshold is
not directly controlled by the percentage specified. The alarm threshold will remain equal to the product of
the warning threshold and the alarm-to-warning ratio constant. The warning thresholds will hold that value
for a defined time, then decay back to their original levels.
For custom events, the time that the threshold remains at the elevated level ("hold time") can be specified
for each averaging period. Similarly, the time it takes for the threshold to decay back to the base threshold
level ("decay time") can also be specified for each averaging period. Note that these times are specified in
seconds and can be specified separately for each averaging period. If a value is only specified for the first
averaging period, then the remaining values will be calculated by the model proportional to the averaging
period.
The user has the ability to control whether each of the specified transient effects is enabled or disabled.
If a condition is disabled, then the condition occurring will have no effect on the thresholds. This applies
to both generic and custom events.
Project leak detection thresholds will be adjusted and tuned during the online tuning period. The transient
conditions applicable in the generic events category are as follows:

• Section Disabled: This condition is met when a section becomes disabled within an overall leak
section.
The transient conditions in the custom events category are defined specifically for each pipeline as
described below.

• Pump startup/shutdown: This condition is met when a pump changes state. This custom event will
only be valid if pumps are modeled.
OTC-32374-MS 17

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Figure 13—Sample Thresholds Trends

If more than one transient event happens within a "short" period of time, the threshold increase is
determined by taking the sum of increases associated with the individual events. The maximum hold and
decay time amongst the individual events will be applied. The default value for the "short" period of time is
10 seconds. If one transient event has occurred then a second event occurs after this "short" period of time,
the threshold increase of each is compared and the greater one is used. Similarly, the hold and decay times
for the two events are compared and the longer time of each used.
Leak Alarm Logic.
Alarm Delay
The alarms will be delayed for a specified period to prevent short-term transients from causing false alarms.
When a leak flow is detected above the threshold, the time is recorded. If the leak flow is still above the
thresholds after the delay time has passed, an alarm will be issued. The delay time is specific for each time-
averaging period.
For example, the pipeline delays per averaging period will be:

• 5 min - 20 sec

• 15 min - 20 sec

• 60 min - 30 sec

• 120 min - 60 sec

Alarm Clearing
There are two alarm thresholds: one for issuing an alarm and one for clearing the alarm. The calculation of
the clearing alarm threshold does not include any of the effects that can be caused as a result of having a leak,
nor does the clearing threshold include any of the transient and slack line effects. The leak alarm clearing
threshold is set equal to 90% of the alarm threshold by default. This can be configured by the customer.
Severity of Leak
The internal leak alarm has four (4) states:

• 0 - No alarm (Leak rate < Clearing threshold) and (alarm acknowledged)

18 OTC-32374-MS

• 1 - Alarm cleared but not acknowledged (Leak rate < Clearing threshold) and (alarm not
acknowledged). To change alarm status from "cleared" to "normal", alarm should be cleared
from LDS software dislay. There is no link between alarm acknowledgment in SCADA and leak
detection system.
• 2 - Leak volume present > Setting threshold (warning)

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• 3 - Leak volume present > Setting threshold * % (alarm)

Where "%" is configurable by leak detection overall section, "Setting threshold" includes a configurable
component, and the titles "warning and alarm" are configurable. The initial value is set to 80%.
State 1 is used by the leak detection system to hold the last value of the leak location, estimated flow,
and volume. If a new leak alarm is generated, the alarm state will move back to 2 or 3 (from state 1 or 0).
The application is configured to detect leaks of progressive severity based on leak rate. Currently, there
are two severity levels configured "Warning" and "Alarm". Graphical enunciation of these severity levels
is color-coded with "Warning" depicted by using yellow and "Alarm" by using red.
There are also dead-bands between states to prevent flipping when the leak rate is oscillating around a set-
point. The clearing threshold level is calculated based on steady state thresholds multiplied by a configurable
constant (0.9 as a default value).
There is a way to manually disable the leak alarm through an engineering tool. An authorized person can
disable the alarms at any time, but the alarms cannot be disabled by the Controller.
Leak Location Calculation
The leak location is calculated using the steady-state pressure drop equation. It is assumed that the rate of
pressure drop is different upstream and downstream of the leak.

Figure 14—Steady-State Pressure Drop

Data Quality
The quality of data is very important and start from reliable field devices, along the way to the server which
data will be further processed.

Critical SCADA Instrumentation

During flowing condition, the LDS expects to have all incoming and outgoing flow rates with corresponding
time stamps and quality flags. If any active flow meter has bad quality flag, the leak detection for the whole
segment will be disabled.
Pressure transmitters are required for all receipts, deliveries, and isolated sections (at least one). Pump
station suction and discharge pressures will be used to improve the leak detection performance, but if any
of them is missing the leak detection will use the nearest available transmitter to reconfigure automatically
the local leak sections.
OTC-32374-MS 19

Temperature transmitters are required for all receipts and deliveries. Station product temperatures will
be used for tuning if measurements are accurate.
Ground temperature sensors are used to calculate surrounding soil temperature along the pipeline. In
the absence of ground temperature sensors, estimates for monthly ambient temperature will be configured.
Ambient temperature can be configured for each month and for multiple locations.

