REMOTE SENSING

AND GIS
Second Edition

BASUDEB BHATTA
Course Coordinator
Computer Aided Design Centre
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Jadavpur University
Kolkata

OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS
 Contents

Preface to the Second Edition

v

Preface to the First Edition viii

List of Colour Plates xxiii

PART I Remote Sensing and Image Analysis

1. Concept of Remote Sensing 3 1.14 Applications of Remote Sensing 31
1.1 Introduction 3 1.15 Advantages of Remote Sensing 31
1.2 Distance of Remote Sensing 3 1.16 Limitations of Remote Sensing 32
1.3 Definition of Remote Sensing 4 1.17 Ideal Remote Sensing System 32
1.4 Remote Sensing: Art and/or Science 5 2. Types of Remote Sensing and Sensor
1.5 Data 5
Characteristics 35
1.5.1 In Situ Data 6
2.1 Introduction 35
1.5.2 Remotely Sensed Data 6 2.2 Types of Remote Sensing 35
1.6 Remote Sensing Process 6 2.2.1 Classification Based on Platform36
1.7 Source of Energy 8
2.2.2 Classification Based on Energy
1.7.1 Concept of Energy 8
Source 37
1.7.2 Electromagnetic Radiation 9
2.2.3 Classification Based on Imaging
1.7.3 Electromagnetic Spectrum 13
Media 38
1.8 Interaction with Atmosphere 18
2.2.4 Classification Based on the
1.8.1 Absorption 18
Regions of Electromagnetic
1.8.2 Scattering 19
Spectrum 39
1.8.3 Refraction 20
2.2.5 Classification Based on Number of
1.8.4 Reflection 21
Bands 40
1.9 Interaction with Target 21 2.3 Characteristics of Images 40
1.9.1 Hemispherical Absorptance, 2.4 Orbital Characteristics of Satellite 43
Transmittance, and Reflectance 22
2.4.1 Orbit of Remote Sensing Satellite 46
1.9.2 Spectral Reflectance Curve 24
2.5 Remote Sensing Satellites 48
1.10 Interaction with the Atmosphere 2.6 Concept of Swath 51
Again 26 2.7 Concept of Nadir 52
1.11 Recording of Energy by Sensor 26
2.8 Sensor Resolutions 52
1.11.1 Target and Path Radiance 27
2.8.1 Spatial Resolution 53
1.12 Transmission, Reception, and
2.8.2 Spectral Resolution 55
Processing 28 2.8.3 Radiometric Resolution 56
1.13 Interpretation and Analysis 29
2.8.4Temporal Resolution 58
1.13.1 Visual Image Interpretation 29
2.9 Image Referencing System 60
1.13.2 Digital Image Processing 30
xiv Contents

2.9.1 Path 60 4.7 Ideal Time and Atmosphere for Aerial

2.9.2 Row 60 Remote Sensing 116

2.9.3 Orbital Calendar 64 118
5. Digital Imaging
3. History of Remote Sensing and Indian 5.1 Introduction 118

66 5.2 Digital Image 118

Space Program
3.1 Introduction 66 5.3 Sensor 120
5.3.1 Dispersing Element 122
3.2 The Early Age 67
3.3 The Middle Age 69 5.3.2 Filter 122

