Module 4

Operational Amplifiers and its Applications

3.1 Operational Amplifier

3.1.1 Introduction

1. What is an operational amplifier? (2M)

 An operational amplifier, or op-amp, is a direct coupled multistage voltage amplifier

with an extremely high gain.

 The operational amplifier is a device that can be used for performing mathematical operations
such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, integration and differentiation etc.

3.1.2 The Operational Amplifier

2. Mention the advantages and applications of Op-Amp. (3M)

Advantages:-
 Low cost
 Small size
 Versatility
 Flexibility
 Dependability

Applications:-

 Op-amps have become an integral part of almost every electronic circuit which uses
linear integrated circuits.
 In linear applications like voltage follower, differential amplifier, inverting amplifier,
non-inverting amplifier, etc. and non-linear applications like precision rectifiers,
comparators, clampers, Schmitt trigger circuit, etc.
 In analog signal processing and analog filtering.
 To perform mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication,
integration, differentiation, etc.
 In the fields of process control, communications, computers, power and signal sources,
displays and measuring systems.
3.1.3 Block Diagram Representation of Typical Op-Amp
3. Explain block diagram representation of typical op-amp. (6M)

• The input stage is the dual-input, balanced-output differential amplifier. This provides
most of the voltage gain of the amplifier and also establishes the input resistance of the op-
amp.

• The intermediate stage is dual-input, balanced-output differential amplifier. Since

direct coupling is used, the dc voltage at the output of the intermediate stage is well above
ground potential.

• Hence, a level translator (shifter) circuit is used after the intermediate stage to shift
the dc level downward to zero volts with respect to ground.

• The final stage is a push-pull complementary amplifier output stage.

• This increases the output voltage swing and raises the current supplying capability
of the op-amp. It also provides low output resistance.
3.1.4 Schematic Symbol

4. Explain the schematic symbol of Op-Amp. (3M)

The (+) input is the non-inverting input.

 The ac signal or dc voltage applied to this input produces an in-phase or same polarity
signal at the output.
 The (-) input is the inverting input.
 The ac signal or dc voltage applied to this input produces a 180° out-of-phase or
opposite polarity signal at the output.
 𝑣1 is the voltage at the non-inverting input
 𝑣2 is the voltage at the inverting input
 𝑣𝑜 is the output
 𝐴 is the large -signal voltage gain
3.1.5 Op-Amp parameters
5. Explain the following op-amp parameters. (8M)
(i) Gain:-
The op-amp amplifies the difference voltage between two input terminals. • The voltage gain
of the amplifier is defined as,

That is,

Generally 𝐴 is expressed in decibel (dB) as,

A=20 log10 ( ) dB

(ii) Common Mode Rejection Ratio:-

Common mode rejection ratio (CMRR) is the ability of an op-amp to reject a common mode signal.

It is defined as the ratio of differential voltage gain 𝐴𝑑 to common mode gain 𝐴𝑐m.

CMRR is a large value and is often expressed in decibel as,

Aol
20 log 10 ( ) dB
(iii) Input Resistance:-
The differential input resistance, or input resistance 𝑅𝑖, is the equivalent resistance that can
be measured at either the inverting or non-inverting input terminal, with the other terminal
connected to ground.
For the 741C, the input resistance is 2 𝑀Ω.
(iv) Output Resistance:-
The output resistance, 𝑅𝑜, is the equivalent resistance that can be measured between the
output terminal of the op-amp and the ground.

For the 741C, the input resistance is 75 Ω.

(v) Slew Rate:-

 Slew rate (SR) is defined as the maximum rate of change of output voltage per unit of
time.

 Slew rate indicates how rapidly the output of an op-amp can change in response to
changes in the input.
(vi) Bandwidth:-
 Bandwidth is the frequency range of the input signal that can be amplified without any
attenuation.
 Typical value for 741C is 1 𝑀Hz.

(vii) Maximum Output Voltage Swing 𝑉o (max):-

 When an input signal is applied, the ideal limits of the peak-to-peak output signal are
±𝑉cc.
 𝑉o (𝑚ax) varies with the load connected to the op-amp and increases directly with load
resistance.

(viii) Input offset voltage:-

 The ideal op-amp produces zero volts out for zero volts in.
 In a practical op-amp, a small dc voltage appears at the output when no differential input
voltage is applied.
 The input offset voltage, 𝑉𝑖, is the differential dc voltage that must be applied between
the two input terminals to force the output to zero volts.

(ix) Input Offset Current:-

  Ideally, the two input bias currents are equal, and thus their difference is zero.
 In a practical op-amp, however, the bias currents are not exactly equal.
 The input offset current, 𝐼𝑖o, is the difference between the currents into the inverting
and non-inverting terminals.

(x) Input Bias Current:-

 The input bias current, 𝐼𝐵, is the average of the currents that flow into the inverting and
non-inverting input terminals.

 Typical value of input bias current for 741C is 500 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛

3.1.6 The Ideal Op-Amp
6. Briefly discuss the ideal characteristics of the op-amp. An ideal op-amp would exhibit the
following electrical characteristics:

 Infinite voltage gain (A = ∞)

 Infinite input resistance (Ri = ∞)
Almost any signal source can drive it and there is no loading in the preceding stage.
 Zero output resistance (R0 = 0)
The output can drive an infinite number of other devices
 Zero offset voltage (Vi = 0)
Zero output voltage when the input voltage is zero.
 Infinite bandwidth (BW = ∞)
Any frequency signal from 0 to ∞ Hz can be amplified without attenuation.
 Infinite CMRR (𝐶 = ∞)
Output common-mode noise voltage is zero.
  Infinite slew rate (SR = ∞)
Output voltage changes occur simultaneously with input voltage changes
3.1.7 Open-Loop Op-Amp Configurations:-

 The term ‘Open-loop’ indicates that no connection exists between the output and input
terminals.
 The output is not fed back in any form as part of the input signal.
 When connected in the open-loop configuration, the op-amp functions as a high-gain
amplifier.
 There are three open-loop configurations:
1. Differential amplifier
2. Inverting amplifier
3. No inverting amplifier

7. Explain the open loop differential circuit using op-amp. Mention the advantages of
negative feedback in amplifier. (4M)

 The input signals 𝑣𝑖n1 and 𝑣𝑖n2 are applied to the positive and negative input terminals
respectively.
 The op-amp amplifies the difference between the two input signals, hence it is called
differential amplifier.
 The source resistances 𝑅𝑖n1 and 𝑅𝑖n2 are normally negligible compared to the input resistance
𝑅𝑖, and hence the voltage drop across these resistors can be assumed to be zero.

This implies 𝑣1 = 𝑣𝑖n1 and 𝑣2 = 𝑣in2.

Hence output voltage

𝑣𝑜 = (𝑣𝑖n1 − 𝑣in2)
 APPLICATIONS OF OP-AMP:
1. Voltage Follower:- It is an operational amplifier circuit that output a voltage that is identical to
its input voltage.

i. Analysis,
From ckt, V B = V in

ii. From Virtual ground, Potential at A : V A = V B

From ckt,
V out = V A
V out = V in
2. Inverting amplifier:

Analysis
i. From ckt, V B = 0

ii. From virtual ground, V A = V B = 0

iii. Current through R1 is,

I1 = (V in - V A / R1) = V in /R1

iv. Current through Rf is,

If = (V A – V out / Rf) = -V out /Rf

v. KCL at point A, IA = IA + If
From op-amp concept, current drawn is zero. (I A = 0)
I1 = If
V in /R1 = -V out /Rf
V out = - (Rf /R1 x V in)
3. Non – inverting amplifier:

i. From ckt voltage at point B is , V B = V in

ii. From Virtual ground, Potential at A : V A = V B , V A = V in

iii. Current through R1 is,

I1 = (V A – V grnd / R1) = V in /R1 ---------------(1)

iv. Current through Rf is,

If = (V out – V A / Rf) = (V out - V in / Rf ) ----------- (2)

v. KCL at point A, I f = IA + I1
From op-amp concept, current drawn is zero. (I A = 0)
If = I1

Substitute for I f & I1 from eq 1,2

(V out - V in / Rf ) = V in /R1
V out / Rf = V in/R1 + V in/Rf
V out / Rf = V in ( 1/R1 + 1/R1 )
V out = V in (Rf / R1 +1 )

AV = V out / V in = ( 1 + Rf / R1 )
4. Op amp as Integrator:

i. From ckt voltage at point B is , V B = 0

ii. From Virtual ground, Potential at A : V A = V B = 0 [V A =0]

iii. Current through R1 is,

I1 = (V in - V A / R1) = V in /R1 ----------------------- (1)

iv. Current through ‘C’,

Ic = c (V A – V out )

Ic = - c x V out ------------------------------- (2)

v. KCL at A,
I1 = Ic + IA
I1 = Ic

Subst eq 1,2

V in / R1 = - c x V out

∫V in / R1 c = - ∫ V out

V out = -1 / R1 c ∫ V dt
in
5. Op amp as Differentiator:

i. From ckt voltage at point B is , V B = 0

ii. From Virtual ground, Potential at A : V A = V B = 0 [V A =0]

iii. Current through ‘C’,

Ic = c (V in – V A)

Ic = c x V in ------------------------------- (1)

iv. Current through Rf is,

If = (V B – V out / Rf) = - V out / Rf ----------- (2)

v. KCL at A,
Ic = If + IA

Subst eq 1,2

c x V in = - V out / Rf

V out = - Rf . c. x V in
6. Op amp as Inverting Summer:

i. From ckt voltage at point B is , V B = 0

ii. From Virtual ground, Potential at A : V A = V B = 0 [V A =0]

iii. Current through R1, R2, R3, R4 is,

I1 = V 1 / R1

I2 = V 2 / R2

I3 = V 3 / R3

I4 = V 4 / R4

iv. Current through Rf is,

If = (V A – V out / Rf) = - V out /Rf

v. KCL at A,
I1 + I2 + I3 + I4 = If

Now subst for I f ,

V 1 / R1 + V 2 / R2 + V 3 / R3 + V 4 / R4 = - V out /Rf

V out = - Rf ( V 1 / R1 + V 2 / R2 + V 3 / R3 + V 4 / R4 )

Consider all resistors as R

V out = - R ( V 1 / R + V 2 / R + V 3 / R + V 4 / R )

V out = - R/R ( V 1 + V 2 + V 3 + V 4 )

V out = - ( V 1 + V 2 + V 3 + V 4 )
7. Op amp as Subractor:

i. Current I2 = V 2 / R + Rf
V B = VRf = I2 Rf
V B = ( V 2 / R + Rf) Rf

ii. Concept of virtual ground, V A = V B = ( V 2 / R + Rf) Rf

iii. Current through R with respect to terminal,

I1 = V 1 - V A / R

I1 = V 1 / R - ( V 2 / R + Rf) Rf / R
iv. Current through Rf ,
If = V A – V out / Rf
= ( V 2 / R + Rf) Rf / Rf – V out / Rf
= ( V 2 / R + Rf) – V out / Rf

v. KCL at node A,
I1 = IA + If
I1 = If

R = Rf

= V 1 / R - ( V 2 / R + R) R/ R = (V 1/ R + Rf) – V out / Rf
= V 1 / R - ( V 2 / 2R) - ( V 2 / 2R) = V out / Rf
= V 1 / R - ( 2V 2 / 2R) = - V out / Rf
= ( V 1 – V 2 ) 1/R = - V out / Rf
= - V out = V 1 – V 2
Or
= V out = V 2 – V 1
 Questions:
1. For a non-inverting amp, R1 = 1K ohm, Rf = 20k ohm. Find the gain of the amplifier?

For a non-inverting amplifier, the gain (Av) can be calculated using the formula:

[ Av = 1 + {Rf} / {R1} ]

In your case, R1 = 1kΩ and Rf = 20kΩ. Plugging in the values

Av = 1 + 20x103 / 1x103

Calculating the gain:

Av = 1 + 20
Av = 21

2. Calculate output voltage of a 3 input inverting summing amp given: R1 =200k ohm,
R2= 250k ohm, R3 = 500k ohm , Rf = 1M ohm, V1= -2v, V2= -1v, V3= 3v

Sol:
3. Design an adder circuit using op-amp to give the output voltage of Vout = - (2V1 +
3V2 + 5V3 ).

Sol:
4. Find the output for the following op-amp:
Sol: