INDEFINITE INTEGRALS

1. Evaluate the indefinite integral.

∫
5x 4 − 4x 3 + 6x 2 − 2x + 1 d x

Solution:

Take the integral one term at a time using the integration rule for basic
power functions.

x a+1
∫
a
x dx = +C
a+1

∫
5x 4 − 4x 3 + 6x 2 − 2x + 1 d x

5x 4+1 4x 3+1 6x 2+1 2x 1+1 x 0+1

− + − + +C
4+1 3+1 2+1 1+1 0+1

5x 5 4x 4 6x 3 2x 2 x
− + − + +C
5 4 3 2 1

x 5 − x 4 + 2x 3 − x 2 + x + C

2. Evaluate the indefinite integral.

1
 3x 3 + x 2 − 12x − 4
∫
dx
x2 − 4

Solution:

Take the integral one term at a time using the integration rule for basic
power functions.

x a+1
∫
a
x dx = +C
a+1

3x 3 + x 2 − 12x − 4
∫
dx
x −4
2

(3x + 1)(x + 2)(x − 2)

∫
dx
(x + 2)(x − 2)

∫
3x + 1 d x

3x 1+1 x 0+1
+ +C
1+1 0+1

3 2
x +x+C
2

3. Evaluate the indefinite integral.

∫
(5x − 7)(3x + 2) d x

2
Solution:

Take the integral one term at a time using the integration rule for basic
power functions. First, rewrite the function by multiplying the binomials.

∫
(5x − 7)(3x + 2) d x

∫
15x 2 − 11x − 14 d x

15x 2+1 11x 1+1 14x 0+1

− − +C
2+1 1+1 0+1

15x 3 11x 2 14x

− − +C
3 2 1

11 2
5x 3 − x − 14x + C
2

4. Evaluate the indefinite integral.

x 3 − 3x + 2
∫
dx
x 3

Solution:

3
Take the integral one term at a time using the integration rule for basic
power functions. First, rewrite the function by separating the fraction and
then bringing the power functions to the numerator.

x 3 − 3x + 2
∫
dx
x3

x 3 3x 2
∫ x3 x3 x3
− + dx

3 2
∫
1− + dx
x 2 x 3

∫
1 − 3x −2 + 2x −3 d x

Then the integrated value is

x 0+1 3x −2+1 2x −3+1

− + +C
0 + 1 −2 + 1 −3 + 1

x 1 3x −1 2x −2
− + +C
1 −1 −2

3 1
x+ − 2 +C
x x

4
PROPERTIES OF INTEGRALS

1. Given the value of each of these integrals,

3 6 3 6

∫0 ∫3 ∫0 ∫3
f (x) d x = 7 f (x) d x = 9 g(x) d x = 2 g(x) d x = 5

what is the value of of the following integral?

∫0 [
2f (x) + 3g(x)] d x

Solution:

If

3 6

∫0 ∫3
f (x) d x = 7 and f (x) d x = 9,

then

∫0
f (x) d x = 7 + 9 = 16

Then,

6 6 6

∫0 ∫0 ∫0
f (x) d x = 16 2f (x) d x = 2 f (x) d x = 2 ⋅ 16 = 32

5
Similarly, if

3 6

∫0 ∫3
g(x) d x = 2 and g(x) d x = 5

then

∫0
g(x) d x = 2 + 5 = 7

Then, if

6 6 6

∫0 ∫0 ∫0
g(x) d x = 7 3g(x) d x = 3 g(x) d x = 3 ⋅ 7 = 21

Therefore,

∫0 [
2f (x) + 3g(x)] d x = 32 + 21 = 53

6
 FIND F GIVEN F’’

1. Find f (x) from its second derivative.

f′′(x) = 3x 2 + 4x − 7

Solution:

Given the second derivative, the first derivative is

∫
f′(x) = 3x 2 + 4x − 7 d x

3x 3 4x 2
f′(x) = + − 7x + C1
3 2

f′(x) = x 3 + 2x 2 − 7x + C1

Then f (x) is

∫
f (x) = x 3 + 2x 2 − 7x + C1 d x

x 4 2x 3 7x 2
f (x) = + − + C1x + C2
4 3 2

2. Find g(x) from its second derivative.

7





 x 4 − 4x 2 + 4
g′′(x) =
x2 − 2

Solution:

Given the second derivative, the first derivative is

x 4 − 4x 2 + 4
∫
g′(x) = dx
x2 − 2

(x 2 − 2)(x 2 − 2)
∫
g′(x) = dx
x −2
2

∫
g′(x) = x 2 − 2 d x

x3
g′(x) = − 2x + C1
3

Then g(x) is

x3
∫ 3
g(x) = − 2x + C1 d x

x4
g(x) = − x 2 + C1x + C2
12

3. Find h(x) from its second derivative.

8x 3 − 9x 2 + 6x
h′′(x) =
x7

8








 Solution:

First, simplify the second derivative function.

8x 3 − 9x 2 + 6x
h′′(x) =
x7

8x 2 − 9x + 6
h′′(x) =
x6

Given the second derivative, the first derivative is

8x 2 − 9x + 6
∫
h′(x) = dx
x 6

8x 2 9x 6
∫ x6
h′(x) = − 6 + 6 dx
x x

∫
h′(x) = 8x −4 − 9x −5 + 6x −6 d x

8x −4+1 9x −5+1 6x −6+1

h′(x) = − + + C1
−4 + 1 −5 + 1 −6 + 1

8 −3 9 −4 6 −5
h′(x) = − x + x − x + C1
3 4 5

Then h(x) is

8 9 6
∫ 3
h(x) = − x −3 + x −4 − x −5 + C1 d x
4 5

9









 −8x −2 9x −3 6x −4
h(x) = + − + C1x + C2
3 ⋅ −2 4 ⋅ −3 5 ⋅ −4

4x −2 3x −3 3x −4
h(x) = − + + C1x + C2
3 4 10

4 3 3
h(x) = 2 − 3 + + C1x + C2
3x 4x 10x 4

10
 FIND F GIVEN F’’’

1. Find f (x) given its third derivative.

f′′′(x) = 2x + 3

Solution:

Given the third derivative, the second derivative is

∫
f′′(x) = 2x + 3 d x

f′′(x) = x 2 + 3x + C1

From the second derivative, the first derivative is

∫
f′(x) = x 2 + 3x + C1 d x

x 3 3x 2
f′(x) = + + C1x + C2
3 2

Then f (x) is

x 3 3x 2
∫ 3
f (x) = + + C1x + C2 d x
2

x4 3x 3 C1x 2
f (x) = + + + C2 x + C3
3⋅4 2⋅3 2

11









 1 4 1 3
f (x) = x + x + C1x 2 + C2 x + C3
12 2

2. Find g(x) given its third derivative.

g′′′(x) = 4x 3 + x 2 − 3

Solution:

Given the third derivative, the second derivative is

∫
g′′(x) = 4x 3 + x 2 − 3 d x

4x3
g′′(x) = x + − 3x + C1
3

From the second derivative, the first derivative is

x3
∫
4
g′(x) = x + − 3x + C1 d x
3

x 5 x 4 3x 2
g′(x) = + − + C1x + C2
5 12 2

Then g(x) is

x 5 x 4 3x 2
∫ 5
g(x) = + − + C1x + C2 d x
12 2

12









 x6 x5 3x 3 C1x 2
g(x) = + − + + C2 x + C3
5 ⋅ 6 12 ⋅ 5 2 ⋅ 3 2

1 6 1 5 1 3
g(x) = x + x − x + C1x 2 + C2 x + C3
30 60 2

3. Find h(x) given its third derivative.

3 2
h′′′(x) = 5 − 4 + 4
x x

Solution:

Given the third derivative, the second derivative is

3 2
∫ x5 x4
h′′(x) = − + 4 dx

∫
h′′(x) = 3x −5 − 2x −4 + 4 d x

3x −4 2x −3
h′′(x) = − + 4x + C1
−4 −3

3x −4 2x −3
h′′(x) = − + + 4x + C1
4 3

From the second derivative, the first derivative is

3x −4 2x −3
∫
h′(x) = − + + 4x + C1 d x
4 3

13












 3x −3 2x −2 4x 2
h′(x) = − + + + C1x + C2
4 ⋅ −3 3 ⋅ −2 2

x −3 x −2
h′(x) = − + 2x 2 + C1x + C2
4 3

Then h(x) is

x −3 x −2
∫ 4
h(x) = − + 2x 2 + C1x + C2 d x
3

x −2 x −1 2x 3 C1x 2
h(x) = − + + + C2 x + C3
4 ⋅ −2 3 ⋅ −1 3 2

1 1 2 3
h(x) = − 2 + + x + C1x 2 + C2 x + C3
8x 3x 3

14


 INITIAL VALUE PROBLEMS

1. Find f (x) if f′(x) = 7x − 5 and f (4) = 24.

Solution:

Given f′(x) = 7x − 5, then

∫
f (x) = 7x − 5 d x

7x 2
f (x) = − 5x + C
2

If f (4) = 24, then

7(4)2
24 = − 5(4) + C
2

48 = 7(4)2 − 2(5)(4) + 2C

48 = 112 − 40 + 2C

−24 = 2C

C = − 12

Therefore,

7 2
f (x) = x − 5x − 12
2

15


 2. Find g(x) if g′(x) = 2x 2 + 5x − 9 and g(−4) = 34.

Solution:

Given g′(x) = 2x 2 + 5x − 9, then

∫
g(x) = 2x 2 + 5x − 9 d x

2x 3 5x 2
g(x) = + − 9x + C
3 2

If g(−4) = 34, then

2(−4)3 5(−4)2
34 = + − 9(−4) + C
3 2

128
34 = − + 40 + 36 + C
3

102 = − 128 + 120 + 108 + 3C

2 = 3C

2
C=
3

Therefore,

2 3 5 2 2
g(x) = x + x − 9x +
3 2 3

16


 3. Find h(x) if h′(x) = 3x 2 + 8x + 1 and h(2) = 31.

Solution:

Given h′(x) = 3x 2 + 8x + 1, then

∫
h(x) = 3x 2 + 8x + 1 d x

h(x) = x 3 + 4x 2 + x + C

If h(2) = 31, then

31 = 23 + 4(2)2 + 2 + C

31 = 8 + 16 + 2 + C

C=5

Therefore,

h(x) = x 3 + 4x 2 + x + 5

4. Find f (x) if f′(x) = x 3 + 4x + 3 and f (−2) = 15.

Solution:

17



 Given f′(x) = x 3 + 4x + 3, then

∫
f (x) = x 3 + 4x + 3 d x

x 4 4x 2
f (x) = + + 3x + C
4 2

x4
f (x) = + 2x 2 + 3x + C
4

If f (−2) = 15, then

(−2)4
15 = + 2(−2)2 + 3(−2) + C
4

15 = 4 + 8 − 6 + C

15 = 6 + C

C=9

Therefore,

1 4
g(x) = x + 2x 2 + 3x + 9
4

18

 FIND F GIVEN F’’ AND INITIAL CONDITIONS

1. Find g(x) if g′′(x) = 2x + 1, g′(1) = 5, and g(1) = 4.

Solution:

Given g′′(x) = 2x + 1, then

∫
g′(x) = 2x + 1 d x

g′(x) = x 2 + x + C

If g′(1) = 5, then

5 = 12 + 1 + C

5=2+C

C=3

and g′(x) = x 2 + x + 3. Then g(x) is

∫
g(x) = x 2 + x + 3 d x

x3 x2
g(x) = + + 3x + C
3 2

If g(1) = 4, then

19









 13 12
4= + + 3(1) + C
3 2

1 1
4= + +3+C
3 2

24 = 2 + 3 + 18 + 6C

1 = 6C

1
C=
6

Therefore,

x3 x2 1
g(x) = + + 3x +
3 2 6

2. Find h(x) if h′′(x) = 2x − 7, h′(3) = − 20, and h(6) = − 98.

Solution:

Given h′′(x) = 2x − 7, then

∫
h′(x) = 2x − 7 d x

h′(x) = x 2 − 7x + C

If h′(3) = − 20, then

20








 −20 = 32 − 7(3) + C

−20 = 9 − 21 + C

C =−8

and h′(x) = x 2 − 7x − 8. Then h(x) is

∫
h(x) = x 2 − 7x − 8 d x

x 3 7x 2
h(x) = − − 8x + C
3 2

If h(6) = − 98, then

63 7(6)2
−98 = − − 8(6) + C
3 2

−98 = 72 − 7(18) − 48 + C

C=4

Therefore,

1 3 7 2
h(x) = x − x − 8x + 4
3 2

3. Find f (x) if f′′(x) = 3x − 6, f′(2) = 2, and f (2) = 15.

Solution:

21




 Given f′′(x) = 3x − 6, then

∫
f′(x) = 3x − 6 d x

3x 2
f′(x) = − 6x + C
2

If f′(2) = 2, then

3(2)2
2= − 6(2) + C
2

2 = 6 − 12 + C

C=8

and f′(x) = (3/2)x 2 − 6x + 8. Then f (x) is

3 2
∫2
f (x) = x − 6x + 8 d x

1 3
f (x) = x − 3x 2 + 8x + C
2

If f (2) = 15, then

1 3
15 = (2) − 3(2)2 + 8(2) + C
2

15 = 4 − 12 + 16 + C

C=7

Therefore,

22






 1 3
f (x) = x − 3x 2 + 8x + 7
2

23
DEFINITE INTEGRALS

1. Evaluate the definite integral.

3

∫0
x3 + x2 + x + 1 d x

Solution:
3

∫0
x3 + x2 + x + 1 d x

3
x4 x3 x2
+ + +x
4 3 2 0

(4 ) (4 )
34 33 32 04 03 02
+ + +3 − + + +0
3 2 3 2

81 9
+9+ +3
4 2

81 36 18 12
+ + +
4 4 4 4

147
4

2. Evaluate the definite integral.

24
 π

∫− π
2
2 sin x + 3 cos x d x
4

Solution:
π

∫− π
2
2 sin x + 3 cos x d x
4

π
2
−2 cos x + 3 sin x
− π4

( 2) ( ( 4) ( 4 ))
π π π π
−2 cos + 3 sin − −2 cos − + 3 sin −
2

( ( 2 ) ( 2 ))
2 2
(−2(0) + 3(1)) − −2 +3 −

3 2
3+ 2+
2

3. Evaluate the definite integral.

4

∫−4
2x 3 − 4x 2 + 25 d x

Solution:

25
 4

∫−4
2x 3 − 4x 2 + 25 d x

4
x 4 4x 3
− + 25x
2 3 −4

44 4(4)3 (−4)4 4(−4)3

(2 ) ( 2 )
− + 25(4) − − + 25(−4)
3 3

( ) ( )
256 256
128 − + 100 − 128 + − 100
3 3

512
− + 200
3

512 600
− +
3 3

88
3

4. Evaluate the definite integral.

2

∫1
6x 5 − 8x 3 + 4x + 3 d x

Solution:

26
 2

∫1
6x 5 − 8x 3 + 4x + 3 d x

2
6 4 2
x − 2x + 2x + 3x
1

( ) ( + 3(1))
6 4 2 6 4 2
2 − 2(2) + 2(2) + 3(2) − 1 − 2(1) + 2(1)

(64 − 32 + 8 + 6) − (1 − 2 + 2 + 3)

46 − 4

42

5. Evaluate the definite integral.

π

∫0
5 sin x d x

Solution:
π

∫0
5 sin x d x

π
−5 cos x
0

−5 cos π − (−5 cos 0)

27
5 − (−5)

10

28
AREA UNDER OR ENCLOSED BY THE CURVE

1. Find the area under the graph of f (x) = 2x 2 − 3x + 5 over the interval
[−2,6].

Solution:

Because we were asked for area “under” the graph, we’re looking for net
area, which we find by evaluating the integral of the function over the
given interval.

∫−2
A= 2x 2 − 3x + 5 d x

6
2x 3 3x 2
A= − + 5x
3 2 −2

2(6)3 3(6)2 2(−2)3 3(−2)2

( 3 ) ( 3 )
A= − + 5(6) − − + 5(−2)
2 2

( 3 )
16
A = (144 − 54 + 30) − − − 6 − 10

64
A = 120 +
3

1
A = 141
3

29
 2. Find the area enclosed by the graph of g(x) = 2x(x + 4)(x − 2) over the
interval [−4,2].

Solution:

Because we were asked for area “enclosed by” the graph, we’re looking
for gross area, which means we need to start by finding the zeros of the
function.

The graph crosses the x-axis at x = − 4, x = 0, and x = 2. Since we’re looking

for enclosed area over the interval [−4,2], we’ll take the absolute value of
the area on the interval [−4,0], and the absolute value of the area on the
interval [0,2], and then add the areas together.

0 2

∫−4 ∫0
A= 2x(x + 4)(x − 2) d x + 2x(x + 4)(x − 2) d x

0 2

∫−4 ∫0
3 2
A= 2x + 4x − 16x d x + 2x 3 + 4x 2 − 16x d x

0 2

(2 ) (2 )
x 4 4x 3 x 4 4x 3
A= + − 8x 2 + + − 8x 2
3 −4 3 0

04 4(0)3 4 3

(2 ) ( 2 )
(−4) 4(−4)
A= + − 8(0)2 − + − 8(−4)2
3 3

30
 24 4(2)3 04 4(0)3
(2 ) (2 )
2
+ + − 8(2) − + − 8(0)2
3 3

( 2 ) ( 2 )
256 4(−64) 16 32
A= − + − 8(16) + + − 8(4)
3 3

256 32
A = −128 + + 128 + 8 + − 32
3 3

256 32
A= + − 24
3 3

256 32 72
A= + −
3 3 3

256 40
A= + −
3 3

256 40
A= +
3 3

296
A=
3

3. Find the area under the graph of h(x) = 3 x over the interval [4,16].

Solution:

31
Because we were asked for area “under” the graph, we’re looking for net
area, which we find by evaluating the integral of the function over the
given interval.

16

∫4
A= 3 x dx

16

∫4
1
A= 3x 2 d x

(3 )
16
2 3
A=3 x2
4

16
3
A = 2x 2

3 3
A = (2(16) 2 ) − (2(4) 2 )

A = (2(4)3) − (2(2)3)

A = (2(64)) − (2(8))

A = 128 − 16

A = 112

32
DEFINITE INTEGRALS OF EVEN AND ODD FUNCTIONS

1. Evaluate the definite integral.

3

∫−3
− x 4 + 19 d x

Solution:

In an even function, f (x) = f (−x) and the graph is symmetric about the y
-axis. The integral contains an even function.

x 4 + 19 = (−x)4 + 19 = x 4 + 19

Because of the symmetry across the y-axis, we can rewrite the integral as
3

∫0
2 − x 4 + 19 d x

( 5 )
x5
2 − + 19x
0

( 5 ) ( 5 )
35 05
2 − + 19(3) − 2 − + 19(0)

( 5 )
243
2 − + 57

33
 84
≈ 16.8
5

2. Evaluate the definite integral.

π

∫− π
4
7 cos x d x
4

Solution:

In an even function, f (x) = f (−x) and the graph is symmetric about the y
-axis. The integral contains an even function.

7 cos x = 7 cos(−x) = 7 cos x

Because of the symmetry across the y-axis, we can rewrite the integral as
π

∫0
4
2 7 cos x d x

π
4
14 sin x
0

(4)
π
14 sin − 14 sin(0)

( 2 )
2
14

34
 7 2

3. Evaluate the definite integral.

2
3 2
∫−2
x + 5 dx
4

Solution:

In an even function, f (x) = f (−x) and the graph is symmetric about the y
-axis. The integral contains an even function.

3 2 3 3
x + 5 = (−x)2 + 5 = x 2 + 5
4 4 4

Because of the symmetry across the y-axis, we can rewrite the integral as
2
3 2
∫0 4
2 x + 5 dx

( )
x3
+ 10x
2 0

(2 ) (2 )
23 03
+ 10(2) − + 10(0)

4 + 20

24

35
 4. Evaluate the definite integral.
2

∫−2
3x 5 − 4x 3 + 8x d x

Solution:

In an odd function, f (−x) = − f (x) and the graph is symmetric about the
origin. Check to see if the function is odd.

3(−x)5 − 4(−x)3 + 8(−x) = − 3x 5 + 4x 3 − 8x = − (3x 5 − 4x 3 + 8x)

The function is odd, and the interval [−2,2] fits the format [−a, a], so
2

∫−2
3x 5 − 4x 3 + 8x d x = 0

5. Evaluate the definite integral.

π

∫− π
3
9 sin x d x
3

Solution:

36
In an odd function, f (−x) = − f (x) and the graph is symmetric about the
origin. Check to see if the function is odd.

9 sin(−x) = − 9 sin x = − (9 sin x)

The function is odd, and the interval [−π /3,π /3] fits the format [−a, a], so
π

∫− π
3
9 sin x d x = 0
3

6. Evaluate the definite integral.

2

∫−2
2x 3 − 4x d x

Solution:

In an odd function, f (−x) = − f (x) and the graph is symmetric about the
origin. Check to see if the function is odd.

2(−x)3 − 4(−x) = − 2x 3 + 4x = − (2x 3 − 4x)

The function is odd, and the interval [−2,2] fits the format [−a, a], so
2

∫−2
2x 3 − 4x d x = 0

37
SUMMATION NOTATION, FINDING THE SUM

1. Calculate the exact sum.

6
2n 2
∑ 3n
n=1

Solution:

To find the sum, write each term with the value of n plugged in.

2n 2 2(1)2 2
n=1 = 1 =
3n 3 3

2n 2 2(2)2 8
n=2 = 2 =
3n 3 9

2n 2 2(3)2 2
n=3 = 3 =
3n 3 3

2n 2 2(4)2 32
n=4 = 4 =
3n 3 81

2n 2 2(5)2 50
n=5 = =
3n 35 243

2n 2 2(6)2 8
n=6 = =
3n 36 81

So the sum is

38
 6
2n 2 2 8 2 32 50 8
∑ 3n
= + + + + +
n=1
3 9 3 81 243 81

6
2n 2 162 216 162 96 50 24
∑ 3n
= + + + + +
n=1
243 243 243 243 243 243

6
2n 2 710
∑ 3n
=
n=1
243

2. Calculate the exact sum.

5
2n
∑ 3n + 1
n=1

Solution:

To find the sum, write each term with the value of n plugged in.

2(1) 2 1
n=1 = =
3(1) + 1 4 2

2(2) 4
n=2 =
3(2) + 1 7

2(3) 6 3
n=3 = =
3(3) + 1 10 5

2(4) 8
n=4 =
3(4) + 1 13

39
 2(5) 10 5
n=5 = =
3(5) + 1 16 8

So the sum is

5
2n 1 4 3 8 5
∑ 3n + 1 2 7 5 13 8
= + + + +
n=1

5
2n 1,820 2,080 2,184 2,240 2,275
∑ 3n + 1 3,640 3,640 3,640 3,640 3,640
= + + + +
n=1

5
2n 10,599
∑ 3n + 1
=
n=1
3,640

3. Calculate the exact sum.

6
3n 2 − 5n + 7
∑
n=0

Solution:

To find the sum, write each term with the value of n plugged in.

n=0 3(0)2 − 5(0) + 7 = 7

n=1 3(1)2 − 5(1) + 7 = 5

n=2 3(2)2 − 5(2) + 7 = 9

40
 n=3 3(3)2 − 5(3) + 7 = 19

n=4 3(4)2 − 5(4) + 7 = 35

n=5 3(5)2 − 5(5) + 7 = 57

n=6 3(6)2 − 5(6) + 7 = 85

So the sum is

5
3n 2 − 5n + 7 = 7 + 5 + 9 + 19 + 35 + 57 + 85
∑
n=0

5
3n 2 − 5n + 7 = 217
∑
n=0

41
SUMMATION NOTATION, EXPANDING

1. Expand the sum.

6
5n + 3
∑ 2n − 1
n=1

Solution:

To find the sum, write each term with the value of n plugged in.

5(1) + 3 8
n=1 = =8
2(1) − 1 1

5(2) + 3 13
n=2 =
2(2) − 1 3

5(3) + 3 18
n=3 =
2(3) − 1 5

5(4) + 3 23
n=4 =
2(4) − 1 7

5(5) + 3 28
n=5 =
2(5) − 1 9

5(6) + 3 33
n=6 = =3
2(6) − 1 11

So the sum is

42
 6
5n + 3 13 18 23 28
∑ 2n − 1
=8+ + + + +3
n=1
3 5 7 9

2. Expand the sum.

7
2x 3 − 5x 2 + 9x + 3
∑
n=0

Solution:

To find the sum, write each term with the value of n plugged in.

n=0 2(0)3 − 5(0)2 + 9(0) + 3 = 3

n=1 2(1)3 − 5(1)2 + 9(1) + 3 = 9

n=2 2(2)3 − 5(2)2 + 9(2) + 3 = 17

n=3 2(3)3 − 5(3)2 + 9(3) + 3 = 39

n=4 2(4)3 − 5(4)2 + 9(4) + 3 = 87

n=5 2(5)3 − 5(5)2 + 9(5) + 3 = 173

n=6 2(6)3 − 5(6)2 + 9(6) + 3 = 309

n=7 2(7)3 − 5(7)2 + 9(7) + 3 = 507

So the sum is

43
 7
2x 3 − 5x 2 + 9x + 3 = 3 + 9 + 17 + 39 + 87 + 173 + 309 + 507
∑
n=0

3. Expand the sum.

8
2n − 8
∑ n+1
n=0

Solution:

To find the sum, write each term with the value of n plugged in.

2(0) − 8 8
n=0 =− =−8
0+1 1

2(1) − 8 6
n=1 =− =−3
1+1 2

2(2) − 8 4
n=2 =−
2+1 3

2(3) − 8 2 1
n=3 =− =−
3+1 4 2

2(4) − 8 0
n=4 = =0
4+1 5

2(5) − 8 2 1
n=5 = =
5+1 6 3

44
 2(6) − 8 4
n=6 =
6+1 7

2(7) − 8 6 3
n=7 = =
7+1 8 4

2(8) − 8 8
n=8 =
8+1 9

So the sum is
8
2n − 8 4 1 1 4 3 8
∑ n+1
=−8−3− − +0+ + + +
n=0
3 2 3 7 4 9

45
SUMMATION NOTATION, COLLAPSING

1. Use summation notation to rewrite the sum.

(x + 3)2 (x + 3)4 (x + 3)6 (x + 3)8 (x + 3)10 (x + 3)12

+ + + + +
3−1 9−2 27 − 3 81 − 4 243 − 5 729 − 6

Solution:

Find patterns in the sum.

(x + 3)2 (x + 3)4 (x + 3)6 (x + 3)8 (x + 3)10 (x + 3)12

+ + + + +
3−1 9−2 27 − 3 81 − 4 243 − 5 729 − 6

(x + 3)2(1) (x + 3)2(2) (x + 3)2(3) (x + 3)2(4) (x + 3)2(5) (x + 3)2(6)

+ + + + +
3−1 9−2 27 − 3 81 − 4 243 − 5 729 − 6

(x + 3)2(1) (x + 3)2(2) (x + 3)2(3) (x + 3)2(4) (x + 3)2(5) (x + 3)2(6)

+ + + + +
31 − 1 32 − 2 33 − 3 34 − 4 35 − 5 36 − 6

(x + 3)2(1) (x + 3)2(2) (x + 3)2(3) (x + 3)2(4) (x + 3)2(5) (x + 3)2(6)

+ + + + +
31 − 1 32 − 2 33 − 3 34 − 4 35 − 5 36 − 6

The pattern that emerges is the sum from n = 1 to n = 6.

6
(x + 3)2n
∑ 3n − n
n=1

46
 2. Use summation notation to rewrite the sum.

3x + 1 6x + 2 9x + 3 12x + 4 15x + 5 18x + 6

+ + + + +
7x 14x 2 21x 3 28x 4 35x 5 42x 6

Solution:

Find patterns in the sum.

3x + 1 6x + 2 9x + 3 12x + 4 15x + 5 18x + 6

+ + + + +
7x 14x 2 21x 3 28x 4 35x 5 42x 6

3(1)x + 1 3(2)x + 2 3(3)x + 3 3(4)x + 4 3(5)x + 5 3(6)x + 6

+ + + + +
7x 14x 2 21x 3 28x 4 35x 5 42x 6

3(1)x + 1 3(2)x + 2 3(3)x + 3 3(4)x + 4 3(5)x + 5 3(6)x + 6

+ + + + +
7(1)x 7(2)x 2 7(3)x 3 7(4)x 4 7(5)x 5 7(6)x 6

3(1)x + 1 3(2)x + 2 3(3)x + 3 3(4)x + 4 3(5)x + 5 3(6)x + 6

+ + + + +
7(1)x 1 7(2)x 2 7(3)x 3 7(4)x 4 7(5)x 5 7(6)x 6

The pattern that emerges is the sum from n = 1 to n = 6.

6
3n x + n
∑ 7n x n
n=1

3. Use summation notation to rewrite the sum.

x 2 − 3x + 1 x 3 − 6x + 2 x 4 − 9x + 3 x 5 − 12x + 4
+ + +
4x 8x 12x 16x

47
 x 6 − 15x + 5 x 7 − 18x + 6 x 8 − 21x + 7
+ + +
20x 24x 28x

Solution:

Find patterns in the sum.

x 2 − 3x + 1 x 3 − 6x + 2 x 4 − 9x + 3 x 5 − 12x + 4
+ + +
4x 8x 12x 16x

x 6 − 15x + 5 x 7 − 18x + 6 x 8 − 21x + 7

+ + +
20x 24x 28x

x 2 − 3(1)x + 1 x 3 − 3(2)x + 2 x 4 − 3(3)x + 3 x 5 − 3(4)x + 4

+ + +
4x 8x 12x 16x

x 6 − 3(5)x + 5 x 7 − 3(6)x + 6 x 8 − 3(7)x + 7

+ + +
20x 24x 28x

x 1+1 − 3(1)x + 1 x 2+1 − 3(2)x + 2 x 3+1 − 3(3)x + 3 x 4+1 − 3(4)x + 4

+ + +
4x 8x 12x 16x

x 5+1 − 3(5)x + 5 x 6+1 − 3(6)x + 6 x 7+1 − 3(7)x + 7

+ + +
20x 24x 28x

x 1+1 − 3(1)x + 1 x 2+1 − 3(2)x + 2 x 3+1 − 3(3)x + 3 x 4+1 − 3(4)x + 4

+ + +
4(1)x 4(2)x 4(3)x 4(4)x

x 5+1 − 3(5)x + 5 x 6+1 − 3(6)x + 6 x 7+1 − 3(7)x + 7

+ + +
4(5)x 4(6)x 4(7)x

The pattern that emerges is the sum from n = 1 to n = 7.

48
 7
x n+1 − 3n x + n
∑ 4n x
n=1

49
RIEMANN SUMS, LEFT ENDPOINTS

1. Use a left endpoint Riemann Sum with n = 5 to find the area under f (x)
on the interval [0,10].

x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

f(x) 3 2 3 6 11 18 27 38 51 66 83

Solution:

Five equal subdivisions of [0,10] gives five subintervals.

[0,2], [2,4], [4,6], [6,8], and [8,10]

Choose the value of the function for the left endpoint of each subinterval.
The width of each subinterval is 2 units, so the estimation of the area
under the curve is

2(3) + 2(3) + 2(11) + 2(27) + 2(51)

190

2. Use a left endpoint Riemann Sum with n = 5 to find the area under g(x)
on the interval [0,20]. Round the final answer to 2 decimal places.

g(x) = 2 x + 5

50
Solution:

Five equal subdivisions of [0,20] gives five subintervals.

[0,4], [4,8], [8,12], [12,16], and [16,20]

Find the value of the function for the left endpoint of each subinterval.

g(0) = 2 0 + 5 = 5

g(4) = 2 4 + 5 = 9

g(8) = 2 8 + 5 ≈ 10.6569

g(12) = 2 12 + 5 ≈ 11.9282

g(16) = 2 16 + 5 = 13

The width of each subinterval is 4 units, so the estimation of the area

under the curve is

4(5) + 4(9) + 4(10.6569) + 4(11.9282) + 4(13)

198.3404

The sum rounds to 198.34.

3. Use a left endpoint Riemann Sum with n = 3 to find the area under h(x)
on the interval [−2,4].

51
 1 3 1 2
h(x) = x − x −x+3
3 2

Solution:

Three equal subdivisions of [−2,4] gives three subintervals.

[−2,0], [0,2], and [2,4]

Find the value of the function for the left endpoint of each subinterval.

1 3 1 2 1
h(−2) = (−2) − (−2) − (−2) + 3 =
3 2 3

1 3 1 2
h(0) = (0) − (0) − 0 + 3 = 3
3 2

1 3 1 2 5
h(2) = (2) − (2) − 2 + 3 =
3 2 3

The width of each subinterval is 2 units, so the estimation of the area

under the curve is

(3) (3)
1 5
2 + 2 (3) + 2

2 10
+6+
3 3

2 18 10
+ +
3 3 3

30
3

52
 10

4. Use a left endpoint Riemann Sum with n = 4 to find the area under k(x)
on the interval [0,28]. Round the final answer to 2 decimal places.

x 2 + 4x + 4
k(x) =
x2 + 4

Solution:

Four equal subdivisions of [0,28] gives four subintervals.

[0,7], [7,14], [14,21], and [21,28]

Find the value of the function for the left endpoint of each subinterval.

02 + 4(0) + 4
k(0) = =1
0 +4
2

72 + 4(7) + 4 81
k(7) = = ≈ 1.5283
7 +4
2 53

142 + 4(14) + 4 32
k(14) = = ≈ 1.28
142 + 4 25

212 + 4(21) + 4 529

k(21) = = ≈ 1.1888
212 + 4 445

The width of each subinterval is 7 units, so the estimation of the area

under the curve is

53
 7(1) + 7(1.5283) + 7(1.28) + 7(1.1888)

34.9795

The sum rounds to 34.98.

5. Use a left endpoint Riemann Sum with n = 4 to find the area under f (x)
on the interval [0,2]. Round the final answer to 2 decimal places.

f (x) = 2 ln (x + 3) + 6

Solution:

Four equal subdivisions of [0,2] gives four subintervals.

[0,0.5], [0.5,1], [1,1.5], and [1.5,2]

Find the value of the function for the left endpoint of each subinterval.

f (0) = 2 ln(0 + 3) + 6 ≈ 8.1972

f (0.5) = 2 ln(0.5 + 3) + 6 ≈ 8.5055

f (1) = 2 ln(1 + 3) + 6 ≈ 8.7726

f (1.5) = 2 ln(1.5 + 3) + 6 ≈ 9.0082

The width of each subinterval is 0.5 units, so the estimation of the area
under the curve is

54
 0.5(8.1972) + 0.5(8.5055) + 1.5(8.7726) + 0.5(9.0082)

17.24175

The sum rounds to 17.24.

6. Use a left endpoint Riemann Sum with n = 5 to find the area under g(x)
on the interval [0,1]. Round the final answer to 2 decimal places.

g(x) = x 4 + 2x 3 − 3x 2 + 4x + 5

Solution:

Five equal subdivisions of [0,1] gives five subintervals.

[0,0.2], [0.2,0.4], [0.4,0.6], [0.6,0.8], and [0.8,1]

Find the value of the function for the left endpoint of each subinterval.

g(0) = 04 + 2(0)3 − 3(0)2 + 4(0) + 5 = 5

g(0.2) = 0.24 + 2(0.2)3 − 3(0.2)2 + 4(0.2) + 5 ≈ 5.6976

g(0.4) = 0.44 + 2(0.4)3 − 3(0.4)2 + 4(0.4) + 5 ≈ 6.2736

g(0.6) = 0.64 + 2(0.6)3 − 3(0.6)2 + 4(0.6) + 5 ≈ 6.8816

g(0.8) = 0.84 + 2(0.8)3 − 3(0.8)2 + 4(0.8) + 5 ≈ 7.7136

55
The width of each subinterval is 0.2 units, so the estimation of the area
under the curve is

0.2(5) + 0.2(5.6976) + 0.2(6.2736) + 0.2(6.8816) + 0.2(7.7136)

6.31328

The sum rounds to 6.31.

56
RIEMANN SUMS, RIGHT ENDPOINTS

1. Use a right endpoint Riemann Sum with n = 5 to find the area under g(x)
on the interval [1,11].

x 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
g(x
5 4 5 8 13 20 29 40 53 68 85
)

Solution:

Five equal subdivisions of [1,11] gives five subintervals.

[1,3], [3,5], [5,7], [7,9], and [9,11]

Choose the value of the function for the right endpoint of each subinterval.
The width of each subinterval is 2 units, so the estimation of the area
under the curve is

2(5) + 2(13) + 2(29) + 2(53) + 2(85)

370

2. Use a right endpoint Riemann Sum with n = 5 to find the area under
f (x) on the interval [5,25]. Round the final answer to 2 decimal places.

f (x) = 2x − 1

57
Solution:

Five equal subdivisions of [5,25] gives five subintervals.

[5,9], [9,13], [13,17], [17,21], and [21,25]

Find the value of the function for the right endpoint of each subinterval.

f (9) = 2(9) − 1 ≈ 3.2426

f (13) = 2(13) − 1 ≈ 4.0990

f (17) = 2(17) − 1 ≈ 4.8310

f (21) = 2(21) − 1 ≈ 5.4807

f (25) = 2(25) − 1 ≈ 6.0711

The width of each subinterval is 4 units, so the estimation of the area

under the curve is

4(3.2426) + 4(4.0990) + 4(4.8310) + 4(5.4807) + 4(6.0711)

94.8976

The sum rounds to 94.90.

3. Use a right endpoint Riemann Sum with n = 3 to find the area under
h(x) on the interval [−2,4].

58
 1 3 1 2
h(x) = x − x −x+3
3 2

Solution:

Five equal subdivisions of [−2,4] gives five subintervals.

[−2,0], [0,2], and [2,4]

Find the value of the function for the right endpoint of each subinterval.

1 3 1 2
h(0) = (0) − (0) − 0 + 3 = 3
3 2

1 3 1 2 5
h(2) = (2) − (2) − 2 + 3 =
3 2 3

1 3 1 2 37
h(4) = (4) − (4) − 4 + 3 =
3 2 3

The width of each subinterval is 2 units, so the estimation of the area

under the curve is

(3) ( 3)
5 37
2(3) + 2 +2

10 74
6+ +
3 3

18 10 74
+ +
3 3 3

102
3

59
 34

4. Use a right endpoint Riemann Sum with n = 4 to find the area under
k(x) on the interval [0,28]. Round the final answer to 2 decimal places.

x 2 + 4x + 4
k(x) =
x2 + 4

Solution:

Four equal subdivisions of [0,28] gives four subintervals.

[0,7], [7,14], [14,21], and [21,28]

Find the value of the function for the right endpoint of each subinterval.

72 + 4(7) + 4 81
k(7) = = ≈ 1.5283
7 +4
2 53

142 + 4(14) + 4 32
k(14) = = ≈ 1.28
14 + 4
2 25

212 + 4(21) + 4 529

k(21) = = ≈ 1.1888
212 + 4 445

282 + 4(28) + 4 225

k(28) = = ≈ 1.1421
282 + 4 197

The width of each subinterval is 7 units, so the estimation of the area

under the curve is

60
 7(1.5283) + 7(1.28) + 7(1.1888) + 7(1.1421)

35.9744

The sum rounds to 35.97.

5. Use a right endpoint Riemann Sum with n = 4 to find the area under
f (x) on the interval [0,2]. Round the final answer to 2 decimal places.

f (x) = 2 ln (x + 3) + 6

Solution:

Four equal subdivisions of [0,2] gives four subintervals.

[0,0.5], [0.5,1], [1,1.5], and [1.5,2]

Find the value of the function for the right endpoint of each subinterval.

f (0.5) = 2 ln(0.5 + 3) + 6 ≈ 8.5055

f (1) = 2 ln(1 + 3) + 6 ≈ 8.7726

f (1.5) = 2 ln(1.5 + 3) + 6 ≈ 9.0082

f (2) = 2 ln(2 + 3) + 6 ≈ 9.2189

The width of each subinterval is 0.5 units, so the estimation of the area
under the curve is

61
 0.5(8.5055) + 1.5(8.7726) + 0.5(9.0082) + 0.5(9.2189)

17.7526

The sum rounds to 17.75.

6. Use a right endpoint Riemann Sum with n = 5 to find the area under
h(x) on the interval [0,1]. Round the final answer to 2 decimal places.

h(x) = x 4 + 2x 3 − 3x 2 + 4x + 5

Solution:

Four equal subdivisions of [0,1] gives four subintervals.

[0,0.2], [0.2,0.4], [0.4,0.6], [0.6,0.8], and [0.8,1]

Find the value of the function for the right endpoint of each subinterval.

g(0.2) = 0.24 + 2(0.2)3 − 3(0.2)2 + 4(0.2) + 5 ≈ 5.6976

g(0.4) = 0.44 + 2(0.4)3 − 3(0.4)2 + 4(0.4) + 5 ≈ 6.2736

g(0.6) = 0.64 + 2(0.6)3 − 3(0.6)2 + 4(0.6) + 5 ≈ 6.8816

g(0.8) = 0.84 + 2(0.8)3 − 3(0.8)2 + 4(0.8) + 5 ≈ 7.7136

g(1) = 14 + 2(1)3 − 3(1)2 + 4(1) + 5 = 9

62
The width of each subinterval is 0.2 units, so the estimation of the area
under the curve is

0.2(5.6976) + 0.2(6.2736) + 0.2(6.8816) + 0.2(7.7136) + 0.2(9)

7.11328

The sum rounds to 7.11.

63
RIEMANN SUMS, MIDPOINTS

1. Use a midpoint Riemann Sum with n = 5 to find the area under h(x) on
the interval [6,16].

x 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
h(x
84 67 52 39 26 17 10 7 4 3 4
)

Solution:

Five equal subdivisions of [6,16] gives five subintervals.

[6,8], [8,10], [10,12], [12,14], and [14,16]

The midpoints of the subintervals are

x = 7, 9, 11, 13, and 15

Choose the value of the function for the midpoint of each subinterval. The
width of each subinterval is 2 units, so the estimation of the area under the
curve is

2(67) + 2(39) + 2(17) + 2(7) + 2(3)

266

64
 2. Use a midpoint Riemann Sum with n = 5 to find the area under k(x) on
the interval [2,22]. Round the final answer to 2 decimal places.

k(x) = 3 7x − 8

Solution:

Five equal subdivisions of [2,22] gives five subintervals.

[2,6], [6,10], [10,14], [14,18], and [18,22]

The midpoints of the subintervals are

x = 4, 8, 12, 16, and 20

Find the value of the function for the midpoint of each subinterval.

k(4) = 3 7(4) − 8 ≈ 7.8745

k(8) = 3 7(8) − 8 ≈ 14.4499

k(12) = 3 7(12) − 8 ≈ 19.4955

k(16) = 3 7(16) − 8 ≈ 23.7490

k(20) = 3 7(20) − 8 ≈ 27.4965

The width of each subinterval is 4 units, so the estimation of the area

under the curve is

4(7.8745) + 4(14.4499) + 4(19.4955) + 4(23.7490) + 4(27.4965)

65
 372.2616

The sum rounds to 372.26.

3. Use a midpoint Riemann Sum with n = 3 to find the area under h(x) on
the interval [−2,4].

1 3 1 2
h(x) = x − x −x+3
3 2

Solution:

Three equal subdivisions of [−2,4] gives three subintervals.

[−2,0], [0,2], and [2,4]

The midpoints of the subintervals are

x = − 1, 1, and 3

Find the value of the function for the midpoint of each subinterval.

1 1 19
h(−1) = (−1)3 − (−1)2 − (−1) + 3 =
3 2 6

1 3 1 2 11
h(1) = (1) − (1) − 1 + 3 =
3 2 6

1 3 1 2 9
h(3) = (3) − (3) − 3 + 3 =
3 2 2

66
The width of each subinterval is 2 units, so the estimation of the area
under the curve is

(6) (6 ) (2)
19 11 9
2 +2 +2

19 11
+ +9
3 3

19 11 27
+ +
3 3 3

57
3

19

4. Use a midpoint Riemann Sum with n = 4 to find the area under k(x) on
the interval [0,28]. Round the final answer to 2 decimal places.

x 2 + 4x + 4
k(x) =
x2 + 4

Solution:

Four equal subdivisions of [0,28] gives four subintervals.

[0,7], [7,14], [14,21], and [21,28]

The midpoints of the subintervals are

67
 x = 3.5, 10.5, 17.5, and 24.5

Find the value of the function for the midpoint endpoint of each
subinterval.

3.52 + 4(3.5) + 4
k(3.5) = ≈ 1.8615
3.5 + 4
2

10.52 + 4(10.5) + 4
k(10.5) = ≈ 1.3676
10.5 + 4
2

17.52 + 4(17.5) + 4
k(17.5) = ≈ 1.2256
17.5 + 4
2

24.52 + 4(24.5) + 4
k(24.5) = ≈ 1.1622
24.5 + 4
2

The width of each subinterval is 7 units, so the estimation of the area

under the curve is

7(1.8615) + 7(1.3676) + 7(1.2256) + 7(1.1622)

39.3183

The sum rounds to 39.32.

5. Use a midpoint Riemann Sum with n = 4 to find the area under f (x) on
the interval [0,2]. Round the final answer to 2 decimal places.

f (x) = 2 ln(x + 3) + 6

68
Solution:

Five equal subdivisions of [0,2] gives five subintervals.

[0,0.5], [0.5,1], [1,1.5], and [1.5,2]

The midpoints of the subintervals are

x = 0.25, 0.75, 1.25, and 1.75

Find the value of the function for the midpoint endpoint of each
subinterval.

f (0.25) = 2 ln(0.25 + 3) + 6 ≈ 8.3573

f (0.75) = 2 ln(0.75 + 3) + 6 ≈ 8.6435

f (1.25) = 2 ln(1.25 + 3) + 6 ≈ 8.8938

f (1.75) = 2 ln(1.75 + 3) + 6 = 9.1163

The width of each subinterval is 0.5 units, so the estimation of the area
under the curve is

0.5(8.3573) + 1.5(8.6435) + 0.5(8.8938) + 0.5(9.1163)

17.50545

The sum rounds to 17.51.

6. Use a midpoint Riemann Sum with n = 5 to find the area under g(x) on
the interval [0,1]. Round the final answer to 2 decimal places.

69
 g(x) = x 4 + 2x 3 − 3x 2 + 4x + 5

Solution:

Five equal subdivisions of [0,1] gives five subintervals.

[0,0.2], [0.2,0.4], [0.4,0.6], [0.6,0.8], and [0.8,1]

The midpoints of the subintervals are

x = 0.1, 0.3, 0.5, 0.7, and 0.9

Find the value of the function for the midpoint endpoint of each
subinterval.

g(0.1) = 0.14 + 2(0.1)3 − 3(0.1)2 + 4(0.1) + 5 ≈ 5.3721

g(0.3) = 0.34 + 2(0.3)3 − 3(0.3)2 + 4(0.3) + 5 ≈ 5.9921

g(0.5) = 0.54 + 2(0.5)3 − 3(0.5)2 + 4(0.5) + 5 ≈ 6.5625

g(0.7) = 0.74 + 2(0.7)3 − 3(0.7)2 + 4(0.7) + 5 ≈ 7.2561

g(0.9) = 0.94 + 2(0.9)3 − 3(0.9)2 + 4(0.9) + 5 ≈ 8.2841

The width of each subinterval is 0.2 units, so the estimation of the area
under the curve is

0.2(5.3721) + 0.2(5.9921) + 0.2(6.5625) + 0.2(7.2561) + 0.2(8.2841)

6.69338

70
The sum rounds to 6.69.

71
MOVING FROM SUMMATION NOTATION TO THE INTEGRAL

1. Convert the Riemann sum to a definite integral over the interval [1,8].
n

(6xi5 − 4xi 3 + 2xi−3)Δx

4

∑
i=1

Solution:

Convert the sum to a limit.

n

(6xi5 − 4xi3 + 2xi−3) Δx = f (xi) d x

∫
4

n→∞ ∑
lim
i=1

Then the integral over the interval [1,8] is

8

∫1
4
6x 5 − 4x 3 + 2x −3 d x

2. Convert the Riemann sum to a definite integral over the interval [−2,4].
n

∑( i )
(5x + 3)(2x 2 + x )5 Δx
i i
i=1

Solution:

72
Convert the sum to a limit.
n

∑( i i )
∫ i
(5x + 3)(2x 2 + x )5 Δx = f (x ) d x
i
i=1

Then the integral over the interval [−2,4] is

4

∫−2
(5x + 3)(2x 2 + x)5 d x

3. Convert the Riemann sum to a definite integral over the interval [5,11].
n

∑(
(4 − xi) xi − 5 ) Δx
i=1

Solution:

Convert the sum to a limit.

n

∑(
(4 − xi) xi − 5 ) Δx = f (xi) d x
∫
i=1

Then the integral over the interval [5,11] is

11

∫5
(4 − x) x − 5 d x

73
OVER AND UNDERESTIMATION

1. Use a Riemann sum to estimate the maximum and minimum area under
the curve on [0,π]. Use rectangular approximation methods with 4 equal
subintervals. Round the answer to 2 decimal places.
x
f (x) = 5 sin + 3
2

Solution:

The graph of f (x) is increasing on [0,π].

So LRAM will underestimate the area and RRAM will overestimate the area.
With 4 equal subintervals, calculate the value of f (x) at

74
 π π 3π
x = 0, , , , and π.
4 2 4

The function’s values are

(2)
0
f (0) = 5 sin +3=3

(4) (8)
π π
f = 5 sin + 3 ≈ 4.9134

(2) (4)
π π
f = 5 sin + 3 ≈ 6.5355

( 4 ) ( 8 )
3π 3π
f = 5 sin + 3 ≈ 7.6194

(2)
π
f (π) = 5 sin +3=8

Then the LRAM and RRAM are

π
LR AM = (3 + 4.9134 + 6.5355 + 7.6194) ≈ 17.3324
4
π
RR AM = (4.9134 + 6.5355 + 7.6194 + 8) ≈ 21.2594
4

So the minimum area under the curve is 17.33 and the maximum area under
the curve is 21.26.

75
 2. Use a Riemann sum to estimate the maximum and minimum area
under the curve on [0,4]. Use rectangular approximation methods with 4
equal subintervals.

1
g(x) = (x − 4)2 + 1
4

Solution:

The graph of g(x) is decreasing on [0,4].

So RRAM will underestimate the area and LRAM will overestimate the area.
With 4 equal subintervals, calculate the value of g(x) at

x = 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4

The function’s values are

76
 1
g(0) = (0 − 4)2 + 1 = 5
4

1 13
g(1) = (1 − 4)2 + 1 =
4 4

1
g(2) = (2 − 4)2 + 1 = 2
4

1 2 5
g(3) = (3 − 4) + 1 =
4 4

1
g(4) = (3 − 4)2 + 1 = 1
4

Then the LRAM and RRAM are

( 4)
13 5
LR AM = 1 5 + +2+ = 11.5
4

( 4 )
13 5
RR AM = 1 + 2 + + 1 = 7.5
4

So the minimum area under the curve is 7.5 and the maximum area under
the curve is 11.5.

3. Use a Riemann sum to estimate the maximum and minimum area

under the curve on [0,9]. Use rectangular approximation methods with 3
equal subintervals. Round the answer to 2 decimal places.

1
h (x) = 7x + 2
2

77
Solution:

The graph of h(x) is increasing on [0,9].

So LRAM will underestimate the area and RRAM will overestimate the area.
With 3 equal subintervals, calculate the value of h(x) at

x = 0, 3, 6, and 9

The function’s values are

1
h(0) = 7(0) + 2 = 2
2

1
h(3) = 7(3) + 2 ≈ 4.2913
2

78
 1
h(6) = 7(6) + 2 ≈ 5.2404
2

1
h (9) = 7(9) + 2 ≈ 5.9686
2

Then the LRAM and RRAM are

LR AM = 3(2 + 4.2913 + 5.2404) ≈ 34.5951

RR AM = 3(4.2913 + 5.2404 + 5.9686) ≈ 46.5009

So the minimum area under the curve is 34.60 and the maximum area under
the curve is 46.50.

79
LIMIT PROCESS TO FIND AREA ON [A,B]

1. Use the limit process to find the area of the region between the graph
of f (x) and the x-axis on the interval [3,7].

f (x) = x 2 + 2

Solution:

Find Δx.

b−a 7−3 4
Δx = = =
n n n

With Δx, find xi.

4 4i
xi = 3 + iΔx = 3 + i ⋅ = 3 +
n n

Then you get

n

n→∞ ∑
lim f (xi)Δx
i=1

n→∞ ∑ ( n)n
n
4i 4
lim f 3+
i=1

( )
2
4 n 4i
∑
lim 3+ +2
n→∞ n n
i=1

80
 4 n 24i 16i 2
n→∞ n ∑
lim 9+ + 2 +2
i=1
n n

4 n 24i 16i 2
∑
lim 11 + + 2
n→∞ n n n
i=1

Making substitutions for i and i 2 gives

n→∞ n [ ]
4 24 n(n + 1) 16 n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
lim 11n + ⋅ + 2 ⋅
n 2 n 6

n→∞ n [ ]
4 8(2n 2 + 3n + 1)
lim 11n + 12(n + 1) +
3n

n→∞ n [ 3n ]
4 16n 2 24n 8
lim 11n + 12n + 12 + + +
3n 3n

n→∞ n [ 3n ]
4 16n 8
lim 23n + 12 + +8+
3

n→∞ [ 3n ]
48 64n 32 32
lim 92 + + + + 2
n 3n n

n→∞ [ 3n ]
48 64 32 32
lim 92 + + + + 2
n 3 n

Evaluate the limit.

64
92 + 0 + +0+0
3

81
 276 64
+
3 3

340
3

2. Use the limit process to find the area of the region between the graph
of g(x) and the x-axis on the interval [2,6].

f (x) = x 2 − x + 3

Solution:

Find Δx.

b−a 6−2 4
Δx = = =
n n n

With Δx, find xi.

4 4i
xi = 2 + iΔx = 2 + i ⋅ =2+
n n

Then you get

n

n→∞ ∑
lim g(xi)Δx
i=1

n→∞ ∑ ( n)n
n
4i 4
lim g 2+
i=1

82
 n→∞ n ∑ ( ) ( )
2
4 n 4i 4i
lim 2+ − 2+ +3
i=1
n n

4 n 16i 16i 2 4i
n→∞ n ∑
lim 4+ + 2 −2− +3
i=1
n n n

4 n 12i 16i 2
n→∞ n ∑
lim 5+ + 2
i=1
n n

Making substitutions for i and i 2 gives

[ ]
4 12 n(n + 1) 16 n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
lim 5n + ⋅ + 2 ⋅
n→∞ n n 2 n 6

n→∞ n [ ]
4 8(2n 2 + 3n + 1)
lim 5n + 6(n + 1) +
3n

n→∞ n [ 3n ]
4 16n 2 24n 8
lim 5n + 6n + 6 + + +
3n 3n

n→∞ n [ 3n ]
4 16n 8
lim 11n + 6 + +8+
3

n→∞ [ 3n ]
24 64n 32 32
lim 44 + + + + 2
n 3n n

n→∞ [ 3n ]
24 64 32 32
lim 44 + + + + 2
n 3 n

Evaluate the limit.

83
 64
44 + 0 + +0+0
3

132 64
+
3 3

196
3

3. Use the limit process to find the area of the region between the graph
of h(x) and the x-axis on the interval [2,5].

h(x) = x 2 − 3x + 7

Solution:

Find Δx.

b−a 5−2 3
Δx = = =
n n n

With Δx, find xi.

3 3i
xi = 2 + iΔx = 2 + i ⋅ =2+
n n

Then you get

n

n→∞ ∑
lim h(xi)Δx
i=1

84
 n→∞ ∑ ( n)n
n
3i 3
lim h 2+
i=1

n→∞ n ∑ ( ) ( )
2
3 n 3i 3i
lim 2+ −3 2+ +7
i=1
n n

3 n 12i 9i 2 9i
n→∞ n ∑
lim 4+ + 2 −6− +7
i=1
n n n

3 n 3i 9i 2
∑
lim 5+ + 2
n→∞ n n n
i=1

Making substitutions for i and i 2 gives

n→∞ n [ ]
3 3 n(n + 1) 9 n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
lim 5n + ⋅ + 2⋅
n 2 n 6

n→∞ n [ ]
3 3 3(2n 2 + 3n + 1)
lim 5n + (n + 1) +
2 2n

n→∞ n [ 2n 2n ]
3 3 3 6n 2 9n 3
lim 5n + n + + + +
2 2 2n

n→∞ n [ 2 2 2n ]
3 13 3 9 3
lim n + + 3n + +
2

n→∞ [ 2 2n 2n ]
39 9 27 9
lim + +9+ + 2
2n

Evaluate the limit.

85
39
+0+9+0+0
2

39 18
+
2 2

57
2

86
LIMIT PROCESS TO FIND AREA ON [-A,A]

1. Use the limit process to find the area of the region between the graph
of f (x) and the x-axis on the interval [−5,5].

f (x) = x 2 + 1

Solution:

Find Δx.

b − a 5 − (−5) 10
Δx = = =
n n n

With Δx, find xi.

10 10i
xi = − 5 + iΔx = − 5 + i ⋅ =−5+
n n

Then you get

n

n→∞ ∑
lim f (xi)Δx
i=1

n→∞ ∑ ( n ) n
n
10i 10
lim f −5 +
i=1

( )
2
10 n 10i
∑
lim −5 + +1
n→∞ n n
i=1

87
 10 n 100i 100i 2
n→∞ n ∑
lim 25 − + +1
i=1
n n 2

10 n 100i 100i 2
∑
lim 26 − +
n→∞ n n n2
i=1

Making substitutions for i and i 2 gives

n→∞ n [ ]
10 100 n(n + 1) 100 n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
lim 26n − ⋅ + 2 ⋅
n 2 n 6

n→∞ n [ ]
10 50(2n 2 + 3n + 1)
lim 26n − 50(n + 1) +
3n

n→∞ n [ 3n ]
10 100n 2 150n 50
lim 26n − 50n − 50 + + +
3n 3n

n→∞ n [ 3n ]
10 100n 50
lim −24n − 50 + + 50 +
3

[ 3n ]
10 100n 50
lim −24n + +
n→∞ n 3

n→∞ [ 3n ]
1,000 500
lim −240 + + 2
3

Evaluate the limit.

1,000
−240 + +0
3

88
 280
3

2. Use the limit process to find the area of the region between the graph
of g(x) and the x-axis on the interval [−3,3].

g(x) = 3x 2 − 4

Solution:

Find Δx.

b − a 3 − (−3) 6
Δx = = =
n n n

With Δx, find xi.

6 6i
xi = − 3 + iΔx = − 3 + i ⋅ =−3+
n n

Then you get

n

n→∞ ∑
lim f (xi)Δx
i=1

n→∞ ∑ ( n)n
n
6i 6
lim g −3 +
i=1

( )
2
6 n 6i
∑
lim 3 −3 + −4
n→∞ n n
i=1

89
 6 n
( n )
36i 36i 2
∑
lim 3 9− + 2 −4
n→∞ n n
i=1

6 n 108i 108i 2
∑
lim 23 − +
n→∞ n n n 2
i=1

Making substitutions for i and i 2 gives

[ ]
6 108 n(n + 1) 108 n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
lim 23n − ⋅ + 2 ⋅
n→∞ n n 2 n 6

n→∞ n [ ]
6 18(2n 2 + 3n + 1)
lim 23n − 54(n + 1) +
n

n→∞ n [ n]
6 36n 2 54n 18
lim 23n − 54n − 54 + + +
n n

n→∞ n [ n ]
6 18
lim −31n − 54 + 36n + 54 +

n→∞ n [ n]
6 18
lim 5n +

n→∞ [ n ]
108
lim 30 + 2

Evaluate the limit.

30 + 0

30

90
 3. Use the limit process to find the area of the region between the graph
of h(x) and the x-axis on the interval [−1,1].

h(x) = 4x 2 − x + 1

Solution:

Find Δx.

b − a 1 − (−1) 2
Δx = = =
n n n

With Δx, find xi.

2 2i
xi = − 1 + iΔx = − 1 + i ⋅ = − 1 +
n n

Then you get

n

n→∞ ∑
lim h(xi)Δx
i=1

n→∞ ∑ ( n)n
n
2i 2
lim h −1 +
i=1

( ) ( )
2
2 n 2i 2i
∑
lim 4 −1 + − −1 + +1
n→∞ n n n
i=1

91
 ( )
2 n
( n )
4i 4i 2 2i
∑
lim 4 1 − + 2 − −1 + +1
n→∞ n n n
i=1

2 n 16i 16i 2 2i
n→∞ n ∑
lim 4− + 2 +1− +1
i=1
n n n

2 n 18i 16i 2
n→∞ n ∑
lim 6− + 2
i=1
n n

Making substitutions for i and i 2 gives

n→∞ n [ ]
2 18 n(n + 1) 16 n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
lim 6n − ⋅ + 2 ⋅
n 2 n 6

n→∞ n [ ]
2 8(2n 2 + 3n + 1)
lim 6n − 9(n + 1) +
3n

n→∞ n [ 3n ]
2 16n 2 24n 8
lim 6n − 9n − 9 + + +
3n 3n

n→∞ n [ 3n ]
2 16n 8
lim −3n − 9 + +8+
3

n→∞ n [ 3n ]
2 16n 8
lim −3n − 1 + +
3

n→∞ [ 3n ]
2 32 16
lim −6 − + + 2
n 3

Evaluate the limit.

92
 32
−6 − 0 + +0
3

18 32
− +
3 3

14
3

93
TRAPEZOIDAL RULE

1. Using n = 6 and the Trapezoidal rule, approximate the value of the

integral. Round the answer to 2 decimal places.

16

∫4
2 x + 3 dx
3

Solution:

Evaluating the integral with n = 6 means the interval of [4,16] is split into 6
subintervals.

[4,6], [6,8], [8,10], [10,12], [12,14], and [14,16]

Evaluate the integrand at the endpoints of each subinterval.

3
f (4) = 2 4 + 3 ≈ 6.1748

3
f (6) = 2 6 + 3 ≈ 6.6342

3
f (8) = 2 8 + 3 = 7

3
f (10) = 2 10 + 3 ≈ 7.3089

3
f (12) = 2 12 + 3 ≈ 7.5789

3
f (14) = 2 14 + 3 ≈ 7.8203

3
f (16) = 2 16 + 3 ≈ 8.0397

94
Use these values in the Trapezoidal rule with Δx = 2.

2
[6.1748 + 2(6.6342) + 2(7) + 2(7.3089) + 2(7.5789) + 2(7.8203) + 8.0397]
2

6.1748 + 13.2684 + 14 + 14.6178 + 15.1578 + 15.6406 + 8.0397

86.8991

This answer rounds to 86.90.

2. Using n = 6 and the Trapezoidal rule, approximate the value of the

integral.

6
1 4 1 3
∫0 4
x − x + 2x 2 − 5x + 8 d x
2

Solution:

Evaluating the integral with n = 6 means the interval of [0,6] is split into 6
subintervals.

[0,1], [1,2], [2,3], [3,4], [4,5], and [5,6]

Evaluate the integrand at the endpoints of each subinterval.

1 4 1 3
f (0) = (0) − (0) + 2(0)2 − 5(0) + 8 = 8
4 2

95
 1 4 1 3 19
f (1) = (1) − (1) + 2(1)2 − 5(1) + 8 =
4 2 4

1 4 1 3
f (2) = (2) − (2) + 2(2)2 − 5(2) + 8 = 6
4 2

1 4 1 3 2 71
f (3) = (3) − (3) + 2(3) − 5(3) + 8 =
4 2 4

1 4 1 3
f (4) = (4) − (4) + 2(4)2 − 5(4) + 8 = 52
4 2

1 4 1 3 507
f (5) = (5) − (5) + 2(5)2 − 5(5) + 8 =
4 2 4

1 4 1 3
f (6) = (6) − (6) + 2(6)2 − 5(6) + 8 = 266
4 2

Use these values in the Trapezoidal rule with Δx = 1.

2[ ( ) ( ) ( ) ]
1 19 71 507
8+2 + 2 (6) + 2 + 2 (52) + 2 + 266
4 4 4

2( )
1 19 71 507
8+ + 12 + + 104 + + 266
2 2 2

( 2 )
1 597 780
+
2 2

1,377
4

96
 3. Using n = 4 and the Trapezoidal rule, approximate the value of the
integral.
8
1 2
∫0 2
x − 3x + 6 d x

Solution:

Evaluating the integral with n = 4 means the interval of [0,8] is split into 4
subintervals.

[0,2], [2,4], [4,6], and [6,8]

Evaluate the integrand at the endpoints of each subinterval.

1 2
f (0) = (0) − 3(0) + 6 = 6
2

1 2
f (2) = (2) − 3(2) + 6 = 2
2

1 2
f (4) = (4) − 3(4) + 6 = 2
2

1 2
f (6) = (6) − 3(6) + 6 = 6
2

1 2
f (8) = (8) − 3(8) + 6 = 14
2

Use these values in the Trapezoidal rule with Δx = 2.

97
 2
[6 + 2(2) + 2(2) + 2(6) + 14]
2

6 + 4 + 4 + 12 + 14

40

4. Using n = 4 and the Trapezoidal rule, approximate the value of the

integral.

16
1 4 1 3
∫0
x − x − x2 − x + 1 d x
16 2

Solution:

Evaluating the integral with n = 4 means the interval of [0,16] is split into 4
subintervals.

[0,4], [4,8], [8,12], and [12,16]

Evaluate the integrand at the endpoints of each subinterval.

1 1
f (0) = (0)4 − (0)3 − (0)2 − (0) + 1 = 1
16 2

1 1
f (4) = (4)4 − (4)3 − (4)2 − (4) + 1 = − 35
16 2

1 1
f (8) = (8)4 − (8)3 − (8)2 − (8) + 1 = − 71
16 2

98
 1 1
f (12) = (12)4 − (12)3 − (12)2 − (12) + 1 = 277
16 2

1 1
f (16) = (16)4 − (16)3 − (16)2 − (16) + 1 = 1,777
16 2

Use these values in the Trapezoidal rule with Δx = 4.

4
[1 + 2(−35) + 2(−71) + 2(277) + 1,777]
2

2(1 − 70 − 142 + 554 + 1,777)

4,240

99
SIMPSON’S RULE

1. Use Simpson’s Rule with n = 6 to approximate the value of the integral.

Round the answer to 2 decimal places.
8

∫2
6 3x + 5 d x

Solution:

Since n = 6 and the interval is [2,8], that means Δx = 1. So

x1 = 2, x2 = 3, x3 = 4, x3 = 5, x4 = 6, x5 = 7, and x6 = 8

Evaluate the integrand at each of these values.

f (2) = 6 3(2) + 5 ≈ 19.6969

f (3) = 6 3(3) + 5 = 23

f (4) = 6 3(4) + 5 ≈ 25.7846

f (5) = 6 3(5) + 5 ≈ 28.2379

f (6) = 6 3(6) + 5 ≈ 30.4558

f (7) = 6 3(7) + 5 ≈ 32.4955

f (8) = 6 3(8) + 5 ≈ 34.3939

100
Use these values in Simpson’s rule with Δx = 1.

1
[19.6969 + 4(23) + 2(25.7846) + 4(28.2379) + 2(30.4558) + 4(32.4955) + 34.3939]
3

1
(19.6969 + 92 + 51.5692 + 112.9516 + 60.9116 + 129.9820 + 34.3939)
3

167.1684

This answer rounds to 167.17.

2. Use Simpson’s Rule with n = 8 to approximate the value of the integral.

Round the answer to 2 decimal places.
28

∫4
120(0.95)x d x

Solution:

Since n = 8 and the interval is [4,28], that means Δx = 3. So

x1 = 4, x2 = 7, x3 = 10, x4 = 13, x5 = 16, x6 = 19, x7 = 22, x8 = 25, and x9 = 28

Evaluate the integrand at each of these values.

f (4) = 120(0.95)4 ≈ 97.7408

f (7) = 120(0.95)7 ≈ 83.8005

101
 f (10) = 120(0.95)10 ≈ 71.8484

f (13) = 120(0.95)13 ≈ 61.6010

f (16) = 120(0.95)16 ≈ 52.8152

f (19) = 120(0.95)19 ≈ 45.2824

f (22) = 120(0.95)22 ≈ 38.8240

f (25) = 120(0.95)25 ≈ 33.2867

f (28) = 120(0.95)28 ≈ 28.5392

Use these values in Simpson’s rule with Δx = 3.

3
3 [97.7408 + 4(83.8005) + 2(71.8484) + 4(61.6010) + 2(52.8152)

+4(45.2824) + 2(38.8240) + 4(33.2867) + 28.5392]

97.7408 + 335.2020 + 142.6968 + 246.4040 + 105.6304

+181.1296 + 77.6480 + 133.1468 + 28.5392

1,349.1376

This answer rounds to 1,349.14.

3. Use Simpson’s Rule with n = 4 to approximate the value of the integral.

Round the answer to 2 decimal places.

102
 7

∫5
3 ln(x + 5) − 2 d x

Solution:

Since n = 4 and the interval is [5,7], that means Δx = 0.5. So

x1 = 5, x2 = 5.5, x3 = 6, x4 = 6.5, and x5 = 7

Evaluate the integrand at each of these values.

f (5) = 3 ln(5 + 5) − 2 ≈ 4.9078

f (5.5) = 3 ln(5.5 + 5) − 2 ≈ 5.0541

f (6) = 3 ln(6 + 5) − 2 ≈ 5.1937

f (6.5) = 3 ln(6.5 + 5) − 2 ≈ 5.3270

f (7) = 3 ln(7 + 5) − 2 ≈ 5.4547

Use these values in Simpson’s rule with Δx = 0.5.

0.5
[4.9078 + 4(5.0541) + 2(5.1937) + 4(5.3270) + 5.4547]
3

0.5
(4.9078 + 20.2164 + 10.3874 + 21.3080 + 5.4547)
3

10.37905

This answer rounds to 10.38.

103
 4. Use Simpson’s Rule with n = 4 to approximate the value of the integral.
9

∫−3
x 2 + 3x + 2 d x

Solution:

Since n = 4 and the interval is [−3,9], that means Δx = 3. So

x1 = − 3, x2 = 0, x3 = 3, x4 = 6, and x5 = 9

Evaluate the integrand at each of these values.

f (−3) = (−3)2 + 3(−3) + 2 = 2

f (0) = (0)2 + 3(0) + 2 = 2

f (3) = (3)2 + 3(3) + 2 = 20

f (6) = (6)2 + 3(6) + 2 = 56

f (9) = (9)2 + 3(9) + 2 = 110

Use these values in Simpson’s rule with Δx = 3.

3
[2 + 4(2) + 2(20) + 4(56) + 110]
3

2 + 8 + 40 + 224 + 110

104
 384

5. Use Simpson’s Rule with n = 6 to approximate the value of the integral.

Round the answer to 2 decimal places.

1.6
1 3
∫0.4
x − x 2 + 5x + 4 d x
3

Solution:

Since n = 6 and the interval is [0.4,1.6], that means Δx = 0.2. So

x1 = 0.4, x2 = 0.6, x3 = 0.8, x4 = 1.0, x5 = 1.2, x6 = 1.4, and x7 = 1.6

Evaluate the integrand at each of these values.

1
f (0.4) = (0.4)3 − (0.4)2 + 5(0.4) + 4 ≈ 5.8613
3

1
f (0.6) = (0.6)3 − (0.6)2 + 5(0.6) + 4 ≈ 6.712
3

1
f (0.8) = (0.8)3 − (0.8)2 + 5(0.8) + 4 ≈ 7.5307
3

1 3
f (1) = (1) − (1)2 + 5(1) + 4 ≈ 8.3333
3

1
f (1.2) = (1.2)3 − (1.2)2 + 5(1.2) + 4 ≈ 9.136
3

105
 1
f (1.4) = (1.4)3 − (1.4)2 + 5(1.4) + 4 ≈ 9.9547
3

1
f (1.6) = (1.6)3 − (1.6)2 + 5(1.6) + 4 ≈ 10.8053
3

Use these values in Simpson’s rule with Δx = 0.2.

0.2
3 [
5.8613 + 4(6.712) + 2(7.5307) + 4(8.3333)

+2(9.136) + 4(9.9547) + 10.8053]

0.2
(5.8613 + 26.848 + 15.0614 + 33.3332 + 18.272 + 39.8188 + 10.8053)
3

10

106
MIDPOINT RULE ERROR BOUND

1. Calculate the area under the curve. Then use the Midpoint Rule with
n = 3 to approximate the same area. Compare the actual area to the result
to determine the error of the of the Midpoint Rule approximation.

∫0
3x 2 − 2x + 5 d x

Solution:

The area under the curve is

6 6
3x 3 2x 2
A= − + 5x = x 3 − x 2 + 5x
3 2 0 0

A = 63 − 62 + 5(6) − (03 − 02 + 5(0))

A = 210

With n = 3, the integration interval of [0,6] is split into the three subintervals
[0,2], [2,4], and [4,6]. The midpoints of those subintervals are 1, 3, and 5.
Evaluate 3x 2 − 2x + 5 at each of these values.

At x = 1, 3(1)2 − 2(1) + 5 = 6

At x = 3, 3(3)2 − 2(3) + 5 = 26

At x = 5, 3(5)2 − 2(5) + 5 = 70

107
Since the original interval is [0,6] and n = 3, each subinterval is 2 units wide.
So the Midpoint Rule gives

AM = 6(2) + 26(2) + 70(2)

AM = 204

Compared to the actual area under the curve, the Midpoint Rule gives an
error of 210 − 204 = 6.

2. Calculate the area under the curve. Then use the Midpoint Rule with
n = 4 to approximate the same area. Compare the actual area to the result
to determine the error of the of the Midpoint Rule approximation. Round
your answer to the nearest 3 decimal places.
13

∫5
4 x − 2 dx

Solution:

The area under the curve is

13
8 3
A = (x − 2) 2
3 5

8 3 8 3
A = (13 − 2) − (5 − 2) 2
2
3 3

A = 97.287661 − 13.856406 = 83.431255

108
With n = 4, the integration interval of [5,13] is split into the four subintervals
[5,7], [7,9], [9,11], and [11,13]. The midpoints of those subintervals are 6, 8,
10, and 12. Evaluate 4 x − 2 at each of these values.

At x = 6, 4 6 − 2 = 8

At x = 8, 4 8 − 2 = 9.797959

At x = 10, 4 10 − 2 = 11.313708

At x = 12, 4 12 − 2 = 12.649111

Since the original interval is [5,13] and n = 4, each subinterval is 2 units

wide. So the Midpoint Rule gives

AM ≈ 8(2) + 9.797959(2) + 11.313708 (2) + 12.649111(2)

AM ≈ 83.521556

Compared to the actual area under the curve, the Midpoint Rule gives an
error of | 83.431255 − 83.521556 | ≈ 0.090301 ≈ 0.090.

3. Calculate the area under the curve. Then use the Midpoint Rule with
n = 4 to approximate the same area. Compare the actual area to the result
to determine the error of the of the Midpoint Rule approximation.
10

∫2
4x 3 − 3x 2 + 2x − 1 d x

109
Solution:

The area under the curve is

10 10
4x 4 3x 3 2x 2 4 3 2
A= − + −x =x −x +x −x
4 3 2 2 2

A = 104 − 103 + 102 − 10 − (24 − 23 + 22 − 2) = 9,090 − 10

A = 9,080

With n = 4, the integration interval of [2,10] is split into the four subintervals
[2,4], [4,6], [6,8], and [8,10]. The midpoints of those subintervals are 3, 5, 7,
and 9. Evaluate 4x 3 − 3x 2 + 2x − 1 at each of these values.

At x = 3, 4(3)3 − 3(3)2 + 2(3) − 1 = 86

At x = 5, 4(5)3 − 3(5)2 + 2(5) − 1 = 434

At x = 7, 4(7)3 − 3(7)2 + 2(7) − 1 = 1,238

At x = 9, 4(9)3 − 3(9)2 + 2(9) − 1 = 2,690

Since the original interval is [2,10] and n = 4, each subinterval is 2 units

wide. So the Midpoint Rule gives

AM = 86(2) + 434(2) + 1,238(2) + 2,690(2)

AM = 8,896

Compared to the actual area under the curve, the Midpoint Rule gives an
error of 9,080 − 8,896 = 184.

110
TRAPEZOIDAL RULE ERROR BOUND

1. Calculate the area under the curve. Then use the Trapezoidal Rule with
n = 4 to approximate the same area. Compare the actual area to the result
to determine the error of the of the Trapezoidal Rule approximation.

∫1
6x 2 − 8x + 5 d x

Solution:

The area under the curve is

5 5
6x 3 8x 2
A= − + 5x = 2x 3 − 4x 2 + 5x
3 2 1 1

A = 2(5)3 − 4(5)2 + 5(5) − (2(1)3 − 4(1)2 + 5(1)) = 175 − 3

A = 172

With n = 4, the integration interval of [1,5] is split into the four subintervals
[1,2], [2,3], [3,4], and [4,5]. Evaluate the integrand at the endpoints of each
subinterval.

At x = 1, 6(1)2 − 8(1) + 5 = 3

At x = 2, 6(2)2 − 8(2) + 5 = 13

At x = 3, 6(3)2 − 8(3) + 5 = 35

111
 At x = 4, 6(4)2 − 8(4) + 5 = 69

At x = 5, 6(5)2 − 8(5) + 5 = 115

Use these values in the Trapezoidal Rule with Δx = 1.

1
AT = [3 + 2(13) + 2(35) + 2(69) + 115]
2

AT = 176

Compared to the actual area under the curve, the Trapezoidal Rule gives
an error of | 172 − 176 | = 4.

2. Calculate the area under the curve. Then use the Trapezoidal Rule
with n = 5 to approximate the same area. Compare the actual area to the
result to determine the error of the of the Trapezoidal Rule approximation.
Round your answer to the nearest 3 decimal places.
12

∫2
e −x + 3 d x

Solution:

The area under the curve is

12
A = − e −x + 3x
2

112
 A = − e −12 + 3(12) − (−e −2 + 3(2))

A = 30.135329

With n = 4, the integration interval of [2,12] is split into the five subintervals
[2,4], [4,6], [6,8], [8,10], and [10,12]. Evaluate the integrand at the endpoints
of each subinterval.

At x = 2, e −2 + 3 = 3.135335

At x = 4, e −4 + 3 = 3.018316

At x = 6, e −6 + 3 = 3.002479

At x = 8, e −8 + 3 = 3.000335

At x = 10, e −10 + 3 = 3.000045

At x = 12, e −12 + 3 = 3.000006

Use these values in the Trapezoidal Rule with Δx = 2.

2
AT = [3.135335 + 2(3.018316) + 2(3.002479)
2

+2(3.000335) + 2(3.000045) + 3.000006]

AT = 30.177691

Compared to the actual area under the curve, the Trapezoidal Rule gives
an error of | 30.135329 − 30.177691 | = 0.042362.

113
 3. Calculate the area under the curve. Then use the Trapezoidal Rule
with n = 4 to approximate the same area. Compare the actual area to the
result to determine the error of the of the Trapezoidal Rule approximation.
Round your answer to the nearest three decimal places.
2

∫0
4 x + 1 dx

Solution:

The area under the curve is

2
8 3
A = x2 + x
3 0

( )
8 3 8 3
A = (2) + 2 −
2 (0) 2 + 0
3 3

A = 9.542472

With n = 4, the integration interval of [0,2] is split into the four subintervals
[0,0.5], [0.5,1], [1,1.5], and [1.5,2]. Evaluate the integrand at the endpoints of
each subinterval.

At x = 0, 4 0 + 1 = 1

At x = 0.5, 4 0.5 + 1 = 3.828427

At x = 1, 4 1 + 1 = 5

114
 At x = 1.5, 4 1.5 + 1 = 5.898979

At x = 2, 4 2 + 1 = 6.656854

Use these values in the Trapezoidal Rule with Δx = 0.5.

0.5
AT = [1 + 2(3.828427) + 2(5) + 2(5.898979) + 6.656854]
2

AT = 9.277917

Compared to the actual area under the curve, the Trapezoidal Rule gives
an error of | 9.542472 − 9.277917 | = 0.264826 ≈ 0.265.

115
SIMPSON’S RULE ERROR BOUND

1. Calculate the area under the curve. Then use Simpson’s Rule with n = 6
to approximate the same area. Compare the actual area to the result to
determine the error of the of Simpson’s Rule approximation. Round your
answer to the nearest three decimal places.
3.4

∫2.2
x2 − x + 2 d x

Solution:

The area under the curve is

3.4
x3 x2
A= − + 2x
3 2 2.2

(3.4)3 (3.4)2 (2.2)3 (2.2)2

( 3 )
A= − + 2(3.4) − − + 2(2.2)
3 2 2

A = 8.592

Since n = 6, the interval of integration is [2.2,3.4], and Δx = 0.2,

x1 = 2.2

x2 = 2.4

116
 x3 = 2.6

x4 = 2.8

x5 = 3.0

x6 = 3.2

x7 = 3.4

Evaluate the integrand at each of these values.

At 2.2, (2.2)2 − 2.2 + 2 = 4.64

At 2.4, (2.4)2 − 2.4 + 2 = 5.36

At 2.6, (2.6)2 − 2.6 + 2 = 6.16

At 2.8, (2.8)2 − 2.8 + 2 = 7.04

At 3.0, (3.0)2 − 3.0 + 2 = 8.00

At 3.2, (3.2)2 − 3.2 + 2 = 9.04

At 3.4, (3.4)2 − 3.4 + 2 = 10.16

Use these values in Simpson’s Rule with Δx = 0.2.

0.2
AS ≈ [4.64 + 4(5.36) + 2(6.16) + 4(7.04) + 2(8) + 4(9.04) + 10.16]
3

AS ≈ 8.592

117
Simpson’s Rule gives an error of | 8.592 − 8.592 | = 0. There is no error in this
problem.

2. Calculate the area under the curve. Then use Simpson’s Rule with n = 4
to approximate the same area. Compare the actual area to the result to
determine the error of the of Simpson’s Rule approximation. Round your
answer to the nearest four decimal places.
1.2

∫0
e x − 2x + 3 d x

Solution:

The area under the curve is

1.2
x 2x 2
A=e − + 3x
2 0

A = e 1.2 − (1.2)2 + 3(1.2) − (e 0 − (0)2 + 3(0))

A = 4.480117

Since n = 4, the interval of integration is [0,1.2], and Δx = 0.3,

x1 = 0

x2 = 0.3

x3 = 0.6

118
 x4 = 0.9

x4 = 1.2

Evaluate the integrand at each of these values.

At 0, e 0 − 2(0) + 3 = 4

At 0.3, e 0.3 − 2(0.3) + 3 = 3.749859

At 0.6, e 0.6 − 2(0.6) + 3 = 3.622119

At 0.9, e 0.9 − 2(0.9) + 3 = 3.659603

At 1.2, e 1.2 − 2(1.2) + 3 = 3.920117

Use these values in Simpson’s Rule with Δx = 0.3.

0.3
AS ≈ [4 + 4(3.749859) + 2(3.622119) + 4(3.659603) + 3.920117]
3

AS ≈ 4.480220

Simpson’s Rule gives an error of | 4.480117 − 4.480220 | = 0.0001033.

3. Calculate the area under the curve. Then use Simpson’s Rule with n = 4
to approximate the same area. Compare the actual area to the result to
determine the error of the of Simpson’s Rule approximation. Round your
answer to the nearest three decimal places.
4

∫−4
2x 2 + 3x + 4 d x

119
Solution:

The area under the curve is

4
2x 3 3x 2
A= + + 4x
3 2 −4

2(−4)3 3(−4)2
( )
2(4)3 3(4)2
A= + + 4(4) − + + 4(−4)
3 2 3 2

1
A = 117
3

Since n = 4, the interval of integration is [−4,4], and Δx = 2,

x1 = − 4

x2 = − 2

x3 = 0

x4 = 2

x4 = 4

Evaluate the integrand at each of these values.

At −4, 2(−4)2 + 3(−4) + 4 = 24

At −2, 2(−2)2 + 3(−2) + 4 = 6

At 0, (0)2 + 3(0) + 4 = 4

120
 At 2, 2(2)2 + 3(2) + 4 = 18

At 4, (4)2 + 3(4) + 4 = 4

Use these values in Simpson’s Rule with Δx = 2.

2
AS = [24 + 4(6) + 2(4) + 4(18) + 48]
3

1
AS = 117
3

Simpson’s Rule gives an error of | 117.33 − 117.33 | = 0.

121
 PART 1 OF THE FTC

1. Use Part 1 of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus to find the

derivative of f (x).

x2

∫0
f (x) = 7t cos(2t) dt

Solution:

Evaluate the integrand at the upper bound, x 2, multiplying by the

derivative of x 2. That will give the derivative of the function f (x).

d 2
f′(x) = 7x 2 cos(2x 2) ⋅ (x )
dx

f′(x) = 7x 2 cos(2x 2) ⋅ 2x

f′(x) = 14x 3 cos(2x 2)

2. Use Part 1 of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus to find the

derivative of g(x).

x3
5
∫2
g(x) = dt
3+e t

122



 Solution:

Evaluate the integrand at the upper bound, x 3, multiplying by the

derivative of x 3. That will give the derivative of the function g(x).

5 d 3
g′(x) = ⋅ (x )
3+e x 3
dx

5
g′(x) = ⋅ 3x 2
3 + ex 3

15x 2
g′(x) =
3 + e x3

3. Use Part 1 of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus to find the

derivative of h(x).
7

∫cos(3x)
h(x) = 8t + 1 dt

Solution:

Flip the upper and lower bound, multiplying the integral by −1.
cos(3x)

∫7
h(x) = − 8t + 1 dt

Evaluate the integrand at the upper bound, cos(3x), multiplying by the

derivative of cos(3x). That will give the derivative of the function h(x).

123



 d
h′(x) = − (8 cos(3x) + 1) ⋅ (cos(3x))
dx

h′(x) = − (8 cos(3x) + 1)(−3 sin(3x))

h′(x) = (8 cos(3x) + 1)(3 sin(3x))

h′(x) = 24 sin(3x)cos(3x) + 3 sin(3x)

4. Use Part 1 of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus to find the

derivative of f (x).

3x 2
sin t
∫1
f (x) = dt
t +5
3

Solution:

Evaluate the integrand at the upper bound, 3x 2, multiplying by the

derivative of 3x 2. That will give the derivative of the function f (x).

sin(3x 2) d 2
f′(x) = ⋅ (3x )
(3x 2)3 + 5 d x

sin(3x 2)
f′(x) = ⋅ 6x
27x 6 + 5

6x sin(3x 2)
f′(x) =
27x 6 + 5

124







 5. Use Part 1 of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus to find the
derivative of g(x).

2x 2

∫3x
g(x) = t 2 − 5t + 4 dt

Solution:

Split the interval at 0.

0 2x 2

∫3x ∫0
g(x) = t 2 − 5t + 4 dt + t 2 − 5t + 4 dt

Flip the bounds on the first integral, multiplying by −1.

3x 2x 2

∫0 ∫0
g(x) = − t 2 − 5t + 4 dt + t 2 − 5t + 4 dt

For the first integral, evaluate the integrand at the upper bound, 3x,
multiplying by the derivative of 3x. For the second integral, evaluate at the
upper bound, 2x 2, multiplying by the derivative of 2x 2. That will give the
derivative of the function g(x).

d d
g′(x) = − ((3x)2 − 5(3x) + 4) ⋅ (3x) + ((2x 2) − 5(2x 2) + 4) ⋅ (2x )
2 2
dx dx

g′(x) = − (9x 2 − 15x + 4) ⋅ 3 + (4x 4 − 10x 2 + 4) ⋅ 4x

g′(x) = − (27x 2 − 45x + 12) + (16x 5 − 40x 3 + 16x)

g′(x) = − 27x 2 + 45x − 12 + 16x 5 − 40x 3 + 16x

125




 g′(x) = 16x 5 − 40x 3 − 27x 2 + 61x − 12

126

PART 2 OF THE FTC

1. Use Part 2 of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus to evaluate the

integral.

5
3
∫2
5 − dx
x

Solution:

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

5
5x − 3 ln x
2

5(5) − 3 ln 5 − (5(2) − 3 ln 2)

25 − 3 ln 5 − 10 + 3 ln 2

15 + 3 ln 2 − 3 ln 5

15 + 3(ln 2 − ln 5)

2
15 + 3 ln
5

2. Use Part 2 of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus to evaluate the

integral.

127
 9

∫4
4x 3 − x dx

Solution:

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

3 9
4 2x 2
x −
3 4

3 3

( 3 )
2(9) 2 2(4) 2
94 − − 44 −
3

2(27) 2(8)
6,561 − − 256 +
3 3

54 16
6,305 − +
3 3

18,915 38
−
3 3

18,877
3

3. Use Part 2 of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus to evaluate the

integral.
−1
3
∫−3
dx
x 3

128
Solution:

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

−1
3
− x −2
2 −3

−1
3
− 2
2x −3

2(−1)2 ( 2(−3)2 )
3 3
− − −

3 3
− +
2 2(9)

3 3
−
18 2

3 27
−
18 18

24
−
18

4
−
3

4. Use Part 2 of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus to evaluate the

integral.

129
 36
2− x
∫25
dx
x

Solution:

Rewrite the integral.

36
2 x
∫25
− dx
x x

36

∫25
1
2x − 2 − 1 d x

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

36
1
4x − x
2

25

4(36) 2 − 36 − (4(25) 2 − 25)

1 1

4(6) − 36 − 4(5) + 25

24 − 36 − 20 + 25

−7

130
NET CHANGE THEOREM

1. Suppose the position of a particle moving along the horizontal s-axis is

at s = − 2 when t = 0. The velocity of the particle is given by v(t) with
0 ≤ t ≤ 10, where t is time in seconds since the particle began moving. Use
the Net Change Theorem to determine the position of the particle on the s
-axis after the particle has been moving for 5 seconds.

1 2 9
v(t) = t −
4 (t + 1)2

Solution:

The interval of time from the time the particle starts moving until 5
seconds later is 0 ≤ t ≤ 5, and that will be the bounds for the integral of v(t).
Because the particle starts at s = − 2, we need to subtract 2 from the value
of the integral. So the particle’s position is given by

5
1 2 9
∫0 4
−2 + t − dt
(t + 1) 2

5
1 2
∫0 4
−2 + t − 9(t + 1)−2 dt

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

( 12 )
5
1 3
−2 + t + 9(t + 1)−1
0

131
 ( 12 ) ( 12 )
1 3 −1 1
−2 + (5) + 9(5 + 1) − (0)3 + 9(0 + 1)−1

1 9
−2 + (125) + − 9
12 6

125 3
−11 + +
12 2

132 125 18
− + +
12 12 12

11
12

2. Water is being pumped from a tank at a rate (in gallons per minute)
given by w(t) = 80 − 4 t + 3, with 0 ≤ t ≤ 60, where t is the time in minutes
since the pumping began. The tank had 5,000 gallons of water in it when
pumping began. Use the Net Change Theorem to determine how many
gallons of water will be in the tank after 30 minutes of pumping.

Solution:

The interval of time from the time the pumping begins until 30 minutes
after pumping starts is 0 ≤ t ≤ 30, and that will be the bounds for the
integral of w(t). Because the tank starts with 5,000 gallons, we need to add
5,000 to the value of the integral. So the gallons in the tank is given by

132
 30

∫0
5,000 − 80 − 4 t + 3 dt

( )
30
8 3
5,000 − 80t − (t + 3) 2
3 0

( ) ( )
8 3 8 3
= 5,000 − 80(30) − (30 + 3) 2 + 80(0) − (0 + 3) 2
3 3

8 3 8 3
5,000 − 2,400 + (33) − (3) 2
2
3 3

264 33 24 3
2,600 + −
3 3

7,800 + 264 33 − 24 3
3

3. From 1990 to 2010, the rate of rice consumption in a particular country

was R(t) = 5.8 + 1.07t million pounds per year, with t being years since the
beginning of the year 1990. The country had 7.2 million pounds of rice on
hand at the beginning of 1994 and produced 7.5 million pounds of rice
every year. Use the Net Change Theorem to determine how many millions
of pounds of rice were on hand in that country at the end of 1998.

Solution:

133
Since 1990 is the beginning of the time frame, that’s when t = 0. Therefore,
the interval of time from 1994 to 1998 is 4 ≤ t ≤ 8, and that will be the
bounds for the integral of R(t). Because the country starts with 7.2 million
pounds of rice, we need to add 7.2 to the value of the integral. Because the
country produces 7.5 million pounds of rice per year, but consumes R(t)
pounds per year, the amount of rice at the end of 1998 is
8

∫4
7.2 + 7.5 − (5.8 + 1.07t ) dt

∫4
7.2 + 1.7 − 1.07t dt

( ln 1.07 )
8
1.07t
7.2 + 1.7t −
4

( ln 1.07 ) ( ln 1.07 )
1.078 1.074
7.2 + 1.7(8) − − 1.7(4) −

7.2 − 11.794923 + 12.573665

7.978742

The country has slightly less than 8 million pounds of rice on hand at the
end of 1998.

4. A cooling pump connected to a power plant operates at a varying

rate, depending on how much cooling is needed by the power plant. The
rate (in gallons per second) at which the pump is operated is modeled by

134
r(t) = 0.003t 3 − 0.02t 2 + 0.29t + 59.81, where t is defined in seconds for
0 ≤ t ≤ 120. The pump has already pumped 1,508 gallons during the first 25
seconds. Use the Net Change Theorem to determine how many gallons
the pump will have pumped after 2 minutes.

Solution:

The interval of time from 25 seconds after the pump starts until 2 minutes
after pumping starts is 25 ≤ t ≤ 120 (since 2 minutes is 120 seconds), and
that will be the bounds for the integral of r(t). Because the pump had
already pumped 1,508 gallons, we need to add 1,508 to the value of the
integral. So the gallons pumped after 2 minutes is given by
120

∫25
1,508 + 0.003t 3 − 0.02t 2 + 0.29t + 59.81 dt

( 4 )
120
0.003 4 0.02 3 0.29 2
1,508 + t − t + t + 59.81t
3 2 25

( 4 )
0.003 0.02 0.29
1,508 + (120)4 − (120)3 + (120)2 + 59.81(120)
3 2

( 4 )
0.003 0.02 0.29
− (25)4 − (25)3 + (25)2 + 59.81(25)
3 2

152,998.5229

After 2 minutes, the pump has pumped just about 153,000 gallons.

135
 5. A rocket is launched upward from a cliff that’s 86 feet above ground
level. The velocity of the rocket is modeled by v(t) = − 32t + 88, in feet per
second, where t is seconds after the launch. Use the Net Change Theorem
to determine the height in feet of the rocket 2 seconds after it’s launched.

Solution:

The interval of time from the time the rocket is launched until 2 seconds
later is 0 ≤ t ≤ 2, and that will be the bounds for the integral of v(t). Because
the rocket starts at 86 feet above the ground, we need to add 86 to the
value of the integral. So the height of the rocket is given by
2

∫0
86 + − 32t + 88 dt

2
86 + (−16t 2 + 88t)
0

86 + (−16(2)2 + 88(2)) − (−16(0)2 + 88(0))

86 + (−64 + 176)

86 − 64 + 176

198

136
U-SUBSTITUTION IN DEFINITE INTEGRALS

1. Use u-substitution to evaluate the integral.

4

∫2
8x 3 7 + x 4 d x

Solution:

Let

u = 7 + x4

3 du
du = 4x d x, so d x = 3
4x

Substitute.

( 4x 3 )
x=4
du
∫x=2
3
8x u

8 x=4
4 ∫x=2
u du

x=4

∫x=2
1
2 u 2 du

Integrate and back-substitute.

137
 x=4
2 3
2 ⋅ u2
3 x=2

x=4
4 3
u2
3 x=2

4
4 3
(7 + x 4) 2
3 2

Evaluate over the interval.

(3 )
4 3 4 3
(7 + 44) 2 − (7 + 24) 2
3

4 3 4 3
(263) − (23) 2
2
3 3

1,052 92
263 − 23
3 3

1,052 263 − 92 23
3

138
INTEGRATION BY PARTS

1. Use integration by parts to evaluate the integral.

∫
9x sin x d x

Solution:

Pick

u = 9x differentiating du = 9 d x

dv = sin x d x integrating v = − cos x

Plug into the integration by parts formula.

∫ ∫
9x sin x d x = (9x)(−cos x) − (−cos x)(9 d x)

∫ ∫
9x sin x d x = − 9x cos x + 9 cos x d x

∫
9x sin x d x = − 9x cos x + 9 sin x + C

2. Use integration by parts to evaluate the integral.

139
 ∫
5xe x d x

Solution:

Pick

u = 5x differentiating du = 5 d x

dv = e x d x integrating v = ex

Plug into the integration by parts formula.

∫ ∫
5xe x d x = (5x)(e x) − (e x)(5 d x)

∫ ∫
5xe x d x = 5xe x − 5 e x d x

∫
5xe x d x = 5xe x − 5e x + C

You could leave the answer this way, or factor it as

∫
5xe x d x = 5e x(x − 1) + C

3. Use integration by parts to evaluate the integral.

∫
7x ln x d x

140
Solution:

Pick

1
u = ln x differentiating du = dx
x

7 2
dv = 7x d x integrating v= x
2

Plug into the integration by parts formula.

(2 ) ∫(2 )(x )
7 2 7 2 1
∫
7x ln x d x = (ln x) x − x dx

7 2 7
∫ ∫
7x ln x d x = x ln x − x dx
2 2

2 2 )
(
7 2 7 1 2
∫
7x ln x d x = x ln x − x +C
2

7 2 7 2
∫
7x ln x d x = x ln x − x + C
2 4

You could leave the answer this way, or factor it as

2 ( 2)
7 2 1
∫
7x ln x d x = x ln x − +C

4. Use integration by parts to evaluate the integral.

141
 ∫
2x cos x d x

Solution:

Pick

u = 2x differentiating du = 2 d x

dv = cos x d x integrating v = sin x

Plug into the integration by parts formula.

∫ ∫
2x cos x d x = (2x)(sin x) − (sin x)(2 d x)

∫ ∫
2x cos x d x = 2x sin x − 2 sin x d x

∫
2x cos x d x = 2x sin x − 2(−cos x) + C

∫
2x cos x d x = 2x sin x + 2 cos x + C

5. Use integration by parts to evaluate the integral.

∫
3 x ln x d x

142
Solution:

Pick

1
u = ln x differentiating du = dx
x

(3 )
2 3 3
dv = 3 x d x integrating v=3 x 2 = 2x 2

Plug into the integration by parts formula.

(x )
1
∫ ∫
3 3
3 x ln x d x = (ln x)(2x 2 ) − (2x 2 ) dx

3
x2
∫ ∫ x
3
3 x ln x d x = 2x ln x − 2
2 dx

∫ ∫
3 1
3 x ln x d x = 2x 2 ln x − 2 x 2 d x

( 3 )
2 3
∫
3
3 x ln x d x = 2x ln x − 2
2 x2 + C

4 3
∫
3
3 x ln x d x = 2x 2 ln x − x2 + C
3

You could leave the answer this way, or factor it as

( )
2
∫
3
3 x ln x d x = 2x 2 ln x − +C
3

143
INTEGRATION BY PARTS TWO TIMES

1. Apply integration by parts two times to evaluate the integral.