Lab Report Fluid Mechanics-1

Submitted To:
Dr. Saad Jahangir
Submitted By:
Attia Tul Rasool
2022-AU-03

Department of Automotive Engineering

University of Engineering and Technology Lahore
 Lab Session 1

Objective:
The objective of this experiment is to understand the construction and working principles of a
hydraulic bench.
Working :
The hydraulic bench diagram shows the general working or functioning of the water supply.
The water is stored in a sump tank. When the motor is turned on, this water is pumped up to the
open channel through a suction pipe which is kept transparent to identify the onset of the
cavitation process, in case it commences.
This open channel is the water source for the volumetric hydraulic bench tank and therefore, the
water flows from the channel to the tank present at a relatively lower elevation. Finally, this
water is made to outflow the tank back into the reservoir or sump tank.

There are a few technical details that are provided by the manufacturer mentioning parts of the
hydraulic bench apparatus such as:
 Pump Type
 Maximum Head
 Maximum Flow
 Motor Rating (kW)
 Sump Tank Capacity (Liters)
 High Flow Volumetric Tank (Liters)
 Low Flow Volumetric Tank (Liters)
 Height of working surface above floor level
 Figure 1Basic operation of Hydraulic Bench

Parts of Hydraulic Bench Apparatus:

The following labeled figures show different parts of hydraulic bench parts and their functions in

detail.

1. On/Off Switch for Motor

In order to start the motor of the centrifugal pump, the motor switch is turned on. This results in
the initiation of the pumping process.
2. Discharge Control Valve

This valve controls the flow rate into the volumetric tank. A clockwise rotation tends to decrease

the discharge and a counterclockwise rotation increases the flow rate.

3. Sight Tube and Scale

A sight tube present close to the discharge control valve gives an instantaneous value of the flow

rate into to volumetric tank and the value can be read from the scale present beside the tube.

4. Volumetric Tank

This tank is present downstream of the open channel and is an important part of the volumetric

hydraulic bench. It receives water from the open channel. However, the flow rate into this tank is

governed by the discharge control valve. The change in the level of water in the tank is determined

by noting the difference in the level of water given by the sight tube.
5. Open Channel

This channel receives pumped water from the sump tank. The flow rate into this channel is

governed by the flow control valve present beneath it.

6. Centrifugal Pump
Another part of the hydraulic bench is the centrifugal pump that converts the mechanical energy
of the motor into hydraulic energy by the action of centrifugal force. As a result, the water is
pumped up from the sump tank and is permitted into the open channel by the flow valve.

7. Sump Tank

A sump tank is actually a water reservoir present at the bottom of the hydraulic bench apparatus.

The water is pumped from the sump tank into the open channel. When the volumetric tank reaches

a certain level, it empties into the sumo tank, and the process is repeated.

8. Control Valve
This valve controls the flow from the sump tank into the open channel. It can help in increasing
or decreasing the water inflow in the hydraulic bench
9. Stilling Baffle

This part of the hydraulic bench acts as a stopper for water to retain in the open channel. When

water travels up into the open channel, the inlet stilling basin helps dispersing the water stream,

thereby, keeping water in the channel.

10. Tank Stilling Baffle

When water enters the volumetric tank from the open channel, a tank stilling basin ensures smooth

gliding of water. If this is not provided, the water that strikes the tank bottom may produce some

local turbulence. This may result in continuous fluctuation of water level that can be seen from the

sight tube. Therefore, the discharge measurement may give misleading results.
11. Dump Valve Handle
A dump valve handle is used to drain water from the volumetric tank back into the sump tank.
This can be achieved by raising the handle. Additionally, the overflow in the volumetric tank
puts a limit on its maximum capacity, after which water dumping is indispensable.
12. Actuator
To operate a dump valve you will need an actuator. It lists up the damp valve at a turn of 90
degrees for an open position
Discharge Measurement in a Volumetric Tank
In order to measure the discharge into the volumetric tank, measure the initial level of water on
the sight tube. Once the water is discharged in the tank from the open channel, note the final
reading on the scale. Also, measure the time taken for water to fill the tank to a certain depth.
The discharge can then be mathematically calculated as

Calculations :

No. of Obs Volume V (m^3) Time t (sec) Flow Rate Qv (m^3/sec)

1 0.005 18 2.77E-04
2 0.01 30 3.33E-04
3 0.015 42 3.57E-04

Most Used Applications of Hydraulic Bench

Hydraulic bench aids in determining different properties of fluid and fluid flow, and provides
continuous and controlled water supply using auxiliary modules. Some of the most used
applications of a hydraulic bench are mentioned as follows.
 For determining the Coefficient of Velocity,
 For determining the Coefficient of Discharge,
 For determining the Coefficient of Contraction,
 For studying flow characteristics over weirs and notches
 For finding the metacentric height
 For finding head losses through pipes
 For verification of Bernoulli’s theorem
 To determine jet trajectory and orifice flow
 To determine the losses in piping systems
 To ensure the flow meter calibration
 Lab Session 2

OBJECTIVE
The objective of this experiment is to investigate the validity of the Bernoulli equation when it is
applied to a steady flow of water through a tapered duct.
METHOD
In this experiment, the validity of Bernoulli’s equation will be verified with the use of a tapered
duct (venturi system) connected with manometers to measure the pressure head and total head at
known points along the flow.
EQUIPMENT
The following equipment is required to complete the demonstration of the Bernoulli equation
experiment:
 F1-10 hydraulics bench,
 F1-15 Bernoulli’s apparatus test equipment, and
 A stopwatch for timing the flow measurement.
EQUIPMENT DESCRIPTION
The Bernoulli test apparatus consists of a tapered duct (venturi), a series of manometers tapped
into the venturi to measure the pressure head, and a hypodermic probe that can be traversed along
the center of the test section to measure the total head. The test section is a circular duct of varying
diameter with a 14° inclined angle on one side and a 21° inclined angle on other side. Series of
side hole pressure tappings are provided to connect manometers to the test section (Figure 2.1).

Figure 2.1: Armfield F1-15 Bernoulli’s apparatus test equipment

Manometers allow the simultaneous measurement of the pressure heads at all of the six sections
along the duct. The dimensions of the test section, the tapping positions, and the test section
diameters are shown in Figure 2.2. The test section incorporates two unions, one at either end, to
facilitate reversal for convergent or divergent testing. A probe is provided to measure the total
pressure head along the test section by positioning it at any section of the duct. This probe may
be moved after slackening the gland nut, which should be re-tightened by hand. To prevent
damage, the probe should be fully inserted during transport/storage. The pressure tapping are
connected to manometers that are mounted on a baseboard. The flow through the test section can
be adjusted by the apparatus control valve or the bench control valve [2]