3.4 The Modem Age or Space Age 70 5.3.3 Spectrometer and

3.5 Indian Space Program 74 Spectroradiometer 122

3.5.1 DOS and ISRO 75 5.3.4 Detectors 123

3.5.2 NRSC 78 5.4 Imaging by Scanning Technique 125

3.5.3 Indian Launch 79 Across-track Scanning
5.4.1 125
Programs
5.4.2 Along-track Scanning 129
4. Photographic Imaging 94
5.5 Hyper-spectral Imaging 141
4.1 Introduction 94
5.5.1 Airborne Visible Infrared Imaging
4.2 Camera Systems 94
Spectrometer (AVIRIS) 142
4.2.1 Components of Aerial Metric 5.5.2 Compact Airborne Spectrographic
Camera 95
Imager-2 (CASI-2) 143
4.2.2 Photographic Parameters 97
5.5.3 Compact High Resolution Imaging
4.3 Types of Camera 98
Spectrometer (CHRIS) 143
4.3.1 Metric Cameras 98
5.6 Imaging By Non-scanning Technique
4.3.2 Multiple-lens (or Multi- spectral or
143
Multiple-band) Cameras 98 Thermal Remote
5.7 Sensing 144
4.3.3 Panoramic Cameras 99
5.7.1 Radiant versus Kinetic Tempera¬
4.3.4 Strip Cameras 100
ture 144
4.3.5 Large Format Cameras 100
5.7.2 BlackbodyRadiation 145
4.4 Filter 101
5.7.3 Thermal Imaging 146
4.4.1 Absorption Filter 103
5.7.4 Thermal Properties 149
4.4.2 Interference Filter 103
5.7.5 Thermal Image and Temperature
4.4.3 Anti-vignetting Filter 103
Mapping 150
4.4.4 UV Filter and Skylight Filter 103
5.7.6 Thermal Remote Sensing Sensors
4.4.5 Haze Filter 103
150
4.4.6 Polarizing Filter 104
5.8 Other Sensors 152
4.5 Film 104
5.8.1 Atmospheric Sensors 152
4.5.1 Types of Film 104
5.8.2 Active Remote Sensors 153
4.5.2 Film Size 106
5.8.3 Video 156
4.5.3 Film Resolution 106
5.8.4 Passive Microwave Remote
4.5.4 Processing of Black-and-White
Film 106
Sensing 156

4.5.5 6. Microwave Remote Sensing 161

Processing of Colour Film 108
4.5.6 Digitization of Film 109 6.1 Introduction 161

4.6 Geometry of Aerial Photography 111 6.2 Passive Microwave Remote Sensing 161
4.6.1 Scale of Photograph 112 6.2.1 Passive Microwave Imagers 162
4.6.2 Vantage Point 113
 Contents xv

6.3 Active Microwave Remote Sensing 163 8. Photogrammetry 225

6.4 Radar Imaging 164 8.1 Introduction 225
6.4.1 Frequency/Wavelength 166 8.2 Development of Photogrammetry 226
6.4.2 Polarization 167 8.3 Classification of Photogrammetry 228
6.4.3 Viewing Geometry 169 8.4 Photogrammetric Process 229
6.4.4 Spatial Resolution of Radar 8.5 Acquisition of Imagery and its Support
System 170 Data 230
6.4.5 Speckle 177 8.5.1 Acquisition of Imagery Using
6.4.6 Surface Geometry 179 Aerial Platform 230
6.4.7 Surface Roughness 180 8.5.2 Acquisition of Imagery Using
6.4.8 Dielectric Properties 182 Satellite Platform 234
6.5 Airborne Versus Space-Borne Radars 183 8.5.3 Control Surveys 236
6.6 Radar Systems 184 8.5.4 Geometric Distortion inImagery 237
7. Ground-truth Data and 8.6 Orientation and Triangulation 240
Global 8.6.1 Coordinate Systems 240
Positioning System 188
7.1 Introduction 8.6.2 Orientation 241
188
7.2 8.6.3 Block Triangulation 245
Requirements of Ground-Truth Data 189
7.3 8.6.4 Transformation 246
Instruments for Ground Truthing 190
7.4 Parameters of Ground
8.7 Stereo Model Compilation 246
Truthing 193
8.8 Stereoscopic 3D Viewing 247
7.4.1 Atmospheric Conditions 193
7.4.2
8.8.1 Stereoscopic Viewing in Analog
Surface Water 194
7.4.3 Vegetation 194 Photogrammetry 250
8.9 Stereoscopic Measurement 252
7.4.4 Soil, Bare Ground, and Rock 194
8.9.1 x-Parallax 252
7.4.5 Dark and Light Calibration Targets
8.9.2 jy-parallax 255
194
8.10 DTM/DEM Generation 256
7.5 Factors of Spectral Measurement 195
8.11 Contour Map Generation 256
7.5.1 Sun Angles 195
8.12 Orthorectification 257
7.5.2 Cloud Condition 195
8.13 3D Feature Extraction 258
7.5.3 Aerosol, Haze, and Water Vapour
8.14 3D Scene Modelling 259
196
8.15 Photogrammetry and LiDAR 259
7.5.4 Topography 196
8.16 Radargrammetry and Radar
7.5.5 Shadows 196
7.6 Global Navigation Satellite System 196 Interferometry 261
8.17 Limitations of Photogrammetry 262
7.6.1 Satellite-based Navigation and

