Chapter 1:

INTRODUCTION TO THE

STATISTICAL

CONCEPTS

Objectives:

After successful completion of this module, you should be able to:

• Define statistics.

• Enumerate the importance and

limitations of statistics

• Explain the process of statistics

• Know the difference between

descriptive and inferential

statistics.

• Distinguish between qualitative

and quantitative variables.

• Distinguish between discrete and

continuous variables.

• Determine the level of

measurement of a variable.
Statistics plays a major role in many aspects of our

lives. It is used in sports, for example, to help a

general manager decide which player might be the

best fit for a team. It is used in politics to help

candidates understand how the public feels about

various policies. And statistics is used in medicine to

help determine the effectiveness of new drugs. Used

appropriately, statistics can enhance our

understanding of the world around us.

Used inappropriately, it can lend support to inaccurate

beliefs. Understanding statistical methods will

provide you with the ability to analyze and critique

studies and the opportunity to become an informed

consumer of information. Understanding statistical

methods will also enable you to distinguish solid

analysis from bogus “facts.”

Statistics is the science of collecting, organizing,

summarizing, and analyzing information to draw

conclusions or answer questions. In addition,

statistics is about providing a measure of confidence

in any conclusions.

• Statistics is important because it enables

people to make decisions based on empirical

evidence.

• Statistics provides us with tools needed to

convert massive data into pertinent

information that can be used in decision

making.

• Statistics can provide us information that we

can use to make sensible decisions.

What information is referred to in the

definition?

The information referred to the definition is the

data. According to the Merriam Webster

dictionary, data are “factual information used

as a basis for reasoning, discussion, or

calculation”.

Data can be numerical, as in height, or

nonnumerical, as in gender. In either case,

data describe characteristics of an individual.

Field of Statistics

A. Mathematical Statistics- The study and

development of statistical theory and methods

in the abstract.

B. Applied Statistics- The application of

statistical methods to solve real problems

involving randomly generated data and the

development of new statistical methodology

motivated by real problems. Example branches

of Applied Statistics: psychometric,

econometrics, and biostatistics.

Statistics is indispensable to almost all sciences - social, physical and natural. It is very
often used in most of the spheres of human activity. In spite of the wide scope of the
subject it has certain limitations. Some important limitations of statistics are the
following:
Limitation of Statistics:

1.Statistics is not suitable to the study of

qualitative phenomenon.

2. Statistics does not study individuals.

3. Statistical laws are not exact.

4. Statistics table may be misused.

5. Statistics is only, one of the methods of

studying a problem.

1. Statistics does not study qualitative phenomena:

Statistics deals with facts and figures. So the quality aspect of a variable or the
subjective phenomenon falls out of the scope of statistics. For example, qualities like
beauty, honesty,intelligence etc. cannot be numerically expressed. So these
characteristics cannot be examined statistically. This limits the scope of the subject.

2. Statistical laws are not exact:

Statistical laws are not exact as incase of natural sciences. These laws are true only on
average.They hold good under certain conditions. They cannot be universally applied.
So statistics hasless practical utility.

3. Statistics does not study individuals:

Statistics deals with aggregate of facts. Single or isolated figures are not statistics. This
is considered to be a major handicap of statistics.

4. Statistics can be misused:

Statistics is mostly a tool of analysis. Statistical techniques are used to analyze and
interpret the collected information in an enquiry. As it is, statistics does not prove or
disprove anything. It is just a means to an end. Statements supported by statistics are
more appealing and are commonly believed. For this, statistics is often misused.
Statistical methods rightly used are beneficial but if misused these become harmful.
Statistical methods used by less expert hands will lead to inaccurate results. Here the
fault does not lie with the subject of statistics but with the person who makes wrong use
of it.
Definitions:

• A Population is the total or entire group of

individuals or observations from which

information is desired by a researcher. Apart

from persons, a population may consist of

mosquitoes, villages, institution, etc.

• An individual is a person or object that is a

member of the population being studied.

• A statistic is a numerical summary of a

sample.

• Sample is the subset of the population.

• Descriptive statistics consist of organizing

and summarizing data. Descriptive statistics

describe data through numerical summaries,

tables, and graphs.

• Inferential statistics uses methods that

take a result from a sample, extend it to the

population, and measure the reliability of the

result.

• A parameter is a numerical summary of a

population

Example: Consider the Scenario.