THEORY
Bernoulli’s theorem assumes that the flow is frictionless, steady, and incompressible. These
assumptions are also based on the laws of conservation of mass and energy. Thus, the input mass
and energy for a given control volume are equal to the output mass and energy:
These two laws and the definition of work and pressure are the basis for Bernoulli’s theorem and
can be expressed as follows for any two points located on the same streamline in the flow:
where:
P: pressure,
g: acceleration due to gravity,
v: fluid velocity, and
z: vertical elevation of the fluid.
In this experiment, since the duct is horizontal, the difference in height can be disregarded, i.e.,
z1=z2
The hydrostatic pressure (P) along the flow is measured by manometers tapped into the duct. The
pressure head (h), thus, is calculated as:
Therefore, Bernoulli’s equation for the test section can be written as:in which is called the
velocity head (hd).
The total head (ht) may be measured by the traversing hypodermic probe. This probe is inserted
into the duct with its end-hole facing the flow so that the flow becomes stagnant locally at this

end; thus:
The conservation of energy or the Bernoulli’s equation can be expressed as:
The flow velocity is measured by collecting a volume of the fluid (V) over a time period (t). The
flow rate is calculated as:
The velocity of flow at any section of the duct with a cross-sectional area of is determined as:
For an incompressible fluid, conservation of mass through the test section should be also
satisfied (Equation 1a), i.e.:
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
 Place the apparatus on the hydraulics bench, and ensure that the outflow tube is
positioned above the volumetric tank to facilitate timed volume collections.
 Level the apparatus base by adjusting its feet. (A sprit level is attached to the base for this
purpose.) For accurate height measurement from the manometers, the apparatus must be
horizontal.
 Install the test section with the 14° tapered section converging in the flow direction. If
the test section needs to be reversed, the total head probe must be retracted before
releasing the mounting couplings.
 Connect the apparatus inlet to the bench flow supply, close the bench valve and the
apparatus flow control valve, and start the pump. Gradually open the bench valve to fill
the test section with water.
 The following steps should be taken to purge air from the pressure tapping points and
manometers:
o Close both the bench valve and the apparatus flow control valve.
o Remove the cap from the air valve, connect a small tube from the air valve to the
volumetric tank, and open the air bleed screw.
o Open the bench valve and allow flow through the manometers to purge all air
from them, then tighten the air bleed screw and partly open the bench valve and
the apparatus flow control valve.
o Open the air bleed screw slightly to allow air to enter the top of the manometers
(you may need to adjust both valves to achieve this), and re-tighten the screw
 when the manometer levels reach a convenient height. The maximum flow will be
determined by having a maximum (h1) and minimum (h5) manometer readings on
the baseboard.
If needed, the manometer levels can be adjusted by using an air pump to pressurize them. This
can be accomplished by attaching the hand pump tube to the air bleed valve, opening the screw,
and pumping air into the manometers. Close the screw, after pumping, to retain the pressure in
the system.
 Take readings of manometers h1 to h6 when the water level in the manometers is steady.
The total pressure probe should be retracted from the test section during this reading.
 Measure the total head by traversing the total pressure probe along the test section from
h1 to h6.
 Measure the flow rate by a timed volume collection. To do that, close the ball valve and
use a stopwatch to measure the time it takes to accumulate a known volume of fluid in
the tank, which is read from the sight glass. You should collect fluid for at least one
minute to minimize timing errors. You may repeat the flow measurement twice to check
for repeatability. Be sure that the total pressure probe is retracted from the test section
during this measurement.
 Reduce the flow rate to give the head difference of about 50 mm between manometers 1
and 5 (h1-h5). This is the minimum flow experiment. Measure the pressure head, total
head, and flow.
 Repeat the process for one more flow rate, with the (h1-h5) difference approximately
halfway between those obtained for the minimum and maximum flows. This is the
average flow experiment.
 Reverse the test section (with the 21° tapered section converging in the flow direction)
in order to observe the effects of a more rapidly converging section. Ensure that the total
pressure probe is fully withdrawn from the test section, but not pulled out of its guide in
the downstream coupling. Unscrew the two couplings, remove the test section and
reverse it, then re-assemble it by tightening the couplings.
 Perform three sets of flow, and conduct pressure and flow measurements as above

RESULTS AND CALCULATIONS:

Sr. no Volume Time to Flow Area of Distance Static Velocity Dynamic Total
Collected collect t Rate Qv Duct into Duct Head v (m/s) Head h Head
V (m^3) (sec) (m^3/sec) A(m^2) A (m^2) h (m) (m) h0 (m)
1 0.001 8 0.000125 0.0004909 0 0.28 0.2546 0.003307 0.2833
2 0.001 8 0.000125 0.0001517 0.0603 0.25 0.8239 0.0346 0.2846
 3 0.001 8 0.000125 0.0001094 0.0687 0.22 1.1425 0.0665 0.2865
4 0.001 8 0.000125 0.0000899 0.0732 0.19 1.3904 0.0986 0.2886
5 0.001 8 0.000125 0.0000785 0.0811 0.15 1.5923 0.1293 0.2793
6 0.001 8 0.000125 0.0004909 0.1415 0.19 0.2546 0.003307 0.1933

PRACTICAL APPLICATION
Bernoulli’s theorem provides a mathematical means to understanding the mechanics of fluids. It
has many real-world applications, ranging from understanding the aerodynamics of an airplane;
calculating wind load on buildings; designing water supply and sewer networks; measuring flow
using devices such as weirs, Parshall flumes, and venturimeters; and estimating seepage through
soil, etc. Although the expression for Bernoulli’s theorem is simple, the principle involved in the
equation plays vital roles in the technological advancements designed to improve the quality of
human life.

Lab Session 3

OBJECTIVE
The objective of this lab experiment is determine the coefficient of discharge with outflow under
constant head
METHOD
The coefficients of velocity and discharge are determined by measuring the trajectory of a jet
issuing fluid from an orifice in the side of a reservoir under steady flow conditions, i.e., a
constant reservoir head.
EQUIPMENT
The following equipment is required to perform the orifice and free jet flow experiment:
F1-10 hydraulics bench;
F1-17 orifice and free jet flow apparatus, with two orifices having diameters of 3 and 6 mm;
Measuring cylinder for flow measurement; and
 Stopwatch for timing the flow measurement.
EQUIPMENT DESCRIPTION
The orifice and free jet flow apparatus consists of a cylindrical head tank with an orifice plate set
into its side (Figure 6.1). An adjustable overflow pipe is adjacent to the head tank to allow
changes in the water level. A flexible hose attached to the overflow pipe returns excess water to
the hydraulics bench. A scale attached to the head tank indicates the water level. A baffle at the
base of the head tank promotes smooth flow conditions inside the tank, behind the orifice plate.
Two orifice plates with 3 and 6 mm diameters are provided and may be interchanged by
slackening the two thumb nuts. The trajectory of the jet may be measured, using the vertical
needles. For this purpose, a sheet of paper should be attached to the backboard, and the needles
should be adjusted to follow the trajectory of the water jet. The needles may be locked, using a
screw on the mounting bar. The positions of the tops of the needles can be marked to plot the
trajectory. A drain plug in the base of the head tank allows water to be drained from the
equipment at the end of the experiment [6].

Figure 6.1: Armfield F1-17 Orifice and Jet Apparatus

THEORY
The orifice outflow velocity can be calculated by applying Bernoulli’s equation (for a steady,
incompressible, frictionless flow) to a large reservoir with an opening (orifice) on its side (Figure
6.2):
where h is the height of fluid above the orifice. This is the ideal velocity since the effect of fluid
viscosity is not considered in deriving Equation 1. The actual flow velocity, however, is smaller
than vi and is calculated as:

Cv is the coefficient of velocity, which allows for the effects of viscosity; therefore, Cv <1. The
actual outflow velocity calculated by Equation (2) is the velocity at the vena contracta, where
the diameter of the jet is the least and the flow velocity is at its maximum (Figure 6.2).

The actual outflow rate may be calculated as:

where Ac is the flow area at the vena contracta. Ac is smaller than the orifice area, Ao (Figure
6.2), and is given by:
where Cc is the coefficient of contraction; therefore, Cc < 1.
Substituting v and Ac from Equations 2 and 4 into Equation 3 results
The product CvCc is called the coefficient of discharge, Cd; Thus, Equation 5 can be written a

The coefficient of velocity, Cv, and coefficient of discharge, Cd, are determined experimentally as
follows.

