CURRENT ELECTRICITY

1
DIRECT CURRENT
• It is an electric current in which all the charges flow in one direction.
• In direct current, constant voltage is supplied to the circuit since the flow is in one direction.
• It produces a magnetic field whose magnitude and polarity does not change.
• It does not induce a current in any other coil or conductor placed within the magnetic field.
• Examples of devices that use direct current are calculators, radios, torchlight, etc. It is also
generated by rubbing certain types of materials against each other.
• A DC graph is illustrated below:

2
ALTERNATING CURRENT
• It is an electric current whose magnitude and direction vary with time.
• An alternating current generates a magnetic field whose shape and polarity changes continuously
as the current in the wire changes.
• A current is induced in any other coil or conductor placed within this magnetic field.
• Examples of AC sources are hydroelectric power plants, thermal power generators, nuclear power
generators, AC generators.
• An AC graph is illustrated below:

3
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTORS:
• These materials allow electricity to pass through them easily.
• Examples are metals such as copper, iron, steel, and alloys.

ELECTRICAL INSULATORS:
• These materials do not allow electricity to pass through them.
• Insulators are used to cover electrical conductors because they protect us from electric shock.
• Examples of electrical insulators are plastic, wood, glass, and rubber.

ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
• An electric circuit is a closed loop through which charges can continuously move.
• Any element or group of elements in a circuit which dissipates energy is called a load.

4
5
SIMPLE CIRCUIT
• Electric current will not flow if there is no power source (e.g., cell, battery) in the circuit.
• Current will also not flow if the circuit is not complete.
• A switch is added to the circuit so that we can break the circuit and stop the electric current when
we want to.
• Circuits can either be identified as: Open circuit or closed circuit.
• In an open circuit the key is open so current does not flow through the circuit whiles in a closed
circuit the key is closed so current flows through the circuit.
• In closed circuits charges move from one terminal to the other. This is because the path from one
terminal to the other is complete and a potential difference exists.

6
ELECTRIC CURRENT
• Electric current is the rate at which charge flows through a circuit with time.
It is expressed mathematically as
𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒,𝑄
Current, I =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒,𝑡
• The SI unit of electric current is the ampere(A).
• The quantity of charge is measured in coulomb and time is measured in seconds.
1 A = 1 Cs-1

DEFINITION OF THE COULOMB

• One coulomb is the quantity of charge which passes any point in a circuit in 1 second when a
steady current of 1 ampere flows through it.

7
WORKED EXAMPLES
QUESTION 1
A 2 mm long cross section of wire is isolated and 20C of charge is determined to pass through it in 40 s. Calculate the current
which flows through it.
Solution
I = Q / t = 20 / 40 = 0.5 C/s = 0.5 A

QUESTION 2
If a current of 10 mA passes through a wire for 10 minutes, what quantity of electric charge is transferred?
Solution
Q = It = (10 x 10-3) x (10 x 60) = 6 C

QUESTION 3
If 240 C of electric charge passes a certain point in a circuit in 5 minutes, what is the current through that point?
Solution
t = 5.0 min x 60 s /min = 300 s
I = Q / t = 240 / 300 = 0.8 A

8
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
• The Potential difference(p.d.) between two points in a circuit is the work done in moving a unit charge from one point to
the other in the circuit.
• The SI unit for potential difference is the volt(V).

DEFINITION OF 1 VOLT
Two points are at a potential difference of 1 volt if 1 joule of work is done if one coulomb of charge moves from one point to
the other in a circuit.
1 Joule per coulomb = 1 volt

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE
The electromotive force(e.m.f.) can be defined in one of the following ways.
• The electromotive force of a cell is the total work done per unit charge conveyed round a closed circuit.
• It is the potential difference across the terminals of a cell when it is in open circuit.
• It is measured in volts (V).

NOTE
• Electromotive force is sometimes called Voltage. It is the energy per unit charge causing the charge to move through the
circuit.
• By the name Electromotive force might sound like a force; But emf is not exactly a force instead it is the measure of
Energy or Work done per charge which causes the charge to move round in a circuit.
• In any circuit Potential difference between two points is almost equal to the Electromotive force between them, and the
measure of potential difference is almost same as that of e.m.f also both have same units. 9
RESISTANCE
• It is the opposition offered to the flow of electric current in a conductor. Resistance is measured in
ohms (Ω)

DEFINITION OF THE OHM(Ω)

• It is the resistance of a conductor such that when a potential difference of 1 volt is applied to its ends
a current of 1 ampere flows through it.

• Some materials conduct current better than others. If we had a copper wire and a glass wire with the
same length and cross section, and put the same potential difference across them, the current in the
copper wire would be much larger than the current in the glass wire.

10
 MEASURING CURRENT AND VOLTAGE

• Electric current is measured with an ammeter.

• To measure the current flowing through a component in a
circuit the ammeter is connected in series with it. This is
because objects in series experience the same current.

• Voltage is measured with a voltmeter.

• It is a measuring instrument which measures the
potential difference between the two points.
• To measure the voltage across a component in a circuit,
the voltmeter must be connected parallel with it.

11
RESISTORS
A resistor is an electrical component that opposes the flow of electric current in a
circuit. There are two types of resistors:
a) fixed resistors
b) variable resistors

OHM’S LAW
• Ohms law states that “the current passing through a metallic wire at constant
temperature is directly proportional to the potential difference between its ends.”
VαI
V = IR
Where V is the potential difference, I is the current, and R is the resistance.