You are walking down the street and notice that a person walking in front of you drops
PHP100. Nobody seems to notice the PHP100 except you. Since you could keep the
money without anyone knowing, would you keep the money or return it to the owner?
Suppose you wanted to use this scenario as a gauge of the morality of students at your
school by determining the percent of students who would return the money. How might
you do this? You could attempt to present the scenario to every student at the school,
but this would be difficult or impossible if the student body is large. A second possibility
is to present the scenario to 50 students and use the results to make a statement about
all the students at the school.

In the PHP100 study presented, the population is all the students at the school. Each
student is an individual. The sample is the 50 students selected to participate in the
study. Suppose 39 of the 50 students stated that they would return the money to the
owner. We could present this result by saying that the percent of students in the survey
who would return the money to the owner is 78%. This is an example of a descriptive
statistic because it describes the results of the sample without making any general
conclusions about the population. So 78% is a statistic because it is a numerical
summary based on a sample. Descriptive statistics make it easier to get an overview of
what the data are telling us.

If we extend the results of our sample to the population, we are performing inferential
statistics. The generalization contains uncertainty because a sample cannot tell us
everything about a population. Therefore, inferential statistics includes a level of
confidence in the results. So rather than saying that 78% of all students would return the
money, we might say that we are 95% confident that between 74% and 82% of all
students would return the money. Notice how this inferential statement includes a level
of confidence (measure of reliability) in our results. It also includes a range of values to
account for the variability in our results. One goal of inferential statistics is to use
statistics to estimate parameters.

PROCESS OF STATISTICS:

1. Identify the research objective.

A researcher must determine the question(s)

he or she wants answered. The question(s)

must clearly identify the population that is to be

studied. Identify the research objective.

2. Collect the information needed to answer

the questions.

Conducting research on an entire population is

often difficult and expensive, so we typically

look at a sample. This step is vital to the

statistical process, because if the data are not

collected correctly, the conclusions drawn are

meaningless. Do not overlook the importance

of appropriate data collection.

Example:

A research objective is presented. For each

research objective, identify the population and

sample in the study.

a. The Philippine Mental Health Associations

contacts 1,028 teenagers who are 13 to 17

years of age and live in Antipolo City and

asked whether or not they had been

prescribed medications for any mental

disorders, such as depression or anxiety.

Population: Teenagers 13 to 17 years of age

who live in Antipolo City

Sample: 1,028 teenagers 13 to 17 years of

age who live in Antipolo City

b. A farmer wanted to learn about the weight

of his soybean crop. He randomly sampled

100 plants and weighted the soybeans on

each plant.

Population: Entire soybean crop

Sample: 100 selected soybean crop

3. Organize and summarize the information.

Descriptive statistics allow the researcher to

obtain an overview of the data and can help

determine the type of statistical methods the

researcher should use.

4. Draw conclusion from the information.

In this step the information collected from the

sample is generalized to the population.

Inferential statistics uses methods that takes

results obtained from a sample, extends them

to the population, and measures the reliability

of the result.

Take Note!

If the entire population is studied, then

inferential statistics is not necessary, because

descriptive statistics will provide all the

information that we need regarding the

population.

Example:

For the following statements, decide whether it

belongs to the field of descriptive statistics or

inferential statistics.

1. A badminton player wants to know his

average score for the past 10 games.

(Descriptive Statistics)

2. A car manufacturer wishes to estimate the

average lifetime of batteries by testing a

sample of 50 batteries. (Inferential

Statistics)

3. Janine wants to determine the variability of

h e r s i x e x am s c o r e s i n A l g e b r a.

(Descriptive Statistics)

4. A shipping company wishes to estimate the

number of passengers traveling via their

ships next year using their data on the

number of passengers in the past three

years. (Inferential Statistics)

5. A politician wants to determine the total

number of votes his rival obtained in the

past election based on his copies of the

tallysheetofelectoralreturns.

(Descriptive Statistics)

DISTINCTION BETWEEN QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE VARIABLES

Variables are the characteristics of the

individuals within the population.

For example:

Recently my mother and I planted a tomato plant in our backyard. We collected

information about the tomatoes harvested from the plant. The individuals we studied
were the tomatoes. The variable that interested us was the weight of a tomato.My mom
noted that the tomatoes had different weights even though they came from the same
plant. She discovered that variables such as weight may vary.

If variables did not vary, they would be constants, and statistical inference would not be
necessary. Think about it this way: If each tomato had the same weight, then knowing
the weight of one tomato would allow us to determine the weights of all tomatoes.
However, the weights of the tomatoes vary.