Figure 6.2: Orifice and Jet flow Apparatus

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Set up the equipment as follows:
Locate the apparatus over the channel in the top of the bench.
Using the spirit level attached to the base, level the apparatus by adjusting the feet.
Connect the flexible inlet tube on the side of the head tank to the bench quick-release fitting.
Place the free end of the flexible tube from the adjustable overflow on the side of the head tank
into the volumetric. Make sure that this tube will not interfere with the trajectory of the jet
flowing from the orifice
Secure each needle in the raised position by tightening the knurled screw.
Install the 3-mm orifice in the fitting on the right-hand side of the head tank, using the two
securing screws supplied. Ensure that the O-ring seal is fitted between the orifice and the tank.
Close the bench flow control valve, switch on the pump, and then gradually open the bench flow
control valve. When the water level in the head tank reaches the top of the overflow tube, adjust
the bench flow control valve to provide a water level of 2 to 3 mm above the overflow pipe level.
This will ensure a constant head and produce a steady flow through the orifice.
If necessary, adjust the frame so that the row of needles is parallel with the jet, but is located 1 or
2 mm behind it. This will avoid disturbing the jet, but will minimize errors due to parallax.
Attach a sheet of paper to the backboard, between the needles and board, and secure it in place
with the clamp provided so that its upper edge is horizontal.
Position the overflow tube to give a high head (e.g., 320 mm). The jet trajectory is obtained by
using the needles mounted on the vertical backboard to follow the profile of the jet.
Release the securing screw for each needle, and move the needle until its point is just
immediately above the jet. Re-tighten the screw.
Mark the location of the top of each needle on the paper. Note the horizontal distance from the
plane of the orifice (taken as ) to the coordinate point marking the position of the first needle.
This first coordinate point should be close enough to the orifice to treat it as having the value of
y=0. Thus, y displacements are measured relative to this position.
The volumetric flowrate through the orifice can be determined by intercepting the jet, using the
measuring cylinder and a stopwatch. The measured flow rates will be used in Part B.
Repeat this test for lower reservoir heads (e.g., 260mm)
Repeat the above procedure for the second orifice with diameter of 6 mm.
9. RESULTS AND CALCULATIONS:
Test Orifice Head Volume Time Volume (m3) Q h0.5
No. Diameter (m) (L) (s) (m3/sec) (m0.5)
(m)
1 0.006 0.29 480 10 0.48 0.048 0.538
2 0.006 0.3 470 10 0.47 0.047 0.54
3 0.006 0.31 420 10 0.42 0.0465 0.556
4 0.006 0.32 500 10 0.5 0.05 0.565
5 0.006 0.33 510 10 0.51 0.051 0.575
 0.0515
0.051
0.0505
0.05
0.0495
0.049
Qv

0.0485
0.048
0.0475
0.047
0.0465
0.046
0.535 0.54 0.545 0.55 0.555 0.56 0.565 0.57 0.575 0.58
(h)^0.5

From Graph :

𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏
𝑺𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆 =
𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏
𝑺𝒂𝒗𝒈 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝟏𝟕
𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆
The coefficient of discharge Cd =𝑨√𝟐𝒈=0.625

PRACTICAL APPLICATION
Orifices have many applications in engineering practice besides the metering of fluid flow in pipes
and reservoirs. Flow entering a culvert or storm drain inlet may act as orifice flow; the bottom
outlet of a dam is another example. The coefficients of velocity and discharge are necessary to
accurately predict flow rates from orifices.
 Lab Session 4
OBJECTIVE
The objective of this lab experiment is to illustrate laminar, transitional, and fully turbulent flows
in a pipe, and to determine under which conditions each flow regime occurs.
METHOD
The visualization of flow behavior will be performed by slowly and steadily injecting dye into a
pipe. The state of the flow (laminar, transitional, and turbulent) will be visually determined and
compared with the results from the calculation of the Reynolds number.

Equipment
The following equipment is required to perform the Reynolds number experiment:
 F1-10 hydraulics bench,
 The F1-20 Reynolds demonstration apparatus,
 Cylinder for measuring flow,
 Stopwatch for timing the flow measurement, and
 Thermometer.
EQUIPMENT DESCRIPTION
The equipment includes a vertical head tank that provides a constant head of water through a bell
mouth entry to the flow visualization glass pipe. Stilling media (marbles) are placed inside the
tank to tranquilize the flow of water entering the pipe. The discharge through this pipe is
regulated by a control valve and can be measured using a measuring cylinder [7]. The flow
velocity, therefore, can be determined to calculate Reynolds number. A dye reservoir is mounted
on top of the head tank, from which a blue dye can be injected into the water to enable
observation of flow conditions
THEORY
Flow behavior in natural or artificial systems depends on which forces (inertia, viscous, gravity,
surface tension, etc.) predominate. In slow-moving laminar flows, viscous forces are dominant,
and the fluid behaves as if the layers are sliding over each other. In turbulent flows, the flow
behavior is chaotic and changes dramatically, since the inertial forces are more significant than
the viscous forces.
In this experiment, the dye injected into a laminar flow will form a clear well-defined line. It will
mix with the water only minimally, due to molecular diffusion. When the flow in the pipe is
turbulent, the dye will rapidly mix with the water, due to the substantial lateral movement and
energy exchange in the flow. There is also a transitional stage between laminar and turbulent
flows, in which the dye stream will wander about and show intermittent bursts of mixing,
followed by a more laminar behavior.
The Reynolds number (Re), provides a useful way of characterizing the flow. It is defined as:

where ( ) is the kinematic viscosity of the water (Figure 7.2), v is the mean flow velocity
and d is the diameter of the pipe.
The Reynolds number is a dimensionless parameter that is the ratio of the inertial (destabilizing)
force to the viscosity (stabilizing) force. As Re increases, the inertial force becomes relatively
larger, and the flow destabilizes and becomes fully turbulent.
The Reynolds experiment determines the critical Reynolds number for pipe flow at which laminar
flow (Re<2000 ) becomes transitional (2000<Re<4000 ) and the transitional flow becomes
turbulent (Re>4000). The advantage of using a critical Reynolds number, instead of critical
velocity, is that the results of the experiments are applicable to all Newtonian fluid flows in pipes
with a circular cross-section.

Figure 7.2: Kinematic Viscosity of Water at Atmospheric Pressure.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Set up the equipment as follows:
Position the Reynolds apparatus on a fixed, vibration-free surface (not on the hydraulics bench),
and ensure that the base is horizontal and the test section is vertical.
Connect the bench outflow to the head tank inlet pipe.
Place the head tank overflow tube in the volumetric tank of the hydraulics bench.
Attach a small tube to the apparatus flow control valve, and clamp it to a fixed position in a sink
in the lab, allowing enough space below the end of the tube to insert a measuring cylinder. The
outflow should not be returned to the volumetric tank since it contains dye and will taint the flow
visualisation.
Note that any movement of the outflow tube during a test will cause changes in the flow rate,
since it is driven by the height difference between the head tank surface and the outflow point.
Start the pump, slightly open the apparatus flow control valve and the bench valve, and allow the
head tank to fill with water. Make sure that the flow visualisation pipe is properly filled. Once
the water level in the head tank reaches the overflow tube, adjust the bench control valve to
produce a low overflow rate.
Ensuring that the dye control valve is closed, add the blue dye to the dye reservoir until it is
about 2/3 full.
Attach the needle, hold the dye assembly over a lab sink, and open the valve to ensure that there
is a free flow of dye.
Close the dye control valve, then mount the dye injector on the head tank and lower the injector
until the tip of the needle is slightly above the bell mouth and is centered on its axis.
Adjust the bench valve and flow control valve to return the overflow rate to a small amount, and
allow the apparatus to stand for at least five minutes
Adjust the flow control valve to reach a slow trickle outflow, then adjust the dye control valve
until a slow flow with clear dye indication is achieved.
Measure the flow volumetric rate by timed water collection.
Observe the flow patterns, take pictures, or make hand sketches as needed to classify the flow
regime.
Increase the flow rate by opening the flow control valve. Repeat the experiment to visualize
transitional flow and then, at higher flow rates, turbulent flow, as characterized by continuous
and very rapid mixing of the dye. Try to observe each flow regime two or three times, for a total
of eight readings.
As the flow rate increases, adjust the bench valve to keep the water level constant in the head
tank.
Note that at intermediate flows, it is possible to have a laminar characteristic in the upper part of
the test section, which develops into transitional flow lower down. This upper section behavior is
described as an “inlet length flow,” which means that the boundary layer has not yet extended
across the pipe radius.Measure water temperature.Return the remaining dye to the storage
container. Rinse the dye reservoir thoroughly to ensure that no dye is left in the valve, injector, or
needle.
RESULTS AND CALCULATIONS
Diameter of test pipe: d = 0.010 m
Cross-sectional area of test pipe: A =7.854×10-5