12
WORKED EXAMPLES
QUESTION 1
If a 0.6 A current flows through a resistor, the voltage is 12 V. What is the resistance of the resistor?
Solution
I = 0.6 A, V = 12 V, R=?
V= IR
R = V/I = 12/0.6 =20 Ω

QUESTION 2
The resistance of an electric iron is 50 Ω. A current of 4.2 A flows through it. Find the voltage.
Solution
R = 50 Ω, I = 4.2 A, V =?
V = IR = 4.2 x 50 = 210 V

QUESTION 3
The filament resistance of an electric bulb is 660 Ω. The potential difference between two points is 220 V. Find the current
flowing through the filament.
Solution
R = 660 Ω, V = 220 V, I =?
V = IR
I = V/R = 220/660 = 0.33 A 13
OHMIC CONDUCTORS
• Ohmic conductors are conductors that obey Ohms’ law.
• This means that for all ohmic conductors, V= IR.
• A graph of current against potential difference for an ohmic
conductor produces a linear graph passing through the origin.
• Examples of ohmic conductors are pure metals and alloys.

NON – OHMIC CONDUCTORS

• These are conductors which do not obey Ohms’ law.
• Non–ohmic conductors have non-linear graphs if current is plotted
against potential difference.
• Different non – ohmic conductors produce different V-I graphs,
which could be increasing exponentially, decreasing exponentially
etc.
• Examples of non-ohmic conductors are diode valves, light-emitting
diodes (LED), thermistors, cathode ray tubes etc .

14
FACTORS THAT AFFECT RESISTANCE OF A WIRE
Length of wire: The resistance is directly proportional to the length of the wire. R∝l
Temperature of the wire: The resistance of a metallic conductor nearly always increases with
temperature.
Nature of material of wire: Some materials are better conductors than others and offer less
resistance to the flow of charge. Pure silver is the best conductor but is never used in household
wiring circuits due to cost. Copper and aluminium are least expensive materials with suitable
conducting ability to permit their use in wires of household circuits.
Cross–sectional area of wire: Wider wires have a bigger cross–sectional area. The greater thecross–
sectional area, the less resistance to the flow of electric charge and vice versa. Because of the great
cross–sectional area the flowing charges move easily. More resistance is offered to the flow of
electrons which move in a smaller cross–sectional area wire due to the increased collision with the
1
material's atoms. Resistance, R =
𝐴

15
 RESISTIVITY, ρ
• Resistivity is the resistance of a unit length of a material of unit cross-sectional area.
𝑅𝐴
𝜌=
𝑙
The resistivity of a material is expressed in ohm metre (Ω m)
The constant of proportionality, 𝜌 is called the resistivity of the material of the wire.

If A = 𝜋 r2
𝑑
A = 𝜋 ( )2
2
𝑅𝜋𝑑 2
𝜌=
4𝑙

NOTE:
Resistivity and resistance are not the same. Resistivity is a property of a material independent of
the shape and size of the material, while resistance depends on the size and shape of the
material and resistivity.
The resistivity, ρ of a material, is dependent on the type of material. It is an inherent property of a
material.

16
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY, 𝜹
• Conductivity is the ability of a material to carry electric current. The greater the conductivity the
lesser the resistivity and vice versa. Conductivity is inversely proportional to the resistivity.
• The conductivity of a material depends on its resistivity. Materials with lower resistivity offer less
resistance and are better conductors and vice versa.
1
𝛿 =
𝜌
• The SI unit of electrical conductivity is siemens per metre (S/m).
• Electrical conductivity depends on factors, such as the
a) type and number of charge carriers (electrons or ions)
b) temperature
c) structure of the material

• Electrical conductivity can be measured using an instrument called a conductometer.

17
RESISTIVITY OF SOME MATERIALS
MATERIAL RESISTIVITY, 𝝆 (Ω m)
Aluminium 2.82 x 10 -8
Copper 1.72 x 10 -8
Gold 2.44 x 10 -8
Iron 9.7 x 10 -8
Silver 1.59 x 10 -8
Carbon 3.5 x 10-5
Glass 1010 – 1014
Wood 3 x 1010

18
WORKED EXAMPLES
QUESTION 1
A 2m resistance wire of cross–sectional area 0.50 mm2 has a resistance of 2.20Ω. Calculate the resistivity of the wire.
Solution
𝑅𝐴
ρ=
𝑙
A = 0.50 mm2 = 0.5 x 10-6 m2
2.20 𝑥 0.50 𝑥 10−6
∴ρ= = 5.5 x 10-7 Ω m
2

QUESTION 2
A wire of length 2.0 m with cross sectional area 9.0 x 10-9 m2 carries a current of 1.5 A. Calculate the potential difference across its ends.
(Resistivity of the material of wire = 1.8 x 10 -8 Ω m)
Solution
𝜌𝑙 1.8 𝑥 10−8 𝑥 2
R= = =4Ω
𝐴 9 𝑥 10−9
V = IR = 1.5 x 4 = 6 V

QUESTION 3
A wire of length 90.0 cm and diameter 0.3 mm has resistivity of 1.1 x 10 -6 Ω m. Calculate its resistance.
Solution
ρ = 1.1 x 10-6 Ω m, l = 90 cm = 0.9 m, d = 0.3 mm = 0.0003 m
4𝜌𝑙 4 𝑥 1.1 𝑥 10−6 𝑥 0.9
R= 2 = = 14.0 Ω
𝜋𝑑 3.142 𝑥 0.00032
19
 TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF RESISTANCE
• The resistivity of a metallic conductor increases with increasing temperature.
• In semiconductors resistivity decreases with increasing temperature.
• The factor by which the resistance of the material changes when temperature changes is called the temperature coefficient of
resistance.
Consider a conductor which has a resistance of R0 at 0 0C. if the conductor is heated to T0C its resistance is RT
Change in the temperature, ΔT = T0 C – 0 0C = T0 C
Change in the resistance, ΔR = RT – R0

Change in resistance, ΔR depends on the initial resistance, the rise in temperature and the nature of the material of which the conductor is made.
ΔR α R0T
RT – R0 α R0T
RT – R0 = 𝛾 R0T
𝛾 is known as the temperature coefficient of resistance of the conductor.
RT – R0 = 𝛾 R0T
𝑅𝑇 − 𝑅0
𝛾=
𝑅0 𝑇
RT = 𝛾R0T + R0
RT = R0(1 + 𝛾T)

