Advanced thermodynamics

Steam
 Wet vapour is vapour at saturation temperature containing liquid droplets. The vapour itself is
dry.
 Dry saturated steam is steam which has taken has taken up just sufficient energy to evaporate
all the liquid droplets
 Superheated steam is steam which has been heated beyond the dry saturated state.

a) Constant pressure process b) T-v diagram of pure substance

Figure 1 T-v diagram of constant pressure phase-change process of pure substance

Where

Steam tables symbols

P Pressure in kPa or bar. This pressure value influences all other properties in the row and
they only apply at that stated pressure.
Ts saturated temperature or boiling point in 0C
ρg density of dry saturated steam when it is just completely gas at temperature Ts
Vg Specific volume of dry saturated steam when it is just completely gas at temperature Ts
Specific internal energy of the saturated water, liquid water at temperature Ts
Specific internal energy of saturated steam
Specific enthalpy of the saturated water
Specific latent heat or enthalpy of change of phase
 Specific enthalpy of saturated steam.

Volume of Wet Steam

( )

However, at lower pressures Vf is usually negligible

Separating and Throttling Calorimeter

Separating and throttling calorimeters are used to determine the dryness fraction of steam.

The 'Separating' calorimeter is a mechanical process in which the incoming wet steam is made to
change direction through a series of obtuse angles. As the steam travels through these angles, the
inertia of the water droplets prevents them from following the changes in direction of the steam
and causes them to drop out of the steam into the collection chamber.

(a) (b)

Figure 2 (a) Separating , (b) Throttling calorimeters

In the 'Throttling' calorimeter the incoming steam is fed into the throttling calorimeter body via a
fixed orifice, the pressure inside the calorimeter body being slightly above atmospheric. This
causes the steam to become super heated and by measuring the final temperature and pressure of
this steam the dryness fraction of the steam can be calculated.

Note: For throttling calorimeter to work properly the steam must be super heated after throttling.
Therefore the dryness value ( ) of wet steam must be high. If the steam is wet a separating
calorimeter must be used before the steam enters the throttling calorimeter.
However, both these types of calorimeters have shortcomings. The separating calorimeter cannot
separate out all of the water and some is carried over with the dry steam. The throttling
calorimeter relies on the steam being throttled into the superheat region which is not possible if
the steam is too wet before throttling.

The solution to these problems is to combine the two types of calorimeter by connecting them in
series; the separating calorimeter being nearest the incoming main.

In this case the throttling calorimeter requires an additional condenser which allows us to
measure mass as well as to find h2

Throttling effects on vapour

Throttling can increase or decrease the dryness fraction. If the steam is fairly dry to begins with,
it may even become superheated after throttling.

High P1 Low P2

Condition 1 Condition 2

Provide there is no heat loss to the surrounding

 Temperature 0C

Before

T2 After
100 0C

Figure 3 Temperature Enthalpy diagram after throttling

 After throttling the pressure will be approximately atmospheric
 So the corresponding saturation temperature will be approximately 100 0C.
 If the steam is saturated after throttling, the T2 > 100 0C

Dryness fraction ( )

 However, we cannot directly measure the value of (before throttling),

 But
 We can find from the superheated steam tables
 We know and , since we have measured them

Where symbol 1 is before throttle and the symbol 2 is after throttle

Combines Separating and Throttling Calorimeter
As illustrated earlier throttling calorimeter by itself can only handle steam which is quite dry and
wetter steam requires a combined separating and throttling calorimeter.

Figure 4 Schematic of combined separating and throttling calorimeter

1 Before

Tsuperheated 2 After
Tsaturated 3 Condenser

.
The difference in specific enthalpy

( )

Where is the specific heat of superheated steam usually 2 kJ/kg K.

Having found we can determine the dryness fraction of throttling

Dryness fraction for combined separating and throttling calorimeter.

Condensers
The main purposes of the condenser are,

 To condense the exhaust steam from the turbine for reuse in the cycle and
 To maximize turbine efficiency by maintaining proper vacuum

The operating pressure of the condenser is lowered (vacuum is increased), the enthalpy drop of
the expanding steam in the turbine will also increase.

This will increase the amount of available work from the turbine (electrical output).

By lowering the condenser operating,

 Increase turbine output

 Increase plant efficiency
 Reduced steam flow (for a given plant output)

It is therefore very advantageous to operate the condenser at the lowest possible pressure (highest
vacuum).
Elements of a condenser plant are:
i. Condenser body.
ii. A supply of cooling water.
iii. Air pump to remove air and uncondensed vapours from the condenser.
iv. Condensate extraction pump.
v. A pump to circulate the cooling water through the condenser.
vi. A hot well in which the condensed steam is discharged by the condensate extraction pump.
vii. Arrangements for re-cooling the circulating cooling water.

Figure 5 Steam shell and tube type condenser

The two main types of condensers are:

i. Jet condensers.
ii. Surface condensers

Classification of Condensers
i. Parallel type : Coldest water is in contact with the hottest steam (less efficient)
ii. Counter flow : The hottest steam is in contact with the hottest cooling water, it is
thermodynamically the most efficient, because heat transfer approximates towards reversibility
iii. Cross flow :
Effect of Air Leakage
The effects of air leakage into a condenser are:

i. An increase in the condenser pressure which limits the useful heat drop in the turbine.
ii. A lowering the partial pressure of the steam and of 'the saturation temperature along with it.
This means that the latent heat increases and therefore, more cooling water is required. Also,
the undercooling of the condensate is likely to be more severe. This will result in lower
efficiency.

RATING OF BOILERS AND BOILER EFFICIENCY

Consider a vessel with volume V. Let Ps be the pressure of steam alone and Pa be the pressure of
air alone. Such pressures are known as partial pressures.

Total pressure of the vessel

1. Obtain partial pressure of steam ps from steam tables, the pressure of steam corresponding to
the temperature of the mixture.
2. Then, from, (pressure of mixture)

mass of air, mair

Vacuum efficiency

Condenser Efficiency
Loss of heat by steam = gain of heat by cooling water = ms (Total heat of entering steam - Total
heat of condensate)

Cooling water ( )

Energy lost from steam ?????