Volume Time Discharge Velocity Renolds Flow Regime

(V) (t) sec Q(m3/sec) v(m/sec) Number Classified using
m*3 Reynolds Number
0.000239 10 0.0000239 0.304 3033 Transient
0.00042 10 0.000042 0.534 5336 Turbulent
0.00054 10 0.000054 0.6875 6861.2 Turbulent

PRACTICAL APPLICATION
The Reynolds number has many practical applications, as it provides engineers with immediate
information about the state of flow throughout pipes, streams, and soils, helping them apply the
proper relationships to solve the problem at hand. It is also very useful for dimensional analysis
and similitude. As an example, if forces acting on a ship need to be studied in the laboratory for
design purposes, the Reynolds number of the flow acting on the model in the lab and on the
prototype in the field should be the same.
 Lab session 5
OBJECTIVE
The objective of this experiment is to investigate the reaction forces produced by the change in
momentum of a fluid flow when a jet of water strikes a flat plate or a curved surface, and to
compare the results from this experiment with the computed forces by applying the momentum
equation.
METHOD
The momentum force is determined by measuring the forces produced by a jet of water
impinging on solid flat and curved surfaces, which deflect the jet at different angles.
EQUIPMENT
The following equipment is required to perform the impact of the jet experiment:
F1-10 hydraulics bench,
F1-16 impacts of a jet apparatus with three flow deflectors with deflection angles of 90, 120, and
180 degrees, and
Stopwatch for timing the flow measurement.
EQUIPMENT DESCRIPTION
The jet apparatus is a clear acrylic cylinder, a nozzle, and a flow deflector (Figure 5.1). Water
enters vertically from the top of the cylinder, through a nozzle striking a target, mounted on a
stem, and leaves through the outlet holes in the base of the cylinder. An air vent at the top of the
cylinder maintains the atmospheric pressure inside the cylinder. A weight pan is mounted at the
top of the stem to allow force of the striking water to be counterbalanced by applied masses [5].

Figure 4.1 F1-16 Impact of Jet Apparatus

THEORY
The velocity of the water (v) leaving the nozzle with the cross-sectional area (A) can be
calculated by:
in which Q is the flow rate.
Applying the energy equation between the nozzle exit point and the surface of the deflector
shows that the magnitude of the flow velocity does not change as the water flows around the
deflector; only the direction of the flow changes.
Applying the momentum equation to a control volume encompassing the deflected flow results
in:
where:
Fy: force exerted by the deflector on the fluid
: fluid density
: 180- , where is the flow deflection angle (Figure 5.2).

Figure 4.2 Flow deflection angles

From equilibrium of forces in a vertical direction, Fy is balanced by the applied weight on the
weight pan, W (W = mg, where m is the applied mass), i.e., Fy = W. Therefore:

Since Q = vA, this equation can be written as:

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Perform the experiment by taking the following steps:
Remove the top plate (by releasing the knurled nuts) and the transparent cylinder from the
equipment, and check and record the exit diameter of the nozzle.
Replace the cylinder, and screw the 90-degree deflector onto the end of the shaft.
Connect the inlet tube to the quick-release connector on the bench.
 N Deflector Volum Tim Mass Flow Veloci Velocity^2v^2( Forc Slop Slope
from
o. Type(deg e e to Applied RateQv(m^ ty m/s)^2 e Fy e
experi
rees) Collec coll W(kg) 3/sec) v(m/s (N) from ment
ted V ect t ec) The
(m^3) (sec ory
)

1 90 0.002 8.74 0.1 0.000228 4.535 20.57 1.03 0.05 0.017

9 19 01 0
2 90 0.002 7.65 0.2 0.000261 5.192 26.96 1.35 0.05 0.015
4 21 01 6

3 90 0.002 6.94 0.3 0.000288 5.729 32.82 1.64 0.05 0.008

6 66 01 1
4 180 0.002 16.2 0.1 0.000123 2.447 5.987 0.60 0.10 0.013
04 03 0
5 180 0.002 11.2 0.2 0.000177 3.521 12.39 1.24 0.10 0.015
5 3 37 03 6
6 180 0.002 8.85 0.3 0.000225 4.476 20.03 2.00 0.10 0.007
2 98 03 12
Replace the top plate on the transparent cylinder, but do not tighten the three knurled nuts.
Using the spirit level attached to the top plate, level the cylinder by adjusting the feet.
Replace the three knurled nuts, then tighten in sequence until the built-in circular spirit level
indicates that the top plate is horizontal. Do not overtighten the knurled nuts, as this will damage
the top plate. The nuts should only be tightened enough to level the plate.
Ensure that the vertical shaft is free to move and is supported by the spring beneath the weight
pan.
With no weights on the weight pan, adjust the height of the level gauge until it aligns with the
datum line on the weight pan. Check that the position is correct by gently oscillating the pan.
Place a mass of 50 grams on the weight pan, and turn on the pump.
Open the bench valve slowly, and allow water to impinge upon the target until the datum line on
the weight pan is level with the gauge. Leave the flow constant. Observe and note the flow
behavior during the test.
 Measure the flow rate, using the volumetric tank. This is achieved by closing the ball valve
and measuring the time that it takes to accumulate a known volume of fluid in the tank, as
measured from the sight glass. You should collect water for at least one minute to
minimize timing errors.
 Repeat this procedure by adding an additional 50 grams incrementally, until a maximum
mass of 500 grams has been applied.
 Repeat the entire test for each of the other two flow deflectors.
RESULTS AND CALCULATIONS:
At Angle =90

0.35

0.3

0.25
mass(m)

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
v^2

At Angle = 180

0.35

0.3

0.25
mass(m)

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
v^2
 From graph 1:
𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 =
𝑥2 − 𝑥1

S1=0.0170
S2=0.0156
S3=0.0081

From Graph 2:
S1=0.0130
S2=0.0156
S3=0.00712
PRACTICAL APPLICATION
Engineers and designers use the momentum equation to accurately calculate the force that moving
fluid may exert on a solid body. For example, in hydropower plants, turbines are utilized to
generate electricity. Turbines rotate due to force exerted by one or more water jets that are directed
tangentially onto the turbine’s vanes or buckets. The impact of the water on the vanes generates a
torque on the wheel, causing it to rotate and to generate electricity
 Lab Session 6

