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Theories of Development
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TheDeveloping
The Developing Person
Person Through
Through the Life
Childhood & Span
Adolescence Kathleen d
Kathleen Stassen
Stassen Berger| |Eleventh
Berger .
 Edition

Theories of Development (part 1)

Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Le

● Grand theories (developmental)

● Psychodynamic
● Behaviorist
● Cognitive

● Newer theories (sociology and biology)

● Sociocultural
● Evolutionary

● What theories contribute

● Eclectic perspective

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Theories of Development (part 2)

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● Theories
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● Organize scattered facts and confusing observations M

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into patterns, weaving details into a meaningful whole m

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● Developmental theory n
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● Group of ideas, assumptions, and generalizations that

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interpret and illuminate the thousands of observations i

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that have been made about human growth .

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● Framework for explaining the patterns and problems

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of development
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The Developing Person
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Adolescence Kathleen d
Kathleen Stassen
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What Theories Do
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● Theories and practice

● Theories produce hypotheses.
● Theories generate discoveries.
● Theories offer practical guidance.

● Theories and facts

● Facts are essential for theory.
● A good theory begins with facts and leads to
hypotheses.

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Grand Theories: Psychodynamic

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● Psychodynamic theory
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● Places origins of adult personality and values in M

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earlier experiences, often unconscious, often in m

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childhood.
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● Sigmund Freud (1856–1939); psychoanalytic e

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theory
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● Four psychosexual stages (oral, anal, phallic, and .

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genital) l
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● Early conflict resolution determines personality g

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patterns. s
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TheDeveloping
The Developing Person
Person Through
Through the Life
Childhood & Span
Adolescence Kathleen d
Kathleen Stassen
Stassen Berger| |Eleventh
Berger .
 Edition

Grand Theories: Psychosocial

Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Le

● Erik Erikson (1902–1994)

● Eight developmental stages,
challenging developmental
crisis
● Five psychosocial stages
built on Freud’s theory, but
an additional three adult
stages

● Where Erikson differs from

Freud:
● Family and culture, not
sexual urges
● Three stages after
adolescence
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Grand Theories: Behaviorism

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● Behaviorism (learning theory)

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● Focuses on observable behavior M

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● Describes the laws and processes by which behavior

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is learned
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● Conditioning a
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● Repeated experiences teach behavior.

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● Classical: meaningful stimulus connected with A

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neutral stimulus R
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● Operant: a particular action is followed by

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something desired or unwanted

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The Developing Person
Person Through
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Childhood & Span
Adolescence Kathleen d
Kathleen Stassen
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Classical Conditioning: Pavlov

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● Classical conditioning (respondent conditioning)

● Behaviors can be learned by making an association
between a meaningful stimulus and a neutral stimulus.
● Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936)
● Nobel Prize in 1904 for his digestive processes research
● Led to discovery of classical conditioning

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Behaviorism in the United States:

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Watson
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● Behaviorism in the United States 2

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● Many North American scientists disputed Freud’s

y
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emphasis on the distant, unconscious past. c

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● Instead, they were inclined to believe that current events l

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and circumstances affect behavior. n

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● Proposed that anything can be learned with focus on a

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behavior n
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● John Watson (1878–1958) A

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● One of earliest proponents of behaviorism and learning R

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theory
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● Argued that scientists should examine only what they could

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observe and measure s

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TheDeveloping
The Developing Person
Person Through
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Kathleen Stassen
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Behaviorism in the United States:

Skinner Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Le

● Operant conditioning (instrumental conditioning)

● Proposes that reinforcement or punishment may be
used to either increase or decrease the probability that
a behavior will occur again in the future

● B. F. Skinner (1904–1990)
● Agreed with Watson that psychology should focus on
the scientific study of observable behavior
● Was best known for experiments with rats, pigeons,
and his daughter

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Rats, Pigeons, and People

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● B. F. Skinner designed a 2
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glass-enclosed crib in y
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which temperature, c
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humidity, and perceptual l

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stimulation could be n
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controlled to make his a

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daughter’s time in the crib i

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enjoyable and
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educational.
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TheDeveloping
The Developing Person
Person Through
Through the Life
Childhood & Span
Adolescence Kathleen d
Kathleen Stassen
Stassen Berger| |Eleventh
Berger .
 Edition

When Is a Punishment Not a

Punishment? Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Le

● Behaviorists focus on the effect of a consequence on

future behavior, not whether it is intended to be a reward
or a punishment.
If some children are repeatedly suspended, and if people
repeat reinforced behavior, might suspension be a
reinforcement for those children?
Or, might teachers be reinforced for removing a
misbehaving child?
What do you think? Why?