Positioning Systems 198 9. Visual Image Interpretation 264

7.6.2 Functional Segments of GPS 200 9.1 Introduction 264
7.6.3 Working Principle of GPS 206 9.2 Information Extraction by Human and
7.6.4 GPS Signals 212 Computer 264
7.6.5 Errors of GPS 214 9.3 Remote Sensing Data Products 269
7.6.6 Positioning Methods 217 9.4 Border or Marginal Information 270
7.6.7 Differential Global Positioning 9.5 Image Interpretation 273

System 218 9.6 Elements ofVisual Image

7.6.8 GPS Receivers 221 Interpretation 274
7.6.9 Applications of GNSS 223
xvi Contents

9.6.1 Location 274 10.10.4 Transect Extraction 332

9.6.2 Size 275 10.10.5 Contrast Enhancement 333

9.6.3 Shape 276 10.10.6 Filtering 340

9.6.4 Shadow 277 10.11 Image Transformation 346
9.6.5 Tone 278 10.11.1 Image Arithmetic Operations 346
9.6.6 Colour 279 10.11.2 Principal Component Transforma¬
9.6.7 Texture 279 tion 350
9.6.8 Pattern 280 10.11.3 TasselledCap Transformation (K-
9.6.9 Height and Depth 281 T Transformation) 352
9.6.10 Site, Situation, andAssociation282 10.11.4 Colour Space Transformation 353
9.7 Interpretation Keys 283 10.11.5 Fourier Transformation 355
9.8 Generation of Thematic Maps 284 10.11.6 Image Fusion 357
9.9 Thermal Image Interpretation 295 10.12 Image Classification 360
9.9.1 Diurnal Heating Effects 296 10.12.1 Information Class and Spectral
9.9.2 Thermal Properties of Water and Class 360
Land 297 10.12.2 Supervised Versus Unsupervised
9.9.3 Interpretation of Multispectral Classification 361
Thermal Image 298 Decision Rules for
10.12.3 Supervised
9.10 Radar Image Interpretation 299 Classification 362
9.10.1 Tone 300 10.12.4 Decision Rules for Unsupervised
9.10.2 Colour 303 Classification 369
9.10.3 Shape, Structure, and Size 304 10.12.5 Application of Fuzzy Set Theory
9.10.4 Speckle 305 on Decision Rules 374
9.10.5 Antenna Pattern 307 10.12.6 Classification using an Expert
9.10.6 Texture 307
System 375
10. Digital Image Processing 310 10.12.7 Accuracy Assessment 375

10.1 Introduction 310 10.12.8 Post-classification Processing 377

10.2 Categorization of Image Processing 311 11. Data Integration, Analysis, and
10.3 Image Processing Systems 313 Presentation 379
10.4 Digital Image 314 11.1 Introduction 379
10.5 Media for Digital Data Recording,
11.2 Multi-approach of Remote
Sensing 337
Storage, and Distribution 314 11.2.1 MultiS ensor, Multiplatform, and
10.6 Data Formats of Digital Image 315
MultiResolution Images 379
10.7 Header Information 316
11.2.2 Multi-Spectral Images 381
10.8 Display of Digital Image 316
11.2.3 MultiTemporal/MultiSeasonal
10.9 Pre-processing 318
Images 382
10.9.1 Radiometric Correction of
11.2.4 Multistage, Multiplatform,
Remotely Sensed Data 319
MultiScale, and MultiResolution
10.9.2 Geometric Correction of Remotely
383
Sensed Data 323
11.2.5 MultiSource Data 384
10.9.3 Miscellaneous Pre-processing 328
11.3 Integration with Ground Truth and
10.10 Image Enhancement 328 Other Ancillary Data 385
10.10.1 Image Reduction 329
11.4 Integration of Transformed Data 386
10.10.2 Image Magnification 329
11.5 Integration with GIS 387
10.10.3 Colour Compositing 330
 Contents xvii