OBJECTIVE
The objective of this lab experiment is to determine the coefficients of velocity and discharge of
two small orifices in the lab and compare them with values in textbooks and other reliable
sources.
METHOD
The coefficients of velocity and discharge are determined by measuring the trajectory of a jet
issuing fluid from an orifice in the side of a reservoir under steady flow conditions, i.e., a
constant reservoir head.
EQUIPMENT
The following equipment is required to perform the orifice and free jet flow experiment:
F1-10 hydraulics bench;
F1-17 orifice and free jet flow apparatus, with two orifices having diameters of 3 and 6 mm;
Measuring cylinder for flow measurement; and
Stopwatch for timing the flow measurement.
EQUIPMENT DESCRIPTION
The orifice and free jet flow apparatus consists of a cylindrical head tank with an orifice plate set
into its side (Figure 6.1). An adjustable overflow pipe is adjacent to the head tank to allow
changes in the water level. A flexible hose attached to the overflow pipe returns excess water to
the hydraulics bench. A scale attached to the head tank indicates the water level. A baffle at the
base of the head tank promotes smooth flow conditions inside the tank, behind the orifice plate.
Two orifice plates with 3 and 6 mm diameters are provided and may be interchanged by
slackening the two thumb nuts. The trajectory of the jet may be measured, using the vertical
needles. For this purpose, a sheet of paper should be attached to the backboard, and the needles
should be adjusted to follow the trajectory of the water jet. The needles may be locked, using a
screw on the mounting bar. The positions of the tops of the needles can be marked to plot the
trajectory. A drain plug in the base of the head tank allows water to be drained from the
equipment at the end of the experiment [6].

Figure Orifice and Jet Apparatus

 THEORY
The orifice outflow velocity can be calculated by applying Bernoulli’s equation (for a steady,
incompressible, frictionless flow) to a large reservoir with an opening (orifice) on its side (Figure
6.2):
where h is the height of fluid above the orifice. This is the ideal velocity since the effect of fluid
viscosity is not considered in deriving Equation 1. The actual flow velocity, however, is smaller
than vi and is calculated as:
Cv is the coefficient of velocity, which allows for the effects of viscosity; therefore, Cv <1. The
actual outflow velocity calculated by Equation (2) is the velocity at the vena contracts, where
the diameter of the jet is the least and the flow velocity is at its maximum (Figure 6.2).
The actual outflow rate may be calculated as:
where Ac is the flow area at the vena contracta. Ac is smaller than the orifice area, Ao (Figure
6.2), and is given by:
where Cc is the coefficient of contraction; therefore, Cc < 1.
Substituting v and Ac from Equations 2 and 4 into Equation 3 results in:
The product CvCc is called the coefficient of discharge, Cd; Thus, Equation 5 can be written as:
The coefficient of velocity, Cv, and coefficient of discharge, Cd, are determined experimentally as
follows.

Figure5.22Orifice and Jet Floe Apparatus

DETERMINATION OF THE COEFFICIENT OF VELOCITY

If the effect of air resistance on the jet leaving the orifice is neglected, the horizontal component
of the jet velocity can be assumed to remain constant. Therefore, the horizontal distance traveled
by jet (x) in time (t) is equal to:
The vertical component of the trajectory of the jet will have a constant acceleration downward
due to the force of gravity. Therefore, at any time, t, the y-position of the jet may be calculated
as:
Rearranging Equation (8) gives:
Substitution of t and v from Equations 9 and 2 into Equation 7 results in:
Equations (10) can be rearranged to find Cv:
Therefore, for steady flow conditions (i.e., constant h in the head tank), the value of Cv can be
determined from the x, y coordinates of the jet trajectory. A graph of x plotted against will
have a slope of 2Cv.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
This experiment will be performed in two parts. Part A is performed to determine the coefficient
of velocity, and Part B is conducted to determine the coefficient of discharge.
Set up the equipment as follows:
Locate the apparatus over the channel in the top of the bench.
Using the spirit level attached to the base, level the apparatus by adjusting the feet.
Connect the flexible inlet tube on the side of the head tank to the bench quick-release fitting.
Place the free end of the flexible tube from the adjustable overflow on the side of the head tank
into the volumetric. Make sure that this tube will not interfere with the trajectory of the jet
flowing from the orifice
Secure each needle in the raised position by tightening the knurled screw.
DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENT OF VELOCITY FROM JET TRAJECTORY
UNDER CONSTANT HEAD
Install the 3-mm orifice in the fitting on the right-hand side of the head tank, using the two
securing screws supplied. Ensure that the O-ring seal is fitted between the orifice and the tank.
Close the bench flow control valve, switch on the pump, and then gradually open the bench flow
control valve. When the water level in the head tank reaches the top of the overflow tube, adjust
the bench flow control valve to provide a water level of 2 to 3 mm above the overflow pipe level.
This will ensure a constant head and produce a steady flow through the orifice.
If necessary, adjust the frame so that the row of needles is parallel with the jet, but is located 1 or
2 mm behind it. This will avoid disturbing the jet, but will minimize errors due to parallax.
Attach a sheet of paper to the backboard, between the needles and board, and secure it in place
with the clamp provided so that its upper edge is horizontal.
Position the overflow tube to give a high head (e.g., 320 mm). The jet trajectory is obtained by
using the needles mounted on the vertical backboard to follow the profile of the jet.
Release the securing screw for each needle, and move the needle until its point is just
immediately above the jet. Re-tighten the screw.
Mark the location of the top of each needle on the paper. Note the horizontal distance from the
plane of the orifice (taken as ) to the coordinate point marking the position of the first needle.
This first coordinate point should be close enough to the orifice to treat it as having the value of
y=0. Thus, y displacements are measured relative to this position.
The volumetric flowrate through the orifice can be determined by intercepting the jet, using the
measuring cylinder and a stopwatch. The measured flow rates will be used in Part B.
Repeat this test for lower reservoir heads (e.g., 280 mm and 240 mm)
Repeat the above procedure for the second orifice with diameter of 6 mm.
RESULTS AND CALCULATIONS
Test Orifice Head HorizontalDistance x Vertical (yh)^0.5 Cv
No. Diameter Distance y

(m) (m) (m) (m) (m0.5)

1 0.003 0.32 0.0635 0.037 0.047 0.675
2 0.003 0.32 0.1135 0.047 0.08 0.709
3 0.003 0.32 0.1635 0.057 0.1 0.8175
4 0.003 0.32 0.2135 0.067 0.13 0.8211
5 0.003 0.32 0.2635 0.077 0.15 0.8783

0.2
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
(yh)*0.5

0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
Horizontal distance x

𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 =
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
From Graph:
Slope 1 =0.3648
 Slope 2=0.408
Average slope=0.3864
𝐶𝑣 = 12𝑆𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 0.1932