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All equipment states are used to correctly predict normal operational conditions and transients for stations
and swing location, and to transition the leak detection system from flowing to shut-in mode.

SCADA Instrumentation Interface

A history of each point, its time stamp, and its confidence value are maintained by the LDS model. Each
point is assigned a reliability factor; the SCADA system provides an initial point status to the simulation
and then the reliability factor for the point is calculated by the model as a function of time since the last good
value is received. Reliability factor (confidence) changes from 0.0 to 1.0. It sets to 1.0 when a new good
value is received, and it immediately starts to decay. Each point type has an individual time decay factor.
These values can be adjusted during system tuning. When calculated confidence reaches a configurable
low limit (this is an artificial value, theoretically any value between 0.0 and 1.0, it is a minimum value to
decay to when no updates are available, default value is 0.4), the model automatically disables it. There is
no decay for valves, pumps and ground temperatures.

SCADA Polling Rates

The SCADA polling rate will have an effect on the short-term averaging period duration. The shortest
averaging term must contain several updates from the SCADA system for the transmitters. Therefore, if the
polling rate is 20 secs then the shortest averaging period should be 80 sec or greater.

SCADA Value Screening

The SCADA values from the field are screened by the model to remove anomalous information. When
an instrument value is received into LDS software that is not consistent with the surrounding data,
the RTU receives an informational alarm that a potential problem exists and should be checked. If the
instrument corrects itself, the model retracts the message. This feature is very important because many times
instruments experience short-term anomalous output.
The instrument analysis system of LDS software provides several alarms, which include:

• High range violation

• Low range violation

• High instrument drift (available if there are redundant transmitters at a location)

• Physical value inconsistency with surrounding data (available if there are redundant transmitters
at a location)
• Loss of data input from SCADA after a specified time

• Fixed value from SCADA

The alarms can be viewed on the SCADA Data Instrument HMI display.

Disabling of Field Devices

The field devices can be disabled in two possible ways as follows :
1. If the field device is disabled and/or marked as not fresh in the SCADA system, that information will
be sent to the model and the field device will then be disabled in the model.
20 OTC-32374-MS

2. It is possible to disable any field device in the model only. This can be done if work is being performed
on a field device, but it is not disabled in the SCADA system and is giving bad information. Also if
the field device is known to be incorrect it can be disabled until the field device can be fixed. This
action is performed from displays embedded in the graphics package.

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Figure 15—LDS Display

Online Tuning
The LDS is self-tuneable and does the majority of tuning automatically. The goal of tuning is to reduce
the error between the tracking model and the real SCADA values. The adjustments to different parameters
are continuous for all effects but is applied at different rates. These values will be stored in the Backtrack
Records that stores a snapshot of the model's memory.

Figure 16—LDS Historical Trend Display

OTC-32374-MS 21

Overall Admittance or Resistance Tuning

The model automatically adjusts overall admittance for certain parts of a pipeline. Pressures errors between
the real SCADA values and the tracking model are reduced in this type of tuning. This is necessary to
account for some unknown pipeline characteristics. It is a long-term adjustment.

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Pump Curve Tuning
If pumps are configured, the model automatically adjusts pump curves for running pumps at each pump
station. Station suction and discharge pressures errors between the real SCADA values and the tracking
model are reduced in this type of tuning. This is necessary to account for some deviation between the pump
curves as specified from the manufacturer and the real pump behavior. It is a short-term adjustment.

Control Valve Tuning

If control valves are configured, the model automatically adjusts control valve characteristic flow/pressure
drop for control valves at pump stations or receipt and delivery points. For pump stations the suction and
discharge pressures errors between the real SCADA values and the tracking model are reduced in this type
of tuning. For receipt or deliveries, the difference in the pressure error across the control valve is used to
tune the valve characteristic. This is necessary to account for some deviation between the control valve
characteristic curves as specified from the manufacturer and the real control valve behavior. It is a short-
term adjustment.

Heat Transfer Coefficients Tuning

The model automatically adjusts overall heat transfer coefficients to the ambient for certain parts of a
pipeline. This adjustment is based on online soil temperature or fluid temperature inputs and the difference
between the target temperature and the tracking model temperatures is reduced. It is a long-term adjustment.

Ground Temperature Tuning

The ground temperature measurements will be used to calculate soil temperature along the pipeline. The
model tunes the soil temperatures to satisfy overall product temperature change between available product
temperate measurements. It is a long-term adjustment.

Communication Failure
The system reaction to a communication failure is determined by the scope of the failure. For example, if
SCADA loses connection to a block valve site, no significant changes are expected. The system will still be
available and fully operational, and the overall leak detection thresholds will be automatically adjusted to
reflect a change in volume uncertainty. The leak detection time can be increased, and leak location accuracy
reduced if a leak occurs close to that station. No specific values of performance reduction can be given
here, they are unique for each pipeline section. When connection is restored, the leak detection system
automatically adjusts the thresholds back to the original values.
Any communication failure related to a receipt or a delivery site are to be considered a major event for
the leak detection system. The leak detection section will be eventually disabled if any section flow meter
data are not fresh. By default, it takes 600 seconds (configurable) to disable a leak section if flow meter data
are not fresh. When communications are restored the system will return to operation and will use the good
data that is available. The model doesn't "catch-up" on lost data.