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Social Learning
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● Social learning theory

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● Extension of behaviorism that emphasizes the M

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influence that other people have over a person’s m

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behavior
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● Observational learning L
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● Imitation r
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in some contexts.
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● They may do the opposite of what they observed. g

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● All that is social learning. s

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TheDeveloping
The Developing Person
Person Through
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Adolescence Kathleen d
Kathleen Stassen
Stassen Berger| |Eleventh
Berger .
 Edition

Three Types of Learning

Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Le

Behaviorism is also called learning theory, because it

emphasizes the learning process, as shown here.

Type of Learning Process Result

Learning
Classical Learning occurs Neutral stimulus becomes
Conditioning through association. conditioned response.
Operant Learning occurs Weak or rare responses
Conditioning through reinforcement become strong and frequent
and punishment. or, with punishment,
unwanted responses become
extinct.
Social Learning occurs Observed behaviors become
Learning through modeling copied behaviors.
what others do.

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Grand Theories: Cognitive Theory

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● Cognitive theory
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● Thoughts and expectations profoundly affect actions, M

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attitudes, beliefs, and assumptions. m

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● Changes in how people think over time l

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● Jean Piaget (1896–1980) a

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● Cognitive development occurs in four major age- n

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related periods or stages.

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● Each period is characterized by certain processes R

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related to sense and logic. h

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TheDeveloping
The Developing Person
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Piaget’s Periods of Cognitive

Development Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Le

Age Name of Characteristics of the Period Major Gains During the Period
Period
Birth to age 2 Sensorimotor Infants use senses and motor Infants learn that objects still exist
abilities to understand the when out of sight (object
world. Learning is active, permanence) and begin to think
without reflection. through mental actions.
Begins when Preoperational Children think symbolically, Children develop theories of how
language with language, yet children are the world works but are not yet
develops (2-6 egocentric, perceiving from logical.
years) their own perspective.
School age Concrete Children begin to understand Schoolchildren are eager to learn
(6–11 years) operational and apply logic. facts and skills—spelling words,
number facts, reading
comprehension.
Puberty (12 Formal Adolescents and adults can Adolescents and adults understand
years through operational think logically about abstract possibilities and problems.
adulthood) ideas.

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Inside the Brain

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Measuring Mental Activity

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● Brain imagery Some Techniques Used by 2

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Neuroscientists to Understand b
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● Has shown which regions of the

M
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brain specialize in what thoughts, ● EEG m

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from simple to complex ones ● ERP l

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● MRI L
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● Neuroscience ● fMRI
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● Traces how neurons elsewhere in ● PET n

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● fNIRS .

the body connect to neurons in A

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● DTI l

the brain and affects cognition R

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● Employs ways to use electrodes, Why is it difficult for researchers t

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to use these techniques on R

magnets, light, and computers to e

large, representative samples? s

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measure brain activity, not just r

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brain
The
The size; disproving
Developing
Developing Person
Person sexist
Through
Through or
the Life
Childhood & Span
Adolescence Kathleen
Kathleen Stassen
Stassen
d
Berger| |Eleventh
Berger .
 racist theories
Edition

Information Processing
Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Le

● Information-processing theory
● Representative of the contribution of neuroscience to
human development
● Compares human thinking processes, by analogy, to
computer analysis of data, including sensory input,
connections, stored memories, and output
● Looks at the biochemical origins, the underlying
neurotransmitters, hormones, digestive processes,
and more affecting our thoughts and actions
● The American question: How to accelerate cognitive
development

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A View from Science

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Thinking and Perspective

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● Cognition, action, and brain structures were

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measured in a study of perspective-taking with 293

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participants aged 7 to 26.

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● Perspective-taking increased gradually with l

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maturation. L
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● Accuracy on perspective-taking in the director task r

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correlated with prosocial behavior on the Strength and n

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Difficulties questionnaire. A
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● Using neurological measures, scientists found those R

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with thinner cortexes were likely to understand others h

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and help them. R

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TheDeveloping
The Developing Person
Person Through
Through the Life
Childhood & Span
Adolescence Kathleen d
Kathleen Stassen
Stassen Berger| |Eleventh
Berger .
 Edition

Newer Theories
Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Le

● The grand theories just covered are comprehensive

and enduring, but these were posited by men born
in Europe over a century ago.
● Current global, historical, and cross-cultural
research, led by scientists from more diverse
backgrounds, add new insights to developmental
science.
● This is evident in the next two theories we will
consider.