PRACTICAL APPLICATION
Orifices have many applications in engineering practice besides the metering of fluid flow in
pipes and reservoirs. Flow entering a culvert or storm drain inlet may act as orifice flow; the
bottom outlet of a dam is another example. The coefficients of velocity and discharge are
necessary to accurately predict flow rates from orifices.
 Lab Session 7
OBJECTIVE
The objective of this lab experiment is to study and compare the water surface profiles of forced
vortices.
METHOD
This experiment is performed by measuring the water surface profiles of a number of free and
forced vortices, and observing the differences. We will study the profiles of free vortices that are
produced when water flows from orifices of different diameters that are installed at the base of a
tank. Varying the size of the orifice creates changes in the flow rate, thereby changing the rotational
speed and size of the vortex profile. Forced vortices are created due to external forces, so we will
increase the rotational speed throughout the experiment to study the theoretical and experimental
relationships between the vortex surface profile and angular velocity.
EQUIPMENT
The following equipment is required to perform the free and forced experiment:
 P6100 hydraulics bench, and
 P6238: Free and forced vortices apparatus.
EQUIPMENT DESCRIPTION
The free and forced vortices apparatus consists of a transparent cylindrical vessel, 250 mm in
diameter and 180 mm deep, with two pairs of diametrically opposed inlet tubes of 9.0 mm and
12.5 mm diameter. The 12.5 diameter inlet tubes are angled at 15° to the diameter in order to
create a swirling motion of the water entering the vessel during the free vortex experiment
(Figure 8.1a). An outlet is centrally positioned in the base of the vessel, and a set of push-in
orifices of 8, 16, and 24 mm diameter (Figure 8.1b) is supplied to reduce the outlet diameter to a
suitable value and produce free vortices of different sizes. The vortex surface profile is
determined by a measuring caliper (Figure 8.1c) housed on a mounted bridge, that measures the
diameter of the vortex at various elevations. This provides the coordinate points that are required
for plotting the free vortex profile [8].
The forced vortex is created by positioning a bushed plug in the central hole of the vessel and
introducing the flow through 9 mm inlet tubes that are angled at 60° to the diameter. The water
inflow from these tubes impinges on a two-blade paddle. The water exits the vessel via the 12.5
mm angled inlet tubes that are used as entry tubes for the free vortex experiment. The two-bladed
paddle rotates on a vertical shaft supported by the bushed plug. A bridge piece mounted on top of
the vessel houses a series of needles (Figure 8.1d) to determine the coordinates of the forced vortex
profile [8].
A 3-way valve allows water to be diverted through the 12.5 mm inlet tubes for the free vortex
experiment, and 9 mm inlet tubes for the forced vortex experiment.
THEORY
Two types of vortices are distinguished in the dynamics of the motion: forced and free vortices.
The forced vortex is caused by external forces on the fluid, such as the impeller of a pump, and
the free vortex naturally occurs in the flow and can be observed in a drain or in the atmosphere of
a tornado.
FORCED VORTEX
When water is forced to rotate at a constant speed ( ) (Figure 8.2), the velocity will be also
constant and equal to:
The velocity head (or kinetic energy) can be calculated as:
Substituting Equation (5) into (6) results in:
If the horizontal plane passing through the lowest point of the vortex is selected as datum, the
total energy is equal to:
where ho is the pressure head at the datum. Substituting hc from Equation (7) into (8) gives:
At r=0: H=0, therefore, ho=0 , and :
This is the equation of the water surface profile, which is a parabola (Figure 8.4).

Figure 3Surface Profile of Free and forced Vortex

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Position the bushed plug into the outlet of the vessel and mount the two-blade paddle wheel on the
shaft, ensuring that the tapered edges of the blades angle upward.
 Adjust the 3-way valve so that water flows into the vessel via the 60-degree outlet ports.
Turn on the pump, open the bench control valve, and allow the vessel to fill with water
until water just begins to overflow through the cutouts. Note that the inlet may need to be
adjusted in order to achieve a low-profiled, calm vortex. Water will now flow through these
ports and impinge on the paddle wheel before flowing out of the apparatus via the two 15-
degree ports.
  After the vessel is filled with water, adjust the outlet valve so that the water level remains
stable.
Note: If the water level fluctuates, raise the free end of the outlet tube above the grade line of the
water in the vessel, and then lower it again into the bench tank. Doing this will ensure that water
discharges at the same rate that it flows in, thereby helping to maintain the water level.
 After the water level is stable, measure the vortex surface profile. This is done by mounting
the measuring bridge to the vessel, and then lowering the needles until they are touching the
profile of the vortex. Lock them in place, then remove the bridge, and measure the height of
each needle. It is recommended that this be done with a graph or engineering paper.
 Record the time that it takes for the paddles to make 10 revolutions in the vessel. You can find
the angular velocity of the flow by dividing the number of revolutions by the time.
 Increase the inflow rate to achieve higher angular velocity, and repeat the process so that you
have four distinct vortex profiles. Note that as you increase the inflow, you will need to adjust
the outlet flow to maintain the water level. As you increase the flow rate, change the count of
the revolutions to 20, 40, and 50.
RESULTS AND CALCULATIONS
No. Number Time Revs per Radius r Measured Height Calculate Error
of t(sec) sec rps (m) from d Height h %
revoluti needle datum hd (m)
ons N length hm (m)
(m)
1 10 8.43 1.186 0.11 0.193 0.032 0.194 0.5
2 10 8.43 1.186 0.09 0.205 0.02 0.206 0.4
3 10 8.43 1.186 0.07 0.212 0.013 0.212 0
4 10 8.43 1.186 0.05 0.22 0.004 0.22 0
5 10 8.43 1.186 0.03 0.224 0.001 0.225 0.4
6 10 8.43 1.186 0 0.225 0 0.225 0

PRACTICAL APPLICATION
Studying natural phenomena such as hurricanes, tornadoes, and whirlpools (free vortices)
requires a full understanding of vortex behavior. It is also critical for engineers and designers to
be able to characterize forced vortices generated in machinery, such as centrifugal pumps or
turbines. Vortices often have adverse effects, as have been seen during hurricanes, tornadoes, or
scour holes created downstream of a dam outlet; however, understanding vortex behavior has
enabled engineers to design turbomachinery and hydraulic structures that take advantage of these
phenomena. For example, hydrodynamic separators have been developed, based on vortex
behavior (swirling flow), to separate solid materials from liquids. This type of separator is used
in water treatment plants.
 Lab Session 8
OBJECTIVE
The objective of this experiment is to investigate head loss due to friction in a pipe, and to
determine the associated friction factor under a range of flow rates and flow regimes, i.e.,
laminar, transitional, and turbulent.
METHOD
The friction factor is determined by measuring the pressure head difference between two fixed
points in a straight pipe with a circular cross section for steady flows.
EQUIPMENT
The following equipment is required to perform the energy loss in pipes experiment:
F1-10 hydraulics bench,
F1-18 pipe friction apparatus,
Stopwatch for timing the flow measurement,
Measuring cylinder for measuring very low flow rates,
Spirit level, and
Thermometer.
EQUIPMENT DESCRIPTION
The pipe friction apparatus consists of a test pipe (mounted vertically on the rig), a constant head
tank, a flow control valve, an air-bleed valve, and two sets of manometers to measure the head
losses in the pipe (Figure 4.1). A set of two water-over-mercury manometers is used to measure
large pressure differentials, and two water manometers are used to measure small pressure
differentials. When not in use, the manometers may be isolated, using Hoffman clamps.
Since mercury is considered a hazardous substance, it cannot be used in undergraduate fluid
mechanics labs. Therefore, for this experiment, the water-over-mercury manometers are replaced
with a differential pressure gauge to directly measure large pressure differentials.
This experiment is performed under two flow conditions: high flow rates and low flow rates. For
high flow rate experiments, the inlet pipe is connected directly to the bench water supply. For
low flow rate experiments, the inlet to the constant head tank is connected to the bench supply,
and the outlet at the base of the head tank is connected to the top of the test pipe [4].
The apparatus’ flow control valve is used to regulate flow through the test pipe. This valve
should face the volumetric tank, and a short length of flexible tube should be attached to it, to
prevent splashing.
The air-bleed valve facilitates purging the system and adjusting the water level in the water
manometers to a convenient level, by allowing air to enter them.
 Figure 4.1: F1-18 Pipe Friction Test Apparatus
THEORY
The energy loss in a pipe can be determined by applying the energy equation to a section of a
straight pipe with a uniform cross section:
If the pipe is horizontal:
Since vin = vout :
The pressure difference (Pout-Pin) between two points in the pipe is due to the frictional resistance,
and the head loss hL is directly proportional to the pressure difference.
The head loss due to friction can be calculated from the Darcy-Weisbach equatio

where:
: head loss due to flow resistance
f: Darcy-Weisbach coefficient
L: pipe length
D: pipe diameter
v: average velocity
g: gravitational acceleration.
For laminar flow, the Darcy-Weisbach coefficient (or friction factor f ) is only a function of the
Reynolds number (Re) and is independent of the surface roughness of the pipe, i.e