The units of temperature coefficient of resistance are 0C -1 or K -1

A conductor with a positive temperature coefficient of resistance means that as temperature increases its resistance increases,
however, if the temperature coefficient of resistance is negative as the temperature increases, the resistance decreases.
20
TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF RESISTIVITY
Consider a conductor which has a resistivity of ρ0 at 0 0C. if the conductor is heated to T0C its resistance is ρ T
Change in the temperature, ΔT = T0 C – 0 0C = T0 C
Change in the resistance, Δ ρ = ρ T – ρ 0
Change in resistance, Δ ρ is directly proportional to the initial resistivity and the change in temperature.
Δ ρ α ρ 0T
ρT – ρ0 =𝛽 ρ 0T
𝛽 is known as the temperature coefficient of resistivity of the conductor.
ρ T = 𝛽 ρ 0T + ρ 0
ρ T = ρ 0 (1 + 𝛽 T)
𝜌𝑇 − 𝜌0
𝜌= 𝜌0 𝑇

21
 WORKED EXAMPLES
QUESTION 1
A length of 18 cm copper wire has a resistance of QUESTION 2
1.02 Ω at a temperature of 20 0C. Find the If the resistance of a length of copper wire is
resistance at 0 0C and at 100 0C. (the temperature
coefficient of resistivity of copper is 0.0039 0C -1). 4.5 Ω. At 20 0C. calculate its resistance at 60
0C [𝛾 = 43 x 10 -4 K-1]
Solution
At T = 0 0C
R20 = 1.02 Ω; T = 20 0C Solution
RT = R0(1 + 𝛾T)
RT = R0(1 + 𝛾(T – To)
4.5= R0[1 +43 x 10 -4(20)]
1.02= R0[1 + 0.0039(0 - 20)] 4.5
R0 = = 4.14 Ω
1.02 = 1.078 R0 1.086
1.02 ∴ R60 = 4.14 [1 + 43 x 10 -4(60)] = 4.14 x 1.258
R0 = = 0.946 Ω = 5.21 Ω
1.078

At T = 20 0C
R100 = R0(1 + 𝛾(T – To)
R100= 0.946[1 + 0.0039(100 - 0)]
R0 = 0.946[1.39] = 1.315 Ω

22
INTERNAL RESISTANCE
• Internal resistance refers to the opposition to the flow of current offered by the cell due to the materials
used to make it. It is measured in ohms(Ω).

E = e.m.f, I = current , R = resistance of external load, r = internal resistance of the cell

• The relationship between the internal resistance and the electromotive force is given by:
E = I(R+ r)
E = IR + Ir
But V = IR
E = V + Ir

In this equation, V is the terminal voltage, measured in volts (V).

• Ir is called lost volts.
• Lost volt is the potential difference across the internal resistance of a cell.
• Terminal voltage is the potential difference across the terminals of the cell when current is flowing in the
circuit.
• It is always less than the e.m.f. of the cell.
23
WORKED EXAMPLES
QUESTION 1
The potential difference across a cell when no current flows through the circuit is 3V. When a current of 0.37 A
flows through it the terminal voltage falls to 2.8 V. Find the internal resistance of the cell.
Solution
E = V + Ir
𝐸−𝑉 3.0 − 2.8
r= = 0.37 = 0.54 Ω
𝐼

QUESTION 2
Determine the lost volts in the circuit diagram below.
Solution
I= 0.3 A, R = 5 Ω
V= IR = 0.3 x 5 = 1.5 V
∴ Lost volts = 2 – 1.5 = 0.5 V

24
QUESTION 3
A cell of emf 2V and internal resistance 0.2Ω is connected across a load of resistance 2Ω. Calculate the current in
the load.
Solution
E = I(R + r)
𝐸 2
I = 𝑅+𝑟 = 2+0.2 = 0.91 A

QUESTION 4
Calculate the internal resistance of the cell in the circuit diagram below.
Solution
E = I(R + r)
𝐸
=R+r
𝐼
𝐸 6
r = 𝐼 – R = 1.2 – 4 = 1.0 Ω

25
SHORT CIRCUIT
• A short electric circuit is a condition where the electrical current flows through an unintended,
shorter pathway instead of following the circuit.
• This happens when two conductors supplying electrical power have a low-resistance connection
between them. This causes an excessive current in the circuit. A short circuit occurs when almost zero
current exists between two points at different potentials, resulting in a very large current. A short circuit
can affect the performance and function of an electrical circuit.
Some common causes of short circuits are:
a) when a wire is connected from one terminal of a battery to the other by a wire with little resistance
b) when uninsulated wires connected to different terminals meet each other
c) live wire of an electrical outlet is connected directly to ground the circuit is completed and a short circuit condition exists.
d) Vermin or pests chewing through wires.
e) Water or other fluids coming into contact with electrical wiring.
f) Loose connections in an electrical box
g) Old or damaged outlets, switches, lights, appliances, or other electrical devices
h) Nails or screws piercing through walls and coming into contact with wires.
i) Deterioration of electrical cable sheathing
j) Build-up or surges of electricity
• Short circuits can be dangerous, as they can result in overheating, fire, explosion, or electric shock.
• To prevent short circuits, electrical circuits are protected by devices such as circuit breakers, fuses,
ground-fault circuit interrupters, and arc fault circuit interrupters.
• These devices detect changes in electrical current flow and break the circuit connection when they
sense an irregularity.
26
TYPES OF CONNECTIONS IN CIRCUITS
When there are two or more of a particular electrical component present
in a circuit with a source of energy, there are two ways by which they can
be connected. They can be connected in
• series
• parallel

27
ARRANGEMENT OF CELLS
RESISTORS IN SERIES

When resistors are connected in series:

1) The same current runs through each resistor: I = I1 = I2 = I3 ;Where I1, I2, I3 are the currents across R1, R2, R3
respectively.
2) The potential difference across the battery is equal to the sum of the potential differences across each of the resistors.
V = V1 + V2 + V3 ; Where V1, V2, V3 are the potential difference across R1, R2, R3 respectively.
3) If V = V1 + V2 + V3
But V = IR; V1 = IR1; V2 = IR2; V3 = IR3
IR = IR1+ IR2 + IR3
R = R 1+ R 2 + R 3

• R can be called any of the following: effective resistance, equivalent resistance, total resistance, net resistance, resultant
resistance
• The effective resistance is the amount of resistance that each single resistor would require to equal the overall effect of the
collection of resistors that are present in a circuit.
• The equivalent resistance equals the total of individual resistances in series. It is therefore always greater than any individual
resistance.