One goal of research is to learn the causes of the variability so that we can learn to
grow plants that yield the best tomatoes.
It is helpful to divide variables into different types, as different statistical methods are
applicable to each. The main division is into qualitative (or categorical) or quantitative
(or numerical variables).

Variables can be classified into two groups:

1. Qualitative variables (Categorical) is

variable that yields categorical responses.

It is a word or a code that represents a

class or category.

2. Quantitative variables (Numeric) takes

on numerical values representing an

amount or quantity.

Example:

Determine whether the following variables are

qualitative or quantitative.

1. Haircolor (Qualitative)

2. Temperature (Quantitative)

3. Stages of breast cancer (Quantitative)

4. Number of hamburger sold (Quantitative)

5. Number of children (Quantitative)

6. Place of birth (Qualitative)

DISTINCTION BETWEEN DISCRETE AND CONTINUOUS

Quantitative variables may be further classified into:

1. A discrete variable is a quantitative

variable that either a finite number of

possible values or a countable number of

possible values. If you count to get the

value of a quantitative variable, it is

discrete.

2. A continuous variable is a quantitative

variable that has an infinite number of

possible values that are not countable. If

you measure to get the value of a

quantitative variable, it is continuous.

Example:

Determine whether the following quantitative

variables are discrete or continuous.

1. The number of heads obtained after

flipping a coin five times. (Discrete)

2. The number of cars that arrive at a

McDonald’s drive-through between 12:00

P.M and 1:00 P.M. (Discrete)

3. The distance of a 2005 Toyota Prius can

travel in city conditions with a full tank of

gas. (Continuous)

LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT

It is important to know which type of scale is

represented by your data since different

statistics are appropriate for different scales of

measurement. A characteristic may be

measured using nominal, ordinal, interval and

ration scales.

1. Nominal Level - They are sometimes

called categorical scales or categorical

data. Such a scale classifies persons or

objects into two or more categories.

Whatever the basis for classification, a

person can only be in one category, and

members of a given category have a

common set of characteristics.

Example:

- Method of payment (cash, check, debit card,

credit card)

- Type of school (public vs. private)

- Eye Color (Blue, Green, Brown)

2. Ordinal Level - This involves data that may

be arranged in some order, but differences

between data values either cannot be

determined or meaningless. An ordinal scale

not only classifies subjects but also ranks them

in terms of the degree to which they possess a

characteristics of interest. In other words, an

ordinal scale puts the subjects in order from

highest to lowest, from most to least.

Example:

- Food Preferences

- Social Economic Class (First, Middle, Lower)

- Severity of Pain

3. Interval Level - This is a measurement level

not onlyclassifiesandordersthe

measurements, but it also specifies that the

distances between each interval on the scale

are equivalent along the scale from low interval

to high interval. A value of zero does not mean

the absence of the quantity. Arithmetic

operations such as addition and subtraction

can be performed on values of the variable.

4. Ratio Level - A ratio scale represents the

highest, most precise, level of measurement. It

has the properties of the interval level of

measurement and the ratios of the values of

the variable have meaning. A value of zero

means the absence of the quantity.

 CHAPTER 2:

DATA COLLECTION AND BASIC Concepts

in Sampling DESIGN

Objectives:

After successful completion of this

module, you should be able to:

• Determine the sources of data

(primary and secondary data).

• Distinguish the different methods

data collection under primary and

secondary data.

• Determine the appropriate

sample size.

• Differentiate various sampling

techniques.

• Know the sources of errors in

sampling.
Analysis of data can lead to powerful results. Data

can be used to offset anecdotal claims, such as the

suggestion that cellular telephones cause brain

cancer. Anecdotal means that the information being

conveyed is based on casual observation, not

scientific research. Because data are powerful, they

can be dangerous when misused. The misuse of

data usually occurs when data are incorrectly

obtained or analyzed. For example, radio or

television talk shows regularly ask poll questions for

which respondents must call in or use the Internet to

supply their vote. Most likely, the individuals who are

going to call in are those who have a strong opinion

about the topic. This group is not likely to be

representative of people in general, so the results of

the poll are not meaningful. Whenever we look at

data, we should be mindful of where the data come

from.

Even when data tell us that a relation exists, we

need to investigate. For example, a study showed

that breast-fed children have higher IQs than those

who were not breast-fed. Does this study mean that

 a mother who breast-feeds her child will increase the

child’s IQ? Not necessarily. It may be that some

factor other than breast-feeding contributes to the IQ

of the children. In this case, it turns out that mothers

who breastfeed generally have higher IQs than

those who do not. Therefore, it may be genetics that

leads to the higher IQ, not breast-feeding

Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information that enables one
to answer stated research questions, test hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes.