For turbulent flow, f is a function of both the Reynolds number and the pipe roughness height,
. Other factors, such as roughness spacing and shape, may also affect the value of f; however,
these effects are not well understood and may be negligible in many cases. Therefore, f must be
determined experimentally. The Moody diagram relates f to the pipe wall relative roughness (
/D) and the Reynolds number (Figure 4.2).
Instead of using the Moody diagram, f can be determined by utilizing empirical formulas. These
formulas are used in engineering applications when computer programs or spreadsheet
calculation methods are employed. For turbulent flow in a smooth pipe, a well-known curve fit
to the Moody diagram is given by:
Reynolds number is given by:
where v is the average velocity, D is the pipe diameter, and and are dynamic and kinematic
viscosities of the fluid, respectively. (Figure 4.3).
In this experiment, hL is measured directly by the water manometers and the differential pressure
gauge that are connected by pressure tappings to the test pipe. The average velocity, v, is
calculated from the volumetric flow rate (Q ) as:
The following dimensions from the test pipe may be used in the appropriate calculations [4]:
Length of test pipe = 0.50 m
Diameter of test pipe = 0.003 m

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

The experiment will be performed in two parts: high flow rates and low flow rates. Set up the
equipment as follows:
Mount the test rig on the hydraulics bench, and adjust the feet with a spirit level to ensure that the
baseplate is horizontal and the manometers are vertical.
Attach Hoffman clamps to the water manometers and pressure gauge connecting tubes, and close
them off.
High Flow Rate Experiment
The high flow rate will be supplied to the test section by connecting the equipment inlet pipe to
the hydraulics bench, with the pump turned off. The following steps should be followed.
  Close the bench valve, open the apparatus flow control valve fully, and start the pump.
Open the bench valve progressively, and run the flow until all air is purged.
 Remove the clamps from the differential pressure gauge connection tubes, and purge any
air from the air-bleed valve located on the side of the pressure gauge.
 Close off the air-bleed valve once no air bubbles observed in the connection tubes.
 Close the apparatus flow control valve and take a zero-flow reading from the pressure
gauge.
 With the flow control valve fully open, measure the head loss shown by the pressure
gauge.
 Determine the flow rate by timed collection.
 Adjust the flow control valve in a step-wise fashion to observe the pressure differences at
0.05 bar increments. Obtain data for ten flow rates. For each step, determine the flow rate
by timed collection.
 Close the flow control valve, and turn off the pump.
The pressure difference measured by the differential pressure gauge can be converted to an
equivalent head loss (hL) by using the conversion ratio:
1 bar = 10.2 m water
Low Flow Rate Experiment
The low flow rate will be supplied to the test section by connecting the hydraulics bench outlet
pipe to the head tank with the pump turned off. Take the following steps.
 Attach a clamp to each of the differential pressure gauge connectors and close them off.
 Disconnect the test pipe’s supply tube and hold it high to keep it filled with water.
 Connect the bench supply tube to the head tank inflow, run the pump, and open the bench
valve to allow flow. When outflow occurs from the head tank snap connector, attach the
test section supply tube to it, ensuring that no air is entrapped.
 When outflow occurs from the head tank overflow, fully open the control valve.
 Remove the clamps from the water manometers’ tubes and close the control valve.
 Connect a length of small bore tubing from the air valve to the volumetric tank, open the
air bleed screw, and allow flow through the manometers to purge all of the air from them.
Then tighten the air bleed screw.
 Fully open the control valve and slowly open the air bleed valve, allowing air to enter until
the manometer levels reach a convenient height (in the middle of the manometers), then
 close the air vent. If required, further control of the levels can be achieved by using a hand
pump to raise the manometer air pressure.
 With the flow control valve fully open, measure the head loss shown by the manometers.
 Determine the flow rate by timed collection.
 Obtain data for at least eight flow rates, the lowest to give hL= 30 mm.
 Measure the water temperature, using a thermometer.
RESULTS AND CALCULATIONS
N Test Test Volum Time Tem Kinem Man Man Head Flow Velo Fric Reyn l l l l
o pipe Pipe e to p of atic ome ome Loss rate city tion olds n n n n
. lengt Diame Collec colle water Viscosit ter ter h2- Qv v Fac Num f R h V
h L ter d ted V ct t (deg y v h1 h2 h1 (m^3/ (m/s tor f ber e
(m) (m) (m^3) (sec) C) (m^3/s) (m) (m) (m) sec) ec) Re
1 0.5 0.003 0.0001 20 20 0.00000 0.38 0.23 144 5.50E 0.77 0.04 0.002 - 7 4 -
1002 2 8 -06 84 5 3 3 . . 9
. 7 9 .
1 4 6 1
2 0.5 0.003 0.0001 20 20 0.00000 0.37 0.25 119 5.00E 0.70 0.04 0.002 - 7 4 -
1002 2 3 -06 71 6 1 3 . . 9
. 6 7 .
0 4 7 2
7
3 0.5 0.003 0.0000 20 20 0.00000 0.35 0.26 90 4.40E 0.62 0.04 0.001 - 7 4 -
38 1002 8 8 -06 27 8 8 3 . . 1
. 4 4 0
0 9 9
3

PRACTICAL APPLICATION
In engineering applications, it is important to increase pipe productivity, i.e. maximizing the flow
rate capacity and minimizing head loss per unit length. According to the Darcy-Weisbach equation,
for a given flow rate, the head loss decreases with the inverse fifth power of the pipe diameter.
Doubling the diameter of a pipe results in the head loss decreasing by a factor of 32 (≈ 97%
reduction), while the amount of material required per unit length of the pipe and its installation
cost nearly doubles. This means that energy consumption, to overcome the frictional resistance in
a pipe conveying a certain flow rate, can be significantly reduced at a relatively small capital cost.
 Lab Session 9

Objective:
The objective of this experiment is to determine the loss coefficient (K) for a range of pipe
fittings, including several bends, a contraction, an enlargement, and a gate valve.
METHOD
The head loss coefficients are determined by measuring the pressure head differences across a
number of fittings that are connected in series, over a range of steady flows, and applying the
energy equation between the sections before and after each fitting.
EQUIPMENT
The following equipment is required to perform the energy loss in pipe fittings experiment:
F1-10 hydraulics bench,
F1-22 Energy losses in bends apparatus,
Stopwatch for timing the flow measurement,
Clamps for pressure tapping connection tubes,
Spirit level, and
Thermometer.
EQUIPMENT DESCRIPTION
The energy loss in fittings apparatus consists of a series of fittings, a flow control valve, twelve
manometers, a differential pressure gauge, and an air-bleed valve (Figure 3.1).