28
WORKED EXAMPLES
QUESTION 1
A 12.0 V storage battery is connected to three resistors of 6.75Ω, 15.3Ω and 21.6Ω which are joined in series.
a) Calculate the effective resistance.
b) What is the current in the circuit?
Solution
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 = 6.75 + 15.3 + 21.6 = 43.65Ω
V= IRT
𝑉 12
I= = = 0.2749 A
𝑅𝑇 43.65

QUESTION 2
A 4.0 Ω, 8.0 Ω and 12.0 Ω resistor are connected in series with a 24.0 V battery.
a) Calculate the equivalent resistance.
b) Calculate the current in the circuit.
c) What is the current in each resistor?
Solution
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 = 4 + 8 + 12 = 24 Ω
V=IRT
𝑉 24
I= = =1A
𝑅𝑇 24
I = I1 = I 2 = I3 = 1 A
29
QUESTION 3
A series combination of two resistors of 7.25 Ω and 4.03 Ω is connected to a 9.00 V battery.
Calculate the equivalent resistance of the circuit.
Calculate the current in the circuit.
What is the potential difference across each resistor?
Solution
RT = R1 + R2 = 7.25 + 4.03 = 11.28 Ω
𝑉 9
I= = = 0.7979 A
𝑅𝑇 11.28
V1 = IR1 = 0.7979 x 7.25 = 5.7848 V
V2 = IR2 = 0.7979 x 4.03 = 3.2155 V

QUESTION 4
A 4V battery of internal resistance 2Ω is connected to two resistors of resistances 10Ω and 20Ω in series. Calculate the potential
difference across the 20Ω resistor.
R =10 + 20 = 30Ω
E = I(R+r)
4 = I(30 + 2)
4
I= = 0.125 A
32
Also, V = IR
Voltage across the 20Ω resistor = 0.125 x 20 = 2.50 V
30
RESISTORS IN PARALLEL

A wiring arrangement that provides alternative pathways for the movement of charges is a parallel arrangement.
1) Resistors in parallel have the same potential difference across each of them: V = V1 = V2 = V3
2) The total current, I is equal to the sum of the currents in the individual resistors: I = I1 + I2 + I3 + ……
3) For any number of resistors in parallel, the reciprocal of the equivalent resistance is equal to the sum of the
reciprocals of their individual resistances:
I = I1 + I2 + I3
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
I= 𝐼1 = ; 𝐼2 = ; 𝐼3 =
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
= + +
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
1 1 1 1
V (𝑅) = V(𝑅 + 𝑅 + 𝑅 )
1 2 3
1 1 1 1
= + +
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
The equivalent resistance is always less than any individual resistance.

31
WORKED EXAMPLES
A 9.0V battery is connected to four resistors of values 7Ω, 5 Ω, 4 Ω, and 2 Ω connected in parallel. Find the
equivalent resistance for the circuit and the total current in the circuit.
Solution
1 1 1 1 1
= +𝑅 +𝑅 +𝑅
𝑅 𝑅1 2 3 4
1 1 1 1 1
= + + +
𝑅 2 4 5 7
R = 0.915 Ω
For parallel arrangement
I = I1 + I2 + I3
𝑉
𝐼1 = 𝑅
1
𝑉
𝐼2 = 𝑅
2
𝑉
𝐼3 = 𝑅
3
𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 9
I= = 0.917 = 9.8 A
𝑅

32
 ELECTRICAL POWER
• Electrical power is the rate at which • P is the power, V is the potential difference, I
electrical energy is supplied to a circuit or
consumed by a load with time. is the electric current
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 P = IV --------------(1)
Power =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 P = I2R -------------(2)
• The S.I. unit of electric power is the Watt (W). P = V2/ R ----------(3)
• The power rating that we see in our home
1 Watt = Joule per second
appliances defines how much energy is
being transferred from the grid to power the
• An electrical energy is said to be one joule device. The energy dissipated in time
when one ampere of current flows through the
circuit for a second when the potential interval ∆t can be given by:
difference of one volt is applied across it. ∆W = I V∆t
• The commercial unit of electrical energy is the
kilowatt-hour (kWh) which is also known as
the Board of trade unit (B.O.T). • And the energy dissipated per unit time is
1 kwh = 1000 × 60 × 60 watt second = 3.6 × the power dissipated, which is given by:
105 Ws or Joule P = ∆W/∆t

33
WORKED EXAMPLES
QUESTION 1
A 9V battery is connected to a resistor having a resistance of 10 Ω. What is the current and power
across the resistor?
Solution
I = V/R = 9/10 = 0.9 A
P = VI = 9 × 0.9 = 8.1 W

QUESTION 2
A 30Ω appliance is supplied by a 3A supply. Calculate the power rating of the speaker.
Solution
P=I2R = (3)2(30) = 270 W

34
COST OF ELECTRICITY
• Electricity is used in homes to power electrical appliances. Electricity companies bill customers for
the electrical energy used.
• Electricity meters measure the number of units of electricity used. The more units used, the greater
the cost.
• The cost of the electricity used is calculated from:
total cost = number of units used × cost per unit

• The power rating of electrical appliances can be used to calculate the cost of using them.
The number of units used can be calculated from:
Number of units used = power rating in kW x time in hours

• The kilowatt-hour (kWh) is the energy used by a device at a rate of 1000 watts in one hour.