Steps in Data Gathering

1. Set the objectives for collecting data

2. Determine the data needed based on the

set objectives.

3. Determine the method to be used in data

gathering and define the comprehensive

data collection points.

4. Design data gathering forms to be used.

5. Collect data.

SOURCES OF DATA

1. Primary Sources - Provide a first-hand

account of an event or time period and are

considered to be authoritative. They

represent original thinking, reports on

discoveries or events, or they can share new

information. Often these sources are created

at the time the events occurred but they can

also include sources that are created later.

They are usually the first formal appearance

of original research.

Example:

Letters

Diaries

Original Photographs

Autobiographies

l Primary Data - are data documented by the

p r im a r y s o u r c e. T h e d at a c o l l e ct o r s

documented the data themselves.

The first hand information obtained by the

investigator is more reliable and accurate since

the investigator can extract the correct

information by removing doubts, if any, in the

minds of the respondents regarding certain

questions. High response rates might be

obtained since the answers to various

questions are obtained on the spot.

2. Secondary Sources - offer an analysis,

interpretation or a restatement of primary

sources and are considered to be

persuasive.Theyofteninvolve

generalisation, synthesis, interpretation,

commentary or evaluation in an attempt to

convince the reader of the creator's

argument. They often attempt to describe or

explain primary sources.

Example:

Newspaper article

Biography

TV Documentaries

Non original Photocopy

l Secondary Data - are data documented by a

secondary source. The data collectors had the

data documented by other sources.

In secondary data, data are primary data for

the agency that collected them, and become

secondary for someone else who uses these

data for his own purposes.

Secondary data are less expensive to collect

both in money and time. These data can also

be better utilized and sometimes the quality of

such data may be better because these might

have been collected by persons who were

specially trained for that purpose.

On the other hand, such data must be used

with great care, because such data may also

be full of errors due to the fact that the purpose

of the collection of the data by the primary agency may have been different from the
purpose of the user of these secondary data.

Secondly, there may have been bias

introduced, the size of the sample may have

been inadequate, or there may have been

arithmetic or definition errors, hence, it is

necessary to critically investigate the validity of

the secondary data.

The primary data can be collected by the following five methods:

1. Direct personal interviews - The

researcher has direct contact with the

i nt e r v i ew e e. T h e r e s e a r c h e r g at h e r s

information by asking questions to the

interviewee.

2. Indirect/Questionnaire Method - This

methods of data collection involve sourcing

and accessing existing data that were

originally collected for the purpose of the study.

Designing good “questioning tools” forms an

important and time consuming phase in the

development of most research proposals.

Once the decision has been made to use

these techniques, the following questions

should be considered before designing our

tools:

• What exactly do we want to know, according

to the objectives and variables we identified

earlier? Is questioning the right technique to

obtain all answers, or do we need additional

techniques, such as observations or

analysis of records?
• Of whom will we ask questions and what

techniques will we use? Do we understand

t h e t o p i c s uff i c i e nt l y t o d e s i g n a

questionnaire, or do we need some loosely

structured interviews with key informants or

a focus group discussion first to orient

ourselves?

• Are our informants mainly literate or

illiterate? If illiterate, the use of self

administered questionnaires is not an

option.

• How large is the sample that will be

interviewed? Studies with many respondents

often use shorter, highly structured

questionnaires, whereas smaller studies

allow more flexibility and may use

questionnaires with a number of open-ended

questions.

Key Design Principles of a Good

Questionnaire

1. Keep the questionnaire as short as possible.

2. Decide on the type of questionnaire (Open

Ended or Closed Ended).

3. Write the questions properly.

4. Order the questions appropriately.

5. Avoid questions that prompt or motivate the

respondent to say what you would like to hear.

6. Write an introductory letter or an

introduction.

7. Write special instructions for interviewers or

respondents.

8. Translate the questions if necessary.

9. Always test your questions before taking the

survey. (Pre-test)

An open-ended question is a type of question

that does not include response categories. The

respondent is not given any possible answers

to choose from. This type of question is usually

appropriate for collecting subjective data. It

permit free responses that should be recorded

in the respondent’s own words.

Example:

- Can you describe exactly what the

traditional birth attendant did when your

labor started?

- What do you think are the reasons for a high

drop-out rate of village health committee

members?

A closed-ended question is a type of

question that includes a list of response

categories from which the respondent will

select his answer. It is useful if the range of

possible responses is known. This type of

question is usually appropriate for collecting

objective data.