Figure 4.1 Energy Losses in pipe fittings

The manometers are tapped into the pipe system (one before and one after each fitting, except for
the gate valve) to measure the pressure head difference caused by each fitting. The pressure
difference for the valve is directly measured by the differential pressure gauge. The air-bleed
valve facilitates purging the system and adjusting the water level in the manometers to a
convenient level, by allowing air to enter them. Two clamps, which close off the tappings to the
mitre, are introduced while experiments are being performed on the gate valve. The flow rate is
controlled by the flow control valve [3].
The internal diameter of the pipe and all fittings, except for the enlargement and contraction, is
0.0183 m. The internal diameter of the pipe at the enlargement’s outlet and the contraction’s
inlet is 0.0240 m.
THEORY
Bernoulli’s equation can be used to evaluate the energy loss in a pipe system:

In this equation , , and z are pressure head, velocity head, and potential head, respectively.
The total head loss, hL, includes both major and minor losses.
If the diameter through the pipe fitting is kept constant, then . Therefore, if the
change in elevation head is neglected, the manometric head difference is the static head
difference that is equal to the minor loss through the fitting.
in which and are manometer readings before and after the fitting.
The energy loss that occurs in a pipe fitting can also be expressed as a fraction (K ) of the
velocity head through the fitting:
where:
K: loss coefficient, and
v: mean flow velocity into the fitting.
Because of the complexity of the flow in many fittings, K is usually determined by experiment
[3]. The head loss coefficient (K) is calculated as the ratio of the manometric head difference
between the input and output of the fitting to the velocity head.
Due to the change in the pipe cross-sectional area in enlargement and contraction fittings, the
velocity difference cannot be neglected. Thus
Therefore, these types of fittings experience an additional change in static pressure, i.e.:.
This value will be negative for the contraction since and it will be positive for
enlargement because. From Equation (5), note that will be negative for the enlargement.
The pressure difference between before and after the gate valve is measured directly using the
pressure gauge. This can then be converted to an equivalent head loss by using the conversion
ratio:
1 bar= 10.2 m water
The loss coefficient for the gate valve may then be calculated by using Equation (4).
To identify the flow regime through the fitting, the Reynolds number is calculated as
where v is the cross-sectional mean velocity, D is the pipe diameter and is the fluid kinematic
viscosity (Figure 3.2).

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
It is not possible to measure head due to all of the fittings simultaneously; therefore, it is necessary
to run two separate experiments.
PART A:
In this part, head losses caused by fittings, except for the gate valve, will be measured; therefore,
this valve should be kept fully open throughout Part A. The following steps should be followed
for this part:
Set up the apparatus on the hydraulics bench and ensure that its base is horizontal.
Connect the apparatus inlet to the bench flow supply, run the outlet extension tube to the
volumetric tank, and secure it in place.
Open the bench valve, the gate valve, and the flow control valve, and start the pump to fill the
pipe system and manometers with water. Ensure that the air-bleed valve is closed.
To purge air from the pipe system and manometers, connect a bore tubing from the air valve to
the volumetric tank, remove the cap from the air valve, and open the air-bleed screw to allow
flow through the manometers. Tighten the air-bleed screw when no air bubbles are observed in
the manometers.Set the flow rate at approximately 17 liters/minute. This can be achieved by
several trials of timed volumetric flow measurements. For flow measurement, close the ball
valve, and use a stopwatch to measure the time that it takes to accumulate a known volume of
fluid in the tank, which is read from the hydraulics bench sight glass. Collect water for at least
one minute to minimize errors in the flow measurement.
Open the air-bleed screw slightly to allow air to enter the top of the manometers; re-tighten the
screw when the manometer levels reach a convenient height. All of the manometer levels should
be on scale at the maximum flow rate. These levels can be adjusted further by using the air-bleed
screw and the hand pump. The air-bleed screw controls the air flow through the air valve, so
when using the hand pump, the bleed screw must be open. To retain the hand pump pressure in
the system, the screw must be closed after pumping [3].
Take height readings from all manometers after the levels are steady.
Repeat this procedure to give a total of at least five sets of measurements over a flow range of 8
– 17 liters per minute.
Measure the outflow water temperature at the lowest flow rate. This, together with Figure 3.2, is
used to determine the Reynolds number.
PART B:
In this experiment, the head loss across the gate valve will be measured by taking the following
steps:
Clamp off the connecting tubes to the mitre bend pressure tappings to prevent air being drawn
into the system.
Open the bench valve and set the flow at the maximum flow in Part A (i.e., 17 liter/min); fully
open the gate valve and flow control valve.
Adjust the gate valve until 0.3 bar of head difference is achieved.
Determine the volumetric flow rate.
Repeat the experiment for 0.6 and 0.9 bars of pressure difference.
RESULTS AND CALCULATIONS
Test No: Flow Rate Q (m3/s): Velocity v (m/s):
Fitting h1 (m) h2 (m) v2/2g (m) K
=h2-h1
Enlargement 0.404 0.403 0.001 0.0008 23.7
Contraction 0.402 0.383 0.019 0.0008 25
Short Bend 0.385 0.375 0.01 0.0008 12.5
Elbow 0.368 0.34 0.028 0.0008 25
Mitre 0.312 0.282 0.03 0.0008 37.5
PRACTICAL APPLICATION
The term “minor losses”, used in many textbooks for head loss across fittings, can be misleading
since these losses can be a large fraction of the total loss in a pipe system. In fact, in a pipe system
with many fittings and valves, the minor losses can be greater than the major (friction) losses.
Thus, an accurate K value for all fittings and valves in a pipe system is necessary to predict the
actual head loss across the pipe system. K values assist engineers in totaling all of the minor losses
by multiplying the sum of the K values by the velocity head to quickly determine the total head
loss due to all fittings. Knowing the K value for each fitting enables engineers to use the proper
fitting when designing an efficient piping system that can minimize the head loss and maximize
the flow rate.
 Lab Session 10

Objective:
To locate the position of Metacenter of a floating body , by determining its distance from the
center of gravity this distance is known as Metacentric height.
Equipment:
 Hydraulic bench with a water tank
 Flat-bottomed pontoon
 Plumb bob and a scale
 Measuring tape
 Spirit level
 Vernier calipers
 Weight hanger and weights
 Hook and point gauge

Equipment Description:
The hydraulic bench consists of a water tank with a pontoon floating on its surface.
The flat-bottomed pontoon is a model of the floating body with a flat base.
The plumb bob and scale are used to measure the tilt of the pontoon.
The measuring tape is used for various linear measurements.
The spirit level helps in ensuring the horizontal alignment of the pontoon.
Vernier calipers are used for accurate measurements.
The weight hanger and weights are employed to induce a tilt in the pontoon.
The hook and point gauge are used to measure the tilt angle.
Theory:
The metacentric height (GM) is calculated using the formula: GM=I/(V∗G) Where:
GM is the metacentric height,
I is the moment of inertia of the waterplane area of the pontoon,
V is the underwater volume of the pontoon,
G is the center of gravity of the pontoon.
Experimental Procedure:
Ensure the hydraulic bench is level and the pontoon is floating freely.
Measure and record the dimensions of the pontoon.
Use the spirit level to ensure the pontoon is horizontally aligned.
Attach the weight hanger and weights to one side of the pontoon.
Measure the tilt angle using the hook and point gauge and record the data.
Repeat the process for different weights to obtain a range of tilt angles.
Calculate the metacentric height using the formula
GM=BM - BG

Observations and Calculations:

N Ponto Ponto Ponto Total Traver Cent Depth Metace Positi Angle Metace
o. on on on Wei sing re of of ntric on of of Tiltntric
Lengt Widt Heigh ght Weight Grav Immer Height Mass (degre Height
hl hb td W P (kg) ity y sion d1 GM (m) x (m) es) GM
(m) (m) (m) (kg) (m) (m) (m)2
1 0.35 0.2 0.075 1.71 0.306 0.1 0.024 0.05 0.023 3.7 0.063
2 0.35 0.2 0.075 1.71 0.306 0.1 0.024 0.05 0.043 7 0.062
3 0.35 0.2 0.075 1.71 0.306 0.1 0.024 0.05 0.063 10.3 0.062

Practical Application:
Understanding the metacentric height is crucial in naval architecture and ship design. It helps in
assessing the stability of a ship under different loading conditions. Engineers use this information
to design ships that are stable and safe, considering factors like cargo weight, distribution, and
environmental conditions. A higher metacentric height indicates greater stability, while a lower
metacentric height may lead to reduced stability and potential safety risks.