11.6 Process of Remote Sensing Data 12.5.3 Geologic Unit Mapping 414
Analysis 388 12.6 Geomorphology 414
11.7 The Level of Detail 390 12.7 Urban Applications 417
11.8 Limitations of Remote Sensing Data 12.8 Hydrology 418

Analysis 393 12.8.1 Flood Delineation and Mapping

11.9 Presentation 394 419

12. Applications of Remote 12.8.2 Soil Moisture 420

Sensing 396
12.8.3 Groundwater Prospects and
12.1 Introduction 396
12.2 Land Cover and Land Use 396 Recharge 421
12.9 Mapping 421
12.2.1 Land-use/Land-cover Change 398
12.9.1 Planimetry 422
12.2.2 Land-cover Mapping 400
12.9.2 Digital Elevation Models 423
12.3 Agriculture 402
12.9.3 Topographic and BTM 424
12.3.1 Crop Type Mapping 402
12.10 Oceans and Coastal Monitoring 425
12.3.2 Crop Monitoring and Crop
12.10.1 Ocean Features 426
Damage Assessment 403
12.10.2 Ocean Colour and Phytoplankton
12.4 Forestry 405
Concentration 429
12.4.1 Clear-cut Mapping and
12.10.3 Measurement of SST 430
Deforestation 407
12.10.4 Oil Spill Detection 431
12.4.2 Species Identification and Typing
409
12.10.5 Sea-Surface Height 433
12.10.6 Sea-Surface Roughness 434
12.4.3 Burn Mapping 410
12.5 411
12.10.7 Ship Routing 434
Geology
12.10.8 Sea Ice 434
12.5.1 Structural Mapping and Terrain
12.11 Monitoring of Atmospheric Constituents
Analysis 412
436
12.5.2 Lineament Extraction 413

PART II Geographic Information Systems and Geospatial Analysis

13. Concept of Geographic Information 13.6 GIS and Related Terms 449

441 13.7 GIS—A Knowledge Hub 452

Systems
13.1 Introduction 441
13.7.1 Geography 452
13.2 Definitions of GIS 443 13.7.2 Cartography 453
13.7.3 Remote Sensing 453
13.3 Key Components of GIS 444
13.3.1 Hardware 445
13.7.4 Photogrammetry 453
13.3.2 Software 445
13.7.5 Surveying 453
13.3.3 Procedure 445 13.7.6 Geodesy 454
13.7.7 Global Navigation Satellite
13.3.4 Data 446
13.3.5 Users 446 Systems 454
13.7.8 Statistics 454
13.4 GIS—An Integration of Spatial and
Attribute Information 446 13.7.9 Operations Research 454
13.5 GIS—Three Views of Information
13.7.10 Computer Science 454
13.7.11 Mathematics 455
System 448
13.7.12 Civil Engineering 455
13.5.1 Database (or Table) View 448
13.8 GIS—A Set of Interrelated
13.5.2 Map View 448
Subsystems 455
13.5.3 Model View 448
xviii Contents

13.8.1 Data Processing Subsystem 456 15.4.3 Object-oriented Data Model 479
13.8.2 Data Analysis Subsystem 456 15.5 Raster Data Model 479
13.8.3 Information Use Subsystem 456 15.5.1 Field-based Raster Model 479
13.8.4 Management Subsystem 456 15.5.2 Object-based Raster Model 481
13.8.5 Communication Subsystem 457 15.6 Vector Data Model 486
13.9 GIS—An Information Infrastructure 457 15.6.1 Object-based Vector Model 486
13.10 Origin of GIS 459 15.6.2 Field-based Vector Model 493