Example:

Did you eat any of the following foods

yesterday?

• Fish or meat ​ ​ Yes No

• Eggs. ​ ​ ​ Yes No

• Milk or cheese​ ​ Yes No

3. A focus group is a group interview of

approximately six to twelve people who share

similar characteristics or common interests. A

facilitator guides the group based on a

predetermined set of topics.

4. Experiment is a method of collecting data

where there is direct human intervention on the

conditions that may affect the values of the

variable of interest.

Bear in mind that the experimental method has

several limitations that you should be aware of.

- Ethical, moral, and legal Concerns

- Unrealistic Controlled Environments

- Inability to Control for All Variables

5. Observation is a technique that involves

systematically selecting, watching and

recoding behaviors of people or other

phenomena and aspects of the setting in which

they occur, for the purpose of getting (gaining)

specified information. It includes all methods

from simple visual observations to the use of

high level machines and measurements,

sophisticated equipment or facilities such as:

- Radiographic
- biochemical

- X-ray machines

- Microscope

- Clinical examinations

- Microbiological examinations

It gives relatively more accurate data on

behavior and activities but Investigators or

observer’s own biases, prejudice, desires, and

etc. and needs more resources and skilled

human power during the use of high level

machines.

The secondary data can be collected by the

following five methods:

1. Published report on newspaper and

periodicals.

2. Financial Data reported in annual reports.

3. Records maintained by the institution.

4. Internal reports of the government

departments.

5. Information from official publications

SAMPLE SIZE

“How many participants should be chosen for a

survey”?

One of the most frequent problems in

statistical analysis is the determination of the

appropriate sample size. One may ask why

sample size is so important. The answer to this

is that an appropriate sample size is required

for validity. If the sample size it too small, it will

not yield valid results. An appropriate sample

size can produce accuracy of results.

Moreover, the results from the small sample

size will be questionable. A sample size that is

too large will result in wasting money and time

because enough sample will normally give an

accurate result.

The sample size is typically denoted by n and

it is always a positive integer. No exact sample

size can be mentioned here and it can vary in

different research settings. However, all else

being equal, large sized sample leads to

increased precision in estimates of various

properties of the population.

Take Note!

- Representativeness, not size, is the more

important consideration.

- Use no less than 30 subjects if possible.

- If you use complex statistics, you may need

a minimum of 100 or more in your sample

(varies with method)

Choosing of sample size depends on non

statistical considerations and statistical

considerations.

• Non-statistical considerations – It may

include availability of resources, man power,

budget, ethics and sampling frame.

• Statistical considerations – It will include

the desired precision of the estimate.

BASIC SAMPLING DESIGN

The goal in sampling is to obtain individuals for

a study in such a way that accurate information

about the population can be obtained.

Definitions:

• Observation unit - An object on which a

measurement is taken. This is the basic unit

of observation, sometimes called an element.

In studying human populations, observation

units are often individuals.

• Target population - The complete collection

of observations we want to study.

• Sampled population - The collection of all

possible observation units that might have

been chosen in a sample; the population

from which the sample was taken.

• Sample - A subset of a population.

• Sampling unit - A unit that can be selected

for a sample. We may want to study

individuals, but do not have a list of all

individuals in the target population. Instead,

households serve as the sampling units, and

the observation units are the individuals

living in the households.

• Sampling frame - A list, map, or other

specification of sampling units in the

population from which a sample may be

selected. For a survey using in-person

interviews, the sampling frame might be a list

of all street addresses.

• Sampling technique/Sampling Strategies -

It is a plan you set forth to be sure that the

sample you use in your research study

represents the population from which you

drew your sample.

• Sampling Bias - This involves problems in

your sampling, which reveals that your

sample is not representative of your

population.

Advantage of Sampling Over Complete

Enumeration

- Less Labor

- Reduced Cost

- Greater Speed
- Convenience

Two Type of Samples

1. Probability Sample

- Samples are obtained using some objective

c h a n c e m e c h a n i sm, t h u s i n v o l v i n g

randomization. - They require the use of a complete listing of

the elements of the universe called the

sampling frame.

- The probabilities of selection are known.

- They are generally referred to as random

samples.

2. Non - probability Sample

- Samples are obtained haphazardly, selected

purposively or are taken as volunteers.

- The probabilities of selection are unknown.

Sampling Procedure

- Identify the population.

- Determine if population is accessible.

- Select a sampling method.