35
 WORKED EXAMPLES
QUESTION 1 QUESTION 2
Calculate the total cost of using a 100 W lamp and a 300 W hair
If ECG charges 22 pesewas for each kWh of electrical energy used,
dryer for 10 minutes if a unit of electricity is 14pesewas.
calculate the total cost of using a 2kW electric kettle for 15 minutes
and a 20W filament bulb for 8 hours.
Solution
For the lamp:
Solution Number of units used = power rating in kW x time in hours
Power rating = 100 W = 100 Kw/1000=0.1kW
Electrical energy consumed by the kettle: E = Pt =(2kW) (0.25h) = time = 10 minutes = 10 hours/60=0.167hours
0.5kWh
Number of units used = 0.1 kWh x 0.167 h = 0.0167 kWh
Electrical energy consumed by the bulb: E = Pt =(0.02kW) (8h) = total cost = number of units used × cost per unit
0.16kWh = 0.0167 kWh x 14p = 0.23p

Total energy consumed = Electrical energy consumed by the kettle + For the hair drier:
Electrical energy consumed by the bulb Number of units used = power rating in kW x time in hours
Power rating = 300 W = 300 kW/1000=0.3kW
E = 0.5 + 0.16 = 0.66kWh
time = 10 minutes = 10~hours/60=0.167 hours
Cost = 0.66 × 22 pesewas = 14.52pesewas Number of units used = 0.3 kWh x 0.167 h = 0.0501 kWh
total cost = number of units used × cost per unit
= 0.0501 kWh x 14p = 0.70p
Total cost = 0.23p + 0.70p = 0.93p
The cost of using the lamp and hair dryer is 0.93pesewas.

36
Plugs
A plug connects a device to the mains electricity supply. It has three copper wires that are coated with
plastic.

Parts of the Function

plug
Live wire Copper wire coated with brown plastic along which the
current enters the device.
Fuse A glass or ceramic canister containing a thin wire that melts
if the current gets too high.
Neutral wire Copper wire coated with blue plastic that also connects to
the cable in the wall and completes the circuit.
Earth wire Copper wire coated in striped plastic that provides a path
for current to flow from the case of the device to the ground
if there is a fault.

EARTHING
• The earth wire is a safety feature. It provides a low-resistance path to earth.
• Without the earth wire, if a fault occurs and the live wire becomes loose, there is a danger that it will
touch the metal case. The next person who uses the appliance could get electrocuted.
• In the event of a fault, the live current passing through the case will follow this path to the ground
37
instead of passing through a person.
FUSES
• A fuse provides a built-in fail-safe to the electrical circuit for a device.
• It contains a thin wire that will melt if the current gets too high. Once the fuse
has melted, the circuit is broken and no more current flows through the device.
This means the case of the device is no longer live, and there is no more risk of
electrocution.

• A circuit breaker can serve the same function as a fuse, but it can be reset
without the need for replacement if it trips.
• The fuse or circuit breaker must be connected in the live wire side of a
domestic circuit to ensure that it keeps high voltage from reaching the user or
surroundings if a fault develops.
• A fuse protects the appliance but does not protect the person using it.
• Fuses come in various ratings and once the current is known the next highest
fuse rating can chosen.

38
WORKED EXAMPLES
QUESTION 1
A toaster has a power rating of 750 W, 230 V. Calculate the size of fuse that should be fitted to the toaster for it to
operate safely. The fuse available are 3 A, 5 A and 13 A.
Solution
P = VI
P = 750 W, V = 230 V
750 = 230 x I
I = 750 /230 = 3.26 A
The normal current for the toaster is 3.26 A. Hence a 5 A fuse would be selected. A 3 A fuse would “blow” when the
normal operating current flowed. A 13 A fuse would allow a dangerously high current to flow and still not blow.

QUESTION 2
A bedside lamp is rated 60 W, 240 V. Calculate the size of the fuse that should be fitted to the lamp to operate safely.
The fuse available are 3 A, 5 A and 13 A.
Solution
P = VI
P = 60 W, V = 240 V
60 = 240 x I
I = 60 /240 = 0.25 A
The normal current for the lamp is 0.25 A. Hence a 3 A fuse would be selected. 39
EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT
Heating effect of current: When electric current flows in a conductor, work is done to overcome
resistance. All the energy used is released in the form of heat. The heating effect of current is applied in
the heating elements of appliances like radiators, toasters, kettles, and electric irons. The heating effect
is given by:
H=I2Rt
Magnetic effect of current: Electric current creates a magnetic field around a conductor. The larger the
electric current, the larger the associated magnetic field. Other uses of the magnetic effect of current
are in electric motors, generators, transformers, and circuit breakers that protect circuits from
overloads, short circuits, and other faults that use electromagnetism in their tripping mechanisms.

Physiological effect of current: When an electric current touches or flows through the body, it gives an
electric shock.

Chemical effect: The chemical effect of current occurs when current passes through an electrolyte. The
chemical effect of electric current is applied in the charging of batteries.

40
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
• A Wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit used to measure unknown
electrical resistance by balancing two legs, one of which includes an unknown
component.
• The Wheatstone Bridge is also known as the Resistance Bridge.
• The Wheatstone bridge calculates the unknown resistance by balancing two
legs of the bridge circuit.
• One leg includes the component of unknown resistance. The Wheatstone
Bridge Circuit comprises two known resistors, one unknown resistor and one
variable resistor connected in the form of a bridge. This bridge is very reliable as it
gives accurate measurements.
• A Wheatstone bridge circuit consists of four arms, of which two arms consist
of known resistances while the other two arms consist of an unknown resistance
and a variable resistance. The circuit also consists of a galvanometer and
an electromotive force source. The emf source is attached between APPLICATION
points a and b while the galvanometer is connected between points c and d. The
current that flows through the galvanometer depends on its potential difference. i) The Wheatstone bridge is used for the
• The Wheatstone bridge works on the principle of null deflection, i.e. the ratio of precise measurement of low resistance.
their resistances is equal, and no current flows through the circuit. Under normal ii) Wheatstone bridge and an operational
conditions, the bridge is in an unbalanced condition where current flows through
the galvanometer. The bridge is said to be balanced when no current flows amplifier are used to measure physical
through the galvanometer. This condition can be achieved by adjusting the known parameters such as temperature, light,
resistance and variable resistance.
and strain.
• The formula used for the Wheatstone bridge:
iii) Quantities such as impedance,
RQ = PS inductance, and capacitance can be
Where: R is the unknown resistance, S is the standard arm of the bridge, P and Q measured using variations on the
is the ratio of the arm of the bridge
Wheatstone bridge.
41
METER BRIDGE
• A meter bridge, also called a slide wire bridge, is an instrument that works on the principle of a Wheatstone bridge.
• A meter bridge is used in finding the unknown resistance of a conductor as that of a Wheatstone bridge.
• Wires of nichrome, constantan or manganin are used in meter bridges. They have a high value of resistance and the temperature
coefficient of resistance is low.

AC is the long wire measuring 1m in length and it is made of constantan or manganin having a uniform area of the cross-section
such that
L1 + L2 = 100
If L1 = L
L2 = 100 – L
𝑅𝐿2 𝑅(100 − 𝐿) 42
Relation obtains the unknown resistance ‘X’ of the given wire: X= =
𝐿1 𝐿
DETERMINATION OF THE RESISTANCE AND RESISTIVITY OF A WIRE USING BALANCED BRIDGE
To find resistance of a given wire using a metre bridge and hence determine the resistivity (specific resistance) of
its material the following materials are required: metre bridge, Leclanche cell (battery eliminator), galvanometer,
resistance box, jockey, one-way key, resistance wire, screw gauge, metre scale, set square, Connecting wires,
piece of sandpaper
The Metre bridge apparatus is fixed on the wooden block and consists of a long wire with a uniform cross-
sectional area. It has two gaps formed using thick metal strips to make the Wheatstone’s bridge.
Then according to Wheatstone’s principle, we have:
𝑋 𝑙
=
𝑅 100 − 𝑙
The unknown resistance can be calculated as:
𝑙
X = R (100−𝑙)
Then the specific resistance of the material of the is calculated as:
𝑋

𝜌 =πr2𝐿
Where,
L is the length of the wire,r is the radius of the wire

43
POTENTIOMETER
• The potentiometer is basically a long piece of uniform wire across which a standard cell is connected.
• The current flowing through the wire can be varied using a variable resistance (rheostat) connected to the circuit.
The resistance can be changed manually for measuring the potential difference.
• The potentiometer is an instrument used for measuring the unknown voltage by comparing it with the known
voltage.
a) It can be used to determine the emf and internal resistance of the given cell.
b) It can also used to compare the emf of different cells. The comparative method is used by the potentiometer. The reading is more
accurate in a potentiometer.
c) The e.m.f. of the cell is measured using a potentiometer. When measuring the emf of a cell, the potentiometer is preferred over the
voltmeter since it is a null device that does not draw any current whereas the voltmeter draws current from the cell.

The potentiometer consists of a long resistive wire L nd a battery of known e.m.f, V whose voltage is known as
driver cell voltage. Assume a primary circuit arrangement by connecting the two ends of L to the battery terminals.
One end of the primary circuit is connected to the cell whose e.m.f., E is to be measured and the other end is
connected to galvanometer G. This circuit is assumed to be a secondary circuit.

44
To Determine the EMF of the Cell (Calibration)
Let us consider that the potentiometer has a resistive wire of length ‘L’. Let one end of the wire be A and the other end B. A battery is
connected to the two ends of the wire, and this forms the primary circuit. The secondary circuit is formed by connecting the end A of the
wire to the cell whose emf has to be calculated, and the other terminal of the cell is connected to the galvanometer. The galvanometer is
further connected to the jockey (movable point). Let ‘i’ be the current flowing through the wire.
i = ɛ/(r+R)
Here,
ɛ is the emf of the cell in the primary circuit, r is the internal resistance, R is the resistance of the wire
The voltage across the potentiometer wire of length L is taken as
VAB = V0
The fall of potential per unit length of the potentiometer wire is called the potential gradient.
Z = (V0/L) is the potential gradient.
The jockey is moved on the wire, and the null point (P) is determined. The point on the wire is called the null point when the galvanometer
will not show any deflection. The length of the wire AP is taken as ‘l’.
The potential difference between A and P will be
[𝜀ൗ 𝑟+𝑅 ]𝑅
VA – VP = 𝑉𝑜 .l
ൗ𝐿 .𝐼

⇒VA – VP = (V0/L).l
= Z.l = Ɛ’ (since V0 = iR)
Ɛ’ is the emf of the cell connected in the secondary circuit.
45
Comparison of EMF of Two cells
Electromotive Force = (EMF of Unknown Cell using Potentiometer*Length)/Final Length
ε = (ε'*L)/l2
Let balance length 1 be l1 then ε1 = xl1
let balance length 2 be l2 then ε2 = xl2
If emf of one cell (E1) is known, the emf of the other cell (E2) can be calculated using the relation:
𝐸1 𝑙
= 𝑙1
𝐸2 2

Where E1 and E2 are the EMF of two cells, l1 and l2 are the lengths of the potentiometer wire corresponding to E1
and E2

V is the potential difference across R, and I is the current in the circuit.

Measurement of Internal Resistance of the Cell

The potentiometer can also be used to measure the internal resistance of the cell. To determine the internal
resistance, the cell whose internal resistance has to be determined is connected across the resistance box.
Therefore the internal resistance,
𝑙
r = R(𝑙1 - 1) 46
2
WORKED EXAMPLES
QUESTION 1
There is no current flow when the cell is connected to 125 cm length of the potentiometer wire. If a 20 Ω resistance is connected to the cell the
balancing length is reduced to 25 cm. Determine the internal resistance of the cell.
Solution
Internal resistance, r = [(l1 – l2)/l2]R = [(125 – 100)/100] x 20 = 5 Ω

QUESTION 2
Let 0.2 A be the current in the primary circuit of the potentiometer. The specific resistance of the material of the wire is 40 x 10-8 Ωm and the area of
cross-section is 0.8 x 10-6 m2. Calculate the potential gradient.
Solution
Potential gradient, Z = V/L = IR/L = Iρ/A
= [0.2 x 40 x 10-8]/0.8 x 10-6 = 0.1 volt/m

QUESTION 3
While measuring the potential difference between the terminals of the resistance wire the balance point is obtained at 78.4 cm. The same potential
difference is obtained as 1.2 V using a voltmeter. Now if a cell of EMF 1.018 V is used the balancing length is 63.2 cm. What is the error in the reading
of the voltmeter?
Solution
E0 = xl0
V = xl
Therefore, V = E0 l/l0
V = (1.018 x 78.4)/63.2
= 1.26 volt
47
Error = 1.26 – 1.2 = 0.06 Volts
OHMMETER DIGITAL MULTIMETER
The ohmmeter is an instrument which
measures resistance of a quantity. There are • The standard and basic measurements
many types of ohmmeters available such as performed by the multimeter are the
i) Series ohmmeter. measurement of amps, volts, and ohms.
• Digital multimeters perform many additional
ii) Shunt ohmmeter. measurements by using digital and logic
iii) Multi-range ohmmeter technology. These may include temperature,
frequency, continuity, capacitance etc.

48
GALVANOMETER
• A galvanometer is an electromechanical instrument which is used for the detection of electric currents through electric
circuits
• A galvanometer cannot be used for the measurement of heavy currents. However, we can measure very small currents by
using the galvanometer.
• But the primary purpose of a galvanometer is the detection of electric current
• Galvanometer works on the principle of conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy.
• The principle of the galvanometer is used in ammeters as well as voltmeters.
• The galvanometer can be used as an ammeter by connecting a shunt in parallel to the coil.
• If the shunt is connected in series with the galvanometer coil, the galvanometer becomes a voltmeter.

Sensitivity of Moving Coil Galvanometer

The general definition of the sensitivity experienced by a moving coil galvanometer is given as the ratio of change in deflection of
the galvanometer to the change in current in the coil.
S = dθ/dI
The sensitivity of a galvanometer is higher if the instrument shows a larger deflection for a small value of current. Sensitivity is of
two types, namely, current sensitivity and voltage sensitivity.
It is the ratio of the full-scale deflection current and the number of graduations on the scale of the instrument. It is also the
reciprocal of the current sensitivity of a galvanometer.
49
Factors Affecting the Sensitivity of a Galvanometer
• Number of turns in the coil
• Area of the coil
• Magnetic field strength B
• The magnitude of a couple per unit twist k/nAB

Applications of Galvanometer
The moving coil galvanometer is a highly sensitive instrument due to which it can be
used to detect the presence of current in any given circuit. If a galvanometer is
connected in a Wheatstone’s bridge circuit, the pointer in the galvanometer shows
null deflection, i.e., no current flows through the device. The pointer deflects to the left
or right depending on the direction of the current.
The galvanometer can be used to measure
a) The value of current in the circuit by connecting it in parallel to low resistance.
b) The voltage by connecting it in series with high resistance.

50
CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER TO AMMETER
A galvanometer is converted into an ammeter by connecting it in parallel with a low resistance called shunt resistance.
Suitable shunt resistance is chosen depending on the range of the ammeter.

In the given circuit,

RG – Resistance of the galvanometer
G – Galvanometer coil
I – Total current passing through the circuit
IG – Total current passing through the galvanometer, which corresponds to full-scale reading
Rs – Value of shunt resistance

When current IG passes through the galvanometer, the current through the shunt resistance is given by
IS = I – IG
The voltages across the galvanometer and shunt resistance are equal due to the parallel nature of their connection.
Therefore,
RG .IG= (I- IG).Rs
The value of S can be obtained using the above equation.

51
CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER TO VOLTMETER
A galvanometer is converted into a voltmeter by connecting it in series with high resistance. A suitable high
resistance is chosen depending on the range of the voltmeter.

In the given circuit,

RG = Resistance of the galvanometer
R = Value of high resistance
G = Galvanometer coil
I = Total current passing through the circuit
IG = Total current passing through the galvanometer, which corresponds to a full-scale deflection
V = Voltage drop across the series connection of galvanometer and high resistance

When current IG passes through the series combination of the galvanometer and the high resistance R, the voltage
drop across the branch ab is given by
V= RG.IG + R.IG
The value of R can be obtained using the above equation.

52
WORKED EXAMPLES
QUESTION 1 QUESTION 2
A moving coil galvanometer of resistance 100Ω
is used as an ammeter using a resistance of A galvanometer coil of 40Ω resistance shows full range
0.1Ω. The maximum deflection current in the deflection for a current of 4mA. How can this
galvanometer is 100μA. Find the current in the galvanometer be converted into a voltmeter of range 0-
circuit so that the ammeter shows maximum 12V?
deflection. Solution
Solution As we know that V = IG (RG + R)
R = V/ IG – RG
It is given that RG =100Ω , Rs= 0.1Ω, IG =100μA
= (12/ (4×10-3)) – 40
We know that RG .IG= (I- IG).RS R = 2960 Ω
Therefore, I = (RG .IG+ IG.Rs)/ RS
I= (1+RG/ RS). IG
Substituting the given values, we get I=
100.1mA

53
SHUNT WORKED EXAMPLES
A shunt is a low resistance usually used to A galvanometer gives a full-scale deflection when a
convert a galvanometer to an ammeter. It is current of 10mA flows through it. How would you
usually connected in parallel with the
galvanometer. convert it to an ammeter capable of reading 3Aif the
resistance of the galvanometer is 5Ω?

Solution:
To do this, we connect a resistor of low resistance
called shunt in parallel with the galvanometer. The
value of such a shunt is calculated below:
10mA=101000=0.01A

I – Current to be measured
Ig – Current through the galvanometer
Rs – Resistance of the shunt
Rg – Resistance of galvanometer
Note: The voltage across the shunt is the same as p.d across galvanometer = p.d across shunt
that across galvanometer.
Igrg=IsRsRs=IgrgIs=0.01×52.99=0.0167Ω
Vg=VsIgRg=(I−Ig)Rg
Thus, a shunt of 0.0167Ω is needed. 54
MULTIPLIER
A multiplier is a high resistance usually used to convert a galvanometer to a voltmeter.
It is usually connected in series with the galvanometer.
Example:
To convert a galvanometer to a voltmeter ,we need a multiplier Rso that the
galvanometer could read 20V at full scale deflection of 10mA. Find the value of R if the
internal resistance of the galvanometer is 6Ω. Solution:

r=6Ω20v=V1+V2
∴20=0.01r+0.0R
R=1994Ω

55
RESISTOR COLOUR CODES WORKED EXAMPLES
• Colour bands are printed on resistors to represent What is the resistor colour code for a 1000 Ω
the electrical resistance. resistor?
Solution
• They usually contain four bands of colours. These A 1000 Ω resistor has a four-band colour code
colour bands are known as resistor colour codes.
following a colour sequence of Brown, Black,
• The first two bands indicate the resistance value, Red and Gold. The 1000 Ω resistor has a
and the third band serves as a multiplier.
multiplying factor of 100 (Red) and a tolerance
• Resistors with high precision have five bands. The level of ±5% (Gold)
first three bands indicate the significant digits, the
fourth band is the multiplying factor and the fifth
band represents the tolerance. What colour bands would a resistor of
• The resistor colour code values can be remembered resistance value 1000 Ω with a tolerance level
by using the following mnemonic: ±5% have?
Better Be Right, Or Your Great Big Plan Goes Wrong Solution
- Go Start Now! Brown, Black, Red, Gold

56
57
KIRCHHOFF'S LAW
Electrical Loop:
• Kirchhoff’s laws help to analyse circuits. • An electrical loop is a closed
pathway or circuit within an
Electrical Node: electrical circuit.
• An electrical node is a point in an electrical • It is a closed path that forms a
circuit where two or more electrical complete circuit, meaning it
components or conductors meet and are connects back to itself without any
electrically connected.
interruption.
• At a node, the voltage is the same for all
components or conductors that are
connected to that point.
• In other words, nodes have the same
electrical potential. Nodes are typically
represented as dots in circuit diagrams.

58
KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW
• Kirchhoff’s Current Law is also called Kirchhoff’s First Law or Kirchhoff’s Junction
Rule.
• According to the Junction rule, “the sum of currents entering a node equals the
sum of currents leaving the node since charge is conserved”.
• In the figure below, the currents I1, I2 and I3 entering the node are considered
positive. Likewise, the currents I4 and I5 exiting the nodes are considered negative in
values.
• This can be expressed in the form of an equation: I1 + I2 + I3 – I4 – I5 = 0
• Kirchhoff’s current law can also be applied to analyse parallel circuits.
• Kirchhoff's law is based on the law of conservation of charge.

59
KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW
• Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law is also called Kirchhoff’s Second Law and Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule.
• According to the loop rule, “The voltage around a loop is equal to the sum of every
voltage drop in the same loop for any closed network and equals zero”.

• Kirchhoff's voltage law is applied to loops.

• This law is based on the principle of conservation of energy.
• When you begin at any point of the loop and continue in the same direction, note the
voltage drops in all the negative or positive directions and returns to the same point.
• The voltage law can also be applied in analyzing circuits in series.

60
POTENTIAL DIVIDER
• A potential divider or voltage divider is a circuit that produces an output voltage that is a fraction of its
input voltage. It is based on the principle that the potential drop across a segment of a wire of uniform
cross-section carrying a constant current is directly proportional to its length.
• A potential divider can be used for various purposes, such as creating reference voltages, reducing the
magnitude of a voltage, attenuating signals, filtering frequencies, and controlling devices.
• The voltage divider consists of an electric circuit composed of two resistors and one input voltage
supply.
• It helps to determine how the input voltage divides among the components in the circuit.
• The voltage divider formula is given by,
𝑅𝑏
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉
𝑅𝑎 +𝑅𝑏 𝑖𝑛
Vout is the output voltage, Ra and Rb are the resistors, Vin is the input voltage

61
WORKED EXAMPLES
QUESTION 1
Determine the output voltage of the voltage divider circuit whose Ra and Rb are 6 Ω and 8 Ω, respectively,
and the input voltage is 10v.
Solution
Ra = 6Ω, Rb = 8Ω, Vin = 10V
𝑅𝑏
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉 = [8 / (6 + 8)] 10 = 5.71V
𝑅𝑎 +𝑅𝑏 𝑖𝑛

QUESTION 2
The value of the input voltage of a voltage divider is 20V, and the resistors are 5 Ω and 7 Ω. Determine the
output voltage.
Solution
Ra = 5 Ω, Rb = 7 Ω, Vin = 20V
𝑅𝑏
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉 =[ 7 /( 5 + 7 )]20 = 11.66V
𝑅𝑎 +𝑅𝑏 𝑖𝑛

62