14. Functions and Advantages of GIS 462 15.7 Raster versus Vector 495
15.8 Object-Oriented Data Model 498
14.1 Introduction 462
15.8.1 Classification of Objects 499
14.2 Functions of GIS 462
15.9 File Formats of Spatial Data 499
14.3 Application Areas of GIS 463
14.4 Advantages of GIS 466 16. Attribute Data Management and
14.4.1 Advantage over Traditional Map Metadata Concept 502
466 16.1 Introduction 502
14.4.2 Advantage over Mapping 16.2 Concept of Database and DBMS 502
Software 467 16.2.1 Tables 504
14.4.3 Advantage over CAD 467 16.2.2 Queries 505
14.4.4 Advantage over AM/FM 468 16.2.3 505
Reports
14.4.5 Advantage over Conventional 16.2.4 Forms 505
DBMS 469 16.3 Advantages of DBMS 506
14.4.6
Advantage of Analysis, Modelling, 16.4 Functions of DBMS 507
Presentation, and Decision 16.5 File and Data Access 507
Making 469 16.5.1 Simple List 508
14.5 Functional Requirements of GIS 471 16.5.2 Ordered Sequential File 508
14.5.1 Relating Information from 16.5.3 Indexed File 508
Different Sources 471 16.5.4 Databases 509
14.5.2 Data Capture 471 16.6 Data Models 509
14.5.3 Database Storage and Manage¬ 16.7 Database Models 510
ment 471 16.7.1 Object-based Model 511
14.5.4 Data Integration 472 16.7.2 Record-based Model 512
14.5.5 Projection and Registration 472 16.7.3 Physical Model 514
14.5.6 Data Structures 472 16.8 Data Models in GIS 514
14.5.7 Spatial Analysis 472 16.9 Concept of SQL 516
14.5.8 Data Modelling 473
16.10 Concept of Metadata 516
14.5.9 Presenting Results 473 16.10.1 Role of Metadata in GIS 517
14.6 Limitations of GIS 474 16.10.2 Metadata Standards 518
15. Spatial Data Model 475 16.10.3 Metadata Formats 519
15.1 Introduction 475 16.10.4 Questions to be Answered to
15.2 Spatial, Thematic, and Temporal Create Metadata 520
Dimensions of Geographic Data 475 17. Process of GIS 524
15.3 Spatial Entity and Object 476
17.1 Introduction 524
15.4 Spatial Data Model 477 17.2 Data Capture 524
15.4.1 Conceptual Data Model 477 17.3 Data Sources 525
15.4.2 Logical Data Model 478
 Contents xix

17.3.1 Conventional Analog Map 18.9.5 ViewshedAnalysis 563

Sources 526 18.9.6 Watershed Analysis 5 64
17.3.2 Reports and Publications 526 18.9.7 Surface Intersection 565
17.3.3 Aerial Remote Sensing/Aerial 18.10 Geostatistics 565

Photography 526 18.11 Geovisualization 567

17.3.4 Satellite Remote Sensing 526 18.11.1 Classification and Reclassifica¬

17.3.5 Field Data Sources 526 tion 567

Existing Digital Map Sources 527

17.3.6 18.11.2 Map Comparison 570
17.4 Data Encoding Methods 527 18.11.3 Chart 573
17.4.1 Encoding Raster Data 529 18.11.4 Report 573
17.4.2 Encoding Vector Data 532 18.11.5 Layout 574

17.4.3 Verification and Quality Checking 18.11.6 3D Visualization 577

of Vector Data 537 19. Planning, Implementation, and

17.4.4 Vector Editing/Cleaning 538
Management of G1S 580
Encoding Attribute Data 541
17.4.5
19.1 Introduction 580
17.4.6 Digital File/Data Transfer 543
19.2 Planning of Project 580
17.5 Linking of Spatial and Attribute Data
19.2.1 Considering the Strategic
543
Purpose 580
17.6 Organizing Data for Analysis 544
19.2.2 Plan for the Planning 5 81
18. Geospatial Analysis 546 19.2.3 Determine Technology
18.1 Introduction 546 Requirements 582
18.2 Geospatial Data Analysis 546 19.2.4 Describing Information Products
18.3 Integration and Modelling of Spatial 582
Data 547 19.2.5 Defining System Scope 582
18.4 Geospatial Data Analysis Methods 547 19.2.6 Designing Database 583
18.5 Database Query 548 19.2.7 Choosing Logical Data Model 583
18.5.1 Vector Data Query 549 19.2.8 Determining System
18.5.2 Raster Data Query 552 Requirements 583
18.6 Geospatial Measurements 553 19.2.9 Analysing Benefits and Costs 583