- Choose a sample that is representative of

the population.
- Ask the question, can I generalize to the

general population from the accessible

population?

Sampling technique can be grouped into how

selections of items are made such as

probability sampling and non-probability

sampling.

Basic Sampling Technique of Probability Sampling

• Simple Random Sampling

- Most basic method of drawing a probability

sample.

- Assigns equal probabilities of selection to

each possible sample.

- Results to a simple random sample.

• Systematic Random Sampling

- It is obtained by selecting every kth

individual from the population.

- The first individual selected corresponds to a

random number between 1 to k.

• Stratified Random Sampling

- It is obtained by separating the population

into non-overlapping groups called strata

and then obtaining a simple random sample

from each stratum.

- The individuals within each stratum should

be homogeneous (or similar) in some way.

• Cluster Sampling

- You take the sample from naturally occurring

groups in your population.

- The clusters are constructed such that the

sampling units are heterogeneous within the

cluster and homogeneous among the

clusters.
• Multi - Stage Sampling

- Selection of the sample is done in two or

more steps or stages, with sampling units

varying in each stage.

- The population is first divided into a number

of first-stage sampling units from which a

sample is drawn. Smaller units, called the

secondary sampling units, comprising the

selected first-stage units then serve as the

sampling units for the next stage. If needed

additional stages may be added until the

units of observation for the survey are

clearly identified. The units comprising the

samples selected from the previous stage

constitute the frame for the stages.

Take Note!

Used probability sampling if the main objective

of the sample survey is making inferences

about the characteristics of the population

under study

Basic Sampling Technique o f Non -

Probability Sampling

• Accidental Sampling - There is no system

of selection but only those whom the

researcher or interviewer meets by chance.

• Quota Sampling - There is specified

number of persons of certain types is

included in the sample. The researcher is

aware of categories within the population

and draws samples from each category. The

size of each catego rical sample is

proportional to the proportion of the

population that belongs in that category.

• Convenience Sampling - It is a process of

picking out people in the most convenient

a n d f a st e st w a y t o g et r e a ct i o n s

immediately. This method can be done by

telephone interview to get the immediate

reactions of a certain group of sample for a

certain issue.

• Purposive Sampling - It is based on certain

criteria laid down by the researcher. People

who satisfy the criteria are interviewed. It is

used to determine the target population of

those who will be taken for the study.

• Judgement Sampling - selects sample in

accordance with an expert’s judgment.

Cases wherein Non-Probability Sampling is

Useful

- Only few are willing to be interviewed

- Extreme difficulties in locating or identifying

subjects

- Probability sampling is more expensive to

implement

Sources of Errors in Sampling

1. Non-sampling Error

- Errors that result from the survey process.

- Any errors that cannot be attributed to the

sample-to-sample variability.

Sources of Non-Sampling Error

1. Non-responses

2. Interviewer Error

3. Misrepresented Answers

4. Data entry errors

5. Questionnaire Design

6. Wording of Questions

7. Selection Bias
• Slovin’s Formula

Slovin’s formula is used to calculate the sample size n given the population size and
error. It is computed as

Where:

N is the total population.

e is the level of precision.

ü Level of Precision

Also called sampling error, the level of precision, is the range in which the true value of
the population is estimated to be. The degree of sampling errors in survey results.

Example:

A researcher plans to conduct a survey about food preference of BS Stat students. If

the population of students is 1000, find the sample size if the error is 5%.

The researcher need to survey 286 BS stat students.

Obtaining a Systematic Random Sample

1. Decide on a method of assigning a unique serial number, from 1 to N, to each one of

the elements in the population.

2. Compute for the sampling interval

3. Select a number, from 1 to k, using a randomization mechanism. The element in the

population assigned to this number is the first element of the sample. The other

elements of the sample are those assigned

to the numbers and so on until you get a

sample of size.

Example:

We want to select a sample of 50 students

from 500 students under this method kth item

and picked up from the sampling frame.

Solution:

We start to get a sample starting form i and for

every kth unit subsequently. Suppose the random number i is 6, then we select 15, 25,
35, 45, .. .

Stratified Random Sampling

- The individuals within each stratum should be homogeneous (or similar) in some way.

Example:

A sample of 50 students is to be drawn from a population consisting of 500 students

belonging to two institutions A and B. The number of students in the institution A is 200
and the institution B is 300. How will you draw the sample using proportional allocation?

Solution:

There are two strata in this case.

Given:
The sample sizes are 20 from A and 30 from B. Then the units from each institution are
to be selected by simple random sampling