Leak Detection Testing

In all circumstances, there is a rigorous testing of LDS before going into production. This testing includes
both a formal and documented Factory Acceptance Test (FAT) procedure and Site Acceptance Test (SAT).
The primary purpose of the Factory Acceptance Test is to validate most of the functionality of the system
22 OTC-32374-MS

including communications between the various associated applications. A test document is prepared and
approved by customer prior to the factory test. Customer plays a critical role in this testing phase, verifying
the systems readiness for site installation.
During the FAT the leak detection system is tested for a wide variety of normal and abnormal conditions
including:

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• Flowing steady state condition

• Flowing transient conditions:

○ Pipeline startup/shutdownm
○ Shut in/no flow condition

Each scenario will be tested for several leak sizes – from minimum detectable to full rupture in different
locations.
As with the FAT, Site Testing follows a formal procedure approved by customer. The Site Acceptance
Test focuses on verifying the communication between the SCADA system and the on-line leak detection
system. The performance of the system is also the primary focus of this stage. Preliminary LDS tuning is
completed prior to Site Acceptance Testing with additional tuning following the formal testing.
Following this formalized testing procedure, it is recommended to perform several actual leak tests
(product withdrawal) at the discretion of the customer. Typically, leak tests are performed to verify that the
project requirements for performance have been met. Customer also evaluates the ability of the system to
locate the leak along the pipeline.
In the event when no actual leak tests are planned or possible, the leak detection can be tested by changing
a flow meter factor for any active flow meter. It will not represent a real leak test, but it will show the leak
detection's capability to detect a flow meter inaccuracy or flow imbalance.

LDS Project Challenges

Here are the challenges for this particular LDS project:
1. Put additional equipment will increase SPM total weight. If using radio equipment, requires heavy
antenna support and large power consumption thus requiring more batteries. Project Leader works
closely with SPM manufacturer and customer to get final design approval.
2. The Solar System battery at SPM in the contract must be able to back up power in 3 days in cloudy
conditions without sunlight.
3. Ultrasonic Flow Transmitter (FT) is noisy causing false alarm, it requires complete data for viscosity,
sound of speed and Signal Strength for each crude oil type.
4. Limited space on SPM area, will impact on FT performance due to Upstream and Downstream of
straight pipe installation.
5. Working on offshore site during the Covid-19 pandemic causes a longer schedule than expected and
increasing the commissioning cost.

Conclusions
Business values that highlighted by the customer from this project are :
1. Easy to do operation and maintenance with SCADA and LDS software which can monitor/control
for RTU & pipeline status, CCTV SPM monitoring, Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML) Leak
visualization, geographical map, GSM signal strength, battery voltage information. This will allow
operator/engineer to remotely monitor the SPM without need to go by boat, hence it will reduce CO2
OTC-32374-MS 23

emission and fuel consumption. It can reduce 0,1 tCO2e / year in operational trips (based on 320 km
travel reduction per month and 0,25 kg CO2e / km).
2. Capability of doing preset for all required parameters on LDS software prior loading or unloading
activities from tanker to OM ORF, depend on crude oil API.
3. Anticipate oil spills in waterways caused by subsea pipeline leakage and environmental pollution

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issue. For example estimation : the unloading process of Arabian Light Crude with flow rate 5,000
m3/h with pressure 10 kg/cm2g from tanker 165,000 DWT.

Acknowledgements
The author would like to extend sincerest gratitude to the Schneider Electric project commissioning and
management team for support to publish this paper.

Nomenclature
SPM Single Point Mooring
ORF Onshore Receiving Facility
LDS Leak Detection System
SCADA Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
CCR Central Control Room
RTU Remote Telemetry Unit
API RP American Petroleum Institute Recommended Practice
CPM Computational Pipeline Monitoring
SOP Standard Operation Procedure
CCTV Closed Circuit Television
GPS Global Positioning System
CALM Catenary Anchor Leg Mooring
GSM Global System for Mobile Communications
HMI Human Machine Interface
OM Oil Movement
OPC Open Platform Communications
LED Light Emitting Diode
KVM Keyboard Video Mouse
OWS Operator Work Station
AI Analog Input
ORF Onshore Receiving Facility
P&ID Piping and Instrumentation Diagram
VLCC Very Large Crude Carrier
DWT Dead Weight Tonnage
GUI Graphical User Interface
IOT Internet of Things
NVR Network Video Recording
VMS Video Management System
ONVIF Open Network Video Interface Forum
DRA Drug Reducing Agents
OPC DA Open Platform Communications Data Access
DDSIP Distributed Data Services over Internet Protocol
SDI Simulation Data Interchange
EPA Environtmental Protection Agency
24 OTC-32374-MS

FAT Factory Acceptance Test

SAT Site Acceptance Test
HTML Hyper Text Markup Language

Reference

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