18.6.1 Measurement of Density 553 19.2.10 Implementation Plan 5 84

18.6.2 Measurement of Distance 554 19.3 Implementation of Proj ect 585

18.6.3 Measurement of Neighbourhood 19.3.1 Procurement of Hardware and

554 Software 585
18.7 Overlay Operations 554 19.3.2 Organization of Proj ect Team 585
Vector Overlay
18.7.1 555 19.3.3 Training 586
18.7.2 Raster Overlay 556 19.3.4 Execution of Project 586

18.8 Network Analysis 558 19.3.5 Quality Control and Quality

18.8.1 Network Tracing 559 Checking 586
18.8.2 Network Routing 559 19.3.6 Project Reporting 587

18.8.3 Network Allocation 560 19.3.7 Proj ect Meetings 587

18.9 SurfaceAnalysis 560 19.4 Management of Project 587

561 19.4.1 Schedule/Time Management 587
18.9.1 Deriving Contours/Isolines
18.9.2 Deriving Slope 561 19.4.2 Cost Management 588
18.9.3 Deriving Aspect 562 19.4.3 Quality Management 588

18.9.4 HillshadeAnalysis 562

xx Contents

19.4.4 Human Resource Management A.2.3 How Maps Convey Spatial Rela¬
588 tionships? 613
19.4.5 Contract/Procurement A.3 Orientation, Scale, Detail, Accuracy,
Management 588 and Resolution of Maps 614
19.4.6 Communications Management A.4 Classification of Maps 616
588 A.4.1 Topographical Map by Survey of
19.4.7 Scope Management 589 India 617
19.4.8 Risk Management 589 A.5 Coordinate System 619
19.4.9 Project Integration Management A.5.1 Cartesian Coordinate System 619
589 A.5.2 Geographic Coordinate System
19.5 Keys for Successful GIS 589 619
19.6 Reasons for Unsuccessful GIS 591 A.5.3 Projected Coordinate System
624
20. Modern Trends of GIS 592
A.6 Projection 625
20.1 Introduction 592
A.6.1 Selection of Map Projection
20.2 Local to Global Concept in GIS 593
625
20.3 Increase in Dimensions in GIS 593
A.7 Classification of Map Projection 626
20.4 Linear to Non-linear Techniques in
A.7.1
Cylindrical Projection 627
GIS 593
A.7.2 Conical Projection 628
20.5 Development in Relation between
A.7.3 Azimuthal Projection 629
Geometry and Algebra in GIS 5 94
A.7.4 Miscellaneous Projection 630
20.6 Development of Common Techniques in
A.8 Projection Parameters 630
GIS 594
A.8.1 Linear Parameters 630
20.7 Integration of GIS and Remote
A.8.2
Angular Parameters 631
Sensing 595
A.9 Common Map Projections 631
20.8 Integration of GIS and Multimedia 595
A.9.1 Polyconic Projection 632
20.8.1 Multimedia/Hypermedia GIS 597
A.9.2 Lambert's Azimuthal Equal-area
20.8.2 Web GIS 597
20.9 3D GIS 601 Projection 632
A.9.3 UTM Projection 633
20.9.1 Virtual Reality in GIS 602
20.10 Integration of 3D GIS and Web GIS
A.9.4 Latitude/Longitude Geographic
Coordinates 634
604
20.11 4D GIS and Real-time GIS 606 Appendix B 636
20.12 Mobile GIS 608 Mathematical Concepts 636
20.13 Collaborative GIS (CGIS) 610 B.l Introduction 636
B.2 Number Systems 636
Appendix A 612
B.2.1 Conversion of Any Number to
Concept of Map, Coordinate System, and
Decimal Number System 637
Projection 612
B.2.2 Conversion of Binary to Hexadeci¬
A.l Introduction 612
mal 638
A.2 What is Map? 612
B .2.3 Conversion of Hexadecimal to
A.2.1 How Maps Convey Location and
Extent? 613
Binary 638
B.2.4 Conversion of Decimal to Any
A.2.2 How Maps Convey Characteristics
Other Number 638
of Features? 613
 Contents xxi