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Newer Theories: Sociocultural Theory

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● Sociocultural theory
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● Suggests that human development results from the

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dynamic interaction between developing persons and

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their surrounding society

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● Culture is integral to a person’s development. e

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● Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934)

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● Interaction between culture and education l

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● Concepts of apprenticeship in thinking and guided g

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participation s
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● Language is an essential mediator between mentor e

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and mentee. Words are the tools of thought. e

The Developing Person Through the Life Span

The Developing Person Through Childhood & Adolescence Kathleen Stassen Berger | d
Kathleen Stassen Berger | Eleventh
.
 Edition

Sociocultural Theory
Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Le

● Zone of proximal
development
● Skills, knowledge, and
concepts that learner is
close to acquiring but
cannot master without
help
● Process of joint
construction
● New knowledge attained
through mentoring

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Universals and Specifics

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● Sociocultural theory
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● Aims to be sensitive to everyone, everywhere M

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● Emphasizes the impact of each culture m

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● Mentors n
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● Are attuned to ever-shifting abilities and motivation a

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● Continually urge new competence (the next level)

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● Learners l
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● Ask questions, show interest, and demonstrate

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progress,
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● Inform and inspire mentors s

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TheDeveloping
The Developing Person
Person Through
Through the Life
Childhood & Span
Adolescence Kathleen d
Kathleen Stassen
Stassen Berger| |Eleventh
Berger .
 Edition

Newer Theories: Evolutionary Theory

Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Le

● Evolutionary theory
● To understand contemporary children and families, we
need to understand what emotions, instincts, and
habits were needed by homo sapiens over the past
200,000 years.
● Proposes concept of selective adaptation
● Suggests genetic variations are particularly beneficial
when the environment changes and benefits humanity
as a whole

TheDeveloping
The Developing Person
Person Through
Through the Life
Childhood & Span
Adolescence Kathleen
Kathleen Stassen
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Theory Explosion
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TheDeveloping
The Developing Person
Person Through
Through the Life
Childhood & Span
Adolescence Kathleen d
Kathleen Stassen
Stassen Berger| |Eleventh
Berger .
 Edition

Selective Adaptation Illustrated

Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Le

TheDeveloping
The Developing Person
Person Through
Through the Life
Childhood & Span
Adolescence Kathleen
Kathleen Stassen
Stassen Berger| |Eleventh
Berger
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Evolutionary Theory: Issues and

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Explanations
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● Why we fear snakes more than cars

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● Human fears echo from ancient times when snakes M

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were common killers. Long-standing instincts are m

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contrary to current dangers or minimal dangers.

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● Why we protect babies e

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● Instincts compel adults to cherish infants because i

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otherwise, the species would not survive.

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● Evolution for good or evil? Why? Why not? R

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TheDeveloping
The Developing Person
Person Through
Through the Life
Childhood & Span
Adolescence Kathleen d
Kathleen Stassen
Stassen Berger| |Eleventh
Berger .
 Edition

What Theories Contribute (part 1)

Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Le

● Psychoanalytic theories
● Behaviorism
● Cognitive theories
● Sociocultural theories
● Evolutionary theories

Can you identify the contributions of each of the above

theories?

TheDeveloping
The Developing Person
Person Through
Through the Life
Childhood & Span
Adolescence Kathleen
Kathleen Stassen
Stassen Berger| |Eleventh
Berger
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What Theories Contribute (part 2)

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● Eclectic perspective
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● Taken by most developmentalists M

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● Occurs when aspects of each of the various theories l

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of development are selectively applied rather than n

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adhering exclusively to one theory a

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● Helps guard against bias and facilitates open-

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mindedness to alternative explanations for complexity A

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of human life R
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TheDeveloping
The Developing Person
Person Through
Through the Life
Childhood & Span
Adolescence Kathleen d
Kathleen Stassen
Stassen Berger| |Eleventh
Berger .
 Edition

Five Perspectives on Human

Development Copyright © 2024 by Macmillan Le

Theory Area of Focus Fundamental Depiction of Relative Emphasis on

What People Do Nature or Nurture?
Psychodynamic theory Psychosexual (Freud) or Battle unconscious impulses and More nature (biological,
psychosocial (Erikson) stages overcome major crises. sexual impulses, and
parent–child bonds)
Behaviorism Conditioning through stimulus and Respond to stimuli, More nurture (direct
response reinforcement, and models. environment produces
various behaviors)
Cognitive theory Thinking, remembering, analyzing Seek to understand experiences More nature (mental
while forming concepts. activity and motivation
are key)
Sociocultural theory Social control, expressed through Learn the tools, skills, and More nurture (interaction
people, language, customs values of society through of mentor and learner,
apprenticeships. within cultures)
Evolutionary Needs and impulses that originated Develop impulses, interests, and More nature (needs and
thousands of years ago patterns to survive and impulses apply to all
reproduce. humans)

TheDeveloping
The Developing Person
Person Through
Through the Life
Childhood & Span
Adolescence Kathleen
Kathleen Stassen
Stassen Berger| |Eleventh
Berger