MACHAKOS UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENT AND NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

AGE 401: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION

LECTURER: DR. ANDREW KWONYIKE

May 2022
Name: Dr. ANDREW KWONYIKE
Education: PhD (Environmental Studies),
Mphil(Environmental Planning &Management),
Bed Geo/SE)
Specialization Environmental Planning &Management
Department: Environmental science
Office: Department of Environmental science
Email [email protected]
Phone: 0717568675
LECTURER TWO
Introduction and definition of terms
1.1 Introduction
This lecture discusses the subdivisions of conservation, branches of natural environment
conservation, success stories in the field of environmental conservation,
The lecture covers:
1. Lecture objectives 2. Sub-divisions of conservation 3. Branches of natural environment
conservation 4.success stories in conservation 5. Further activities 6. summary 7. suggestions for
further reading.
1.2 Lecture objectives
By the end of this course the learner should be able to:
(i) Explain the subdivisions of conservation.
(ii) Outline the branches of natural environment conservation.
(iii) Discuss the success stories in conservation.
1.3 e-tivity
Subdivisions of conservation
Numbering, sequencing: 1.3
Title: Branches of conservation and success stories in conservation
Brief summary of task:
- read the document below at Url
- read the online documents below and open the links provided to watch you tube videos (section
1.13)
Spart or simulator: environmental conservation
Individual task: using bullet points/paragraphs,
a) discuss the different branches of environmental conservation
b) Outline the success stories of environmental conservation
Interaction begins:
a) post two questions related to environmental conservation
b) provide feedback to learners views.
E-moderator interventions:
a) ensure learners are focused on discussions.
b) stimulate further learning.
c) provide feedback on learning progress.
d) Close e-tivity.
Schedule and time: this should take 30 minutes.

1.4 Subdivisions of Conservation

Buildings and complexes, and urban development are an essential part of the historic built
environment, an expansion from traditional archaeology which used to focus on derelict
buildings and monuments of historic importance. Many buildings of historical significance are
still in use today in both the Old World and the New World and there are multiple examples of
buildings still in use preserved on the UNESCO World Heritage List. Architectural conservation
is the intervention to stop the degradation of historic structures - either in use or derelict, that are
subject to protections for their historical significance for future generations to enjoy. Buildings
are often subject to problems because they were not designed with permanence in mind, even
those built to last. The longer they are standing, the more important they become and the more
likely they are to experience problems, the higher the risk factor to their survival. The aim is to
prolong a building's life for as long as possible and maintain the integrity of the building's fabric.

Conservation Biology

Arguably the area that most people consider when they hear the word “conservation”. This is the
science of protecting biodiversity and managing an ecosystem to ensure its integrity. It aims to
protect individual species (especially where they are threatened or endangered or at risk from
invasive species), the habitats in which they reside and maintaining the status quo of an
environment. It focuses on all biological life within a biome and seeks to promote normal
interactions. It's a relatively young area, arriving in the late 1970s when it was becoming clear
that industrial actions were affecting microclimates and delicate habitats and damaging
biodiversity.

Conservation Ethics

This is more of a philosophy that underpins many of conservation's theories and practices.
Simply, it is an explanation of standards of ethics in the protection of species, natural resources,
land, cultural assets, and in their use and management. Although most sciences have ethics and
code of conduct to do as little harm as possible and ensure maximum benefit may be extracted
from such actions, few are so intertwined with an ethical approach so deeply ingrained. It acts as
a counterbalance to the culture of “indifference” that many feel exist towards resource use under
modern economic systems since the Industrial Revolution.

Conservation Genetics

Conservation is often as much a biological issue as anything else. While conservation biology is
about maintaining the integrity of an ecosystem, conservation genetics concerns the genetic
diversity of a certain species. It is integral to breeding programs that zoos and conservation parks
now actively engage in as part of their efforts to avoid species extinction. It uses all the tools,
techniques, and knowledge of genetics to select breeding pairs and to ensure genetic diversity
amongst threatened and endangered species. Often, it is the most important and sometimes the
only way to ensure genetic biodiversity.

Conservation Economics

Economics is a vital link in any political system as there is a need to provide employment and
funding for public services and investment and to ensure markets function. Conservation
Economics applies economic models to understand the relative costs and financial benefits of
everything related to conservation - laws, protections, limits on resource acquisition and so on. It
also looks at the economic benefits of setting aside conservation lands such as tourism and the
health benefits. With such models, progress and conservation are not in opposition or a battle of
wits, but complementary with both seeing the other as vital in their systems.

1.5 Branches of natural environment conservation

Soil Conservation

With broad applications in agriculture, disaster prevention and for ecology, soil conservation
concerns maintaining or restoring the integrity of ground soil. Experts in this field with examine
ways of engaging in soil management to prevent erosion or depletion of nutrients and work to
remove contamination during toxic spillages. It is as much about ecological health as public
health, and often as part of an insurance claim when there is lost income (for example, industrial
spillage on or near agricultural land that could damage a farmer's income or lead to crop
contamination). Intensive agriculture is a fact of modern life; while this concerns pollution, the
biggest contributor to soil nutrient depletion is overuse. Other issues concern removal of tree
cover in tropical zones that without adequate infrastructure will lead to flooding and nutrient
loss.
Water Conservation

Water security is a growing problem with a growing population and with both flooding and
drought now common in some parts of the world, there are few areas of conservation considered
more important than this. Simply, it is the management of fresh water supply. This is a
sustainable resource but is often overused. Droughts in California and flooding in the southern
states, in particular, mean active measures are required to reduce overuse of water resources,
eliminate wastage from supplies to homes, commercial and industrial properties, and to take
steps to avoid drinking water from being contaminated with so-called “grey water”. Water
security is also important to crop growth and maintaining food security as fodder for cattle and
our own food supply.

Wetland Conservation

Wetlands such as swamps, tidal marshes and river floodplains are an important and broad source
of biodiversity and home to rare, endangered, and threatened species. Many overwintering
species use the wetlands of the world temporarily or as permanent homes. As they provide
sanctuary to threatened and endangered animals and plants, they are protected in most areas of
the world. In many cases, protecting their numbers and supporting their continued existence is
solely dependent on protecting the environments that they inhabit. Wetland conservation is not
just about maintaining what is already there, but also restoration. Draining in the recent past has
had a massive impact on the local flora and fauna and steps are being taken to restore them.

Wildlife Conservation

Whereas conservation biology is about preserving ecosystems for species by looking at their
biological functions through anatomy and genetics, wildlife conservation is less concerned with
the science of biology and more with protections based on habitats, numbers, diversity, and
fragility to changes in the environment. It's an application of conservation rather than a study.
The aim is to ensure that everything possible is done to ensure the integrity of populations and
their ecosystems for continued survival. It involves charities and governments, often working
together to change laws and enact measures to achieve goals.

Marine Conservation

Oceans and seas cover around 2/3 of our planet. They are vital for life and home to thousands of
species. It's a natural resource and an economic one; many problems blight our oceans today, not
least of all overfishing and the dumping of waste. Marine conservation looks at ways of
preserving the oceans as ecosystems for the species that rely on them and focuses on laws for
protection and management of such ecosystems. It interlinks with many other areas, particularly
oceanography and marine biology.

1.6 Conservation Success stories so far

Conservation engages governments, local people, interest groups, and charities working together
to ensure that a certain resource or elements of the natural landscape or cultural heritage is
preserved for future generations. There are many such examples of success stories around the
world, some of which are listed here.
Southern White Rhino

2018 saw the technical (if not the literal) extinction of the Northern White Rhino when the last
male died in an African reserve. Political instability and a lack of unified program of care led to
the demise of this subspecies, the story of its cousin to the south is a much different affair. At the
beginning of the 20th century, the Southern White Rhino numbered just 20 individuals, all
located in a reserve in South Africa. But international conservation efforts, effective laws and
management, funding and a coherent breeding program changed all that. At the last census in
2015, it was estimated that species numbers were anything between 19,500 and 21,000. As
recently as the 1960s, there were just 840 individuals. It is now the most prevalent of all
rhinoceros species.

Giant Panda

The Giant Panda is the symbol of the World Wildlife Foundation. Since the 1980s it has been the
most prominent species globally in terms of the conservation movement. Despite still being in a
delicate situation, the Giant Panda recently moved from the “endangered” to the “vulnerable”
list. Due to mass deforestation in the industrial era, they were driven out of the lowland habitats
and into the highlands of China. But a scheme of breeding, conservation and protection, forest
restoration means their numbers are once again growing. It was estimated in the 1970s that the
total number of Giant Pandas living in the wild was around 1,110. In 2016, similar figures
suggested anything between 2,000 and 3,000 although the official figure was 1,800.

American Bison

The argument over who was responsible for the decline of the North American Bison will go on
for some time. Colonial powers are largely given the blame, but some have pointed to changing
hunting habits of Native Americans. Either way, everyone has agreed that the decline of this
once-prevalent species is of major concern. Today, most American Bison live on farms and
ranches and are bred for meat. Wild herds are far less common and numerous attempts have been
made to restore them to the great plains of the US and areas of Canada where they once roamed.
Nevertheless, their numbers are increasing, both in captivity and in the wild. Their status today is
“Near Threatened”. We know that 500 years ago when the first European colonies were formed
in North America, there were millions of bison. In 2008, there were 400,000 with over 90% of
them in captive herds with a gradual increase in wild herds of both plains and woodland bison.

Bat Conservation

These fascinating mammals are subject to some of the most stringent laws on conservation and
wildlife protection in every country where they exist. In the western countries, disturbing bats or
their habitats are often subject to severe penalties. Despite that legends inform us that they are
carnivorous, most bats are herbivorous, living mostly on fruit, while some are insectivorous or
omnivorous. Although not unique, they have a rare place in mammals in that they are responsible
for a large portion of pollination; they also control insect pests. Simply, they are vital for
agriculture and ecology. The majority of bat species today are endangered or vulnerable.
Although this means laws are necessary to protect them and we must remain on guard, it is an
improvement over the last few decades when numbers declined. Arguably, the largest success
story is the Rodrigues Fruit Bat, reduced to just 100 individuals on the island after which it is
named in the 1970s, today there are over 25,000.

Bald Eagle

In the US, there is no greater example of the success of national efforts than the bird that has
become the nation's symbol. The Bald Eagle has captured the imagination of conservationists the
world over, mostly because it is only one of a few species that have ever come off the
endangered species list. Its story is even more inspiring because it was once on the brink of
extinction due to a combination of massive forestry clearance, a considerable reduction in its
prey species due to overhunting, and farmers shooting them due to the perception of threat to
livestock. Also, we know that the use of DDT also killed a great many more . The banning of
DDT, the Clean Water Act, banning of shooting eagles, protected nest sites and targeted
restoration programs means this majestic bird of prey has gone from just 500 at the low point to
70,000 today.

Buffalo Clover

Invasive species are as problematic for plants as they are for animals. Yet non-native and
destructive plants can often be far more problematic than invasive animals. US foresters and
other conservation landowners have traditionally had a hard time protecting and propagating a
native plant called Buffalo Clover. There are four types of plant by this name, but the
conservation success story is a true clover, sometimes known as Running Buffalo Clover - it's
scientific name is Trifolium stoloniferum. It's native to the Eastern and Mid-Western states and
currently on the endangered list. It was believed extinct until several colonies were discovered in
1985 in Virginia. Since then, it's been subject to some of the most stringent plant conservation
laws in the country, more colonies have been found, it's been replanted in areas where it once
thrived. It remains critical but efforts to conserve it are pushing Buffalo Clover towards a stable
return to the east.

Douglas Hawthorn

Native to the US states and Canadian provinces around the Great Lakes, few plants have
received as much special attention as the Douglas Hawthorn. It resides along the borders of
woodlands, in forest clearings and other areas where tree cover is not too dense. It has come
under attack from a number of threats, specifically from insects adapted to non-woodland
environments moving into farmland and clearings and trampling through excess tourist
visitation. It has special concern status in Michigan and much effort has been devoted to
cultivating seeds and reintroducing it on both sides of the border in areas where it has been under
the greatest threat. It's been successful, but it remains in a delicate state in some areas while
experiencing critical success in others.