B.2.5 Binary Addition 639 B.9 Mean 650

B.2.6 Complement 640 B.10 Median 651
B.2.7 Representation of Negative B.ll Mode 651
Numbers 642 B.12 Variance 652
B.2.8 Floating-Point Number B.13 Standard Deviation 652

Representation 643 B.14 Covariance 653

B.3 Matrix 645 B.15 Covariance Matrix 653
B.3.1 Matrix Notation 645 B.16 Measurement Vector 654
B.3.2 Matrix Transposition 646 B.17 Mean Vector 654
B.3.3 Summation of Matrix Elements B.18 Image Space and Feature Space 655
646 B.18.1 Feature Space Image 656
B.3.4 Matrix Multiplication 647 B.19 Factorial 656
B.4 Polynomials 648 B.20 Threshold 657
B.5 Digital Imagery Coordinate 649 B.21 Fuzzy Logic 657
B.6 Dimensionality of Image Data 649 B.22 Artificial Neural Network 658
B.7 Pixel Window 649 B.23 Greek Alphabets 660
B.8 Image Histogram 650

Acronyms and Glossary 661

References 699

Index 705
 List of Colour Plates

Plate 1
• Remote sensing process (Chapter 1, p. 7)
• Sensitivity of a sensor to wavelength of electromagnetic spectrum (Chapter 2, p. 56)
• Additive and subtractive colour model (Chapter 4, p. 101)

Plate 2

• Normal or true colour and CIR or false colour images of an area (Chapter 4, p. 105)
• Three-tier imaging concept of IRS P6 (Chapter 5, p. 136)
Plate 3
• Colour composite of three different polarized images (Chapter 6, p. 168)
• Digital photogrammetry workstation using anaglyph glasses (Chapter 8, p. 249)
• Examples of 3D scene model (Chapter 8, p. 259)
Plate 4
• Typical photographic product supplied by NRSC (Chapter 9, p. 271)
• NASA's EO-1 satellite-captured images (Chapter 9, p. 265)

Plate 5
• IKONOS satellite image (Chapter 9, p. 265)
• Satellite images of deforestation in Bolivia (Chapter 9, p. 266)

Plate 6

• Images of Ostrov Matua acquired by the ASTER on NASA's Terra satellite (Chapter 9, p. 266)
• Different patterns of agricultural field (Chapter 9, p. 267)
Plate 7
• Different objects highlighted in different band combinations (Chapter 9, p. 279)
• Multispectral thermal images (Chapter 9, p. 299)
• Colour composites of radar images (Chapter 9, p. 304)

Plate 8

• Display digital image (Chapter 10, p. 317)

of
• Different colour composites (Chapter 10, p. 331)
• Fusion of multispectral and panchromatic images (Chapter 10, p. 358)

Plate 9

• Spectral pattern recognition (Chapter 10, p. 360)

• Multisensor, Multiresolution, and multitemporal images (Chapter 11, p. 380)
xxiv List of Colour Plates

Plate 10
• Multispectral image merged with radar image (Chapter 11, p. 380)
• IRS LISS-IV multispectral images (Chapter 11, p. 381)

Plate 11
• Satelliteimages of pre- and post-tsunami (Chapter 11, p. 382)
• Multistage, multiplatform, and multiresolution images (Chapter 11, p. 383)
Plate 12

• Land-use/land-over change with time (Chapter 12, p. 400)

• Identification of crop anddamage (Chapter 12, p. 403)
to crop

• Monitoring deforestation using satellite images (Chapter 12, p. 408)

Plate 13

• Forest fire and damage of burn detected using satellite imageries (Chapter 12, p. 410)
Plate 14
• Night-time optical satellite image (Chapter 12, p. 418)
• Baseline thematic map (Chapter 12, p. 424)

Plate 15
• Imaging of ocean chlorophyll (Chapter 12, p. 430)
• Sea-surface temperature mapping (Chapter 12, p. 431)
Plate 16
• Representation of earth features as point, line, area, and volume (Chapter 15, p. 476)
• Virtual environment over the Internet (Chapter 20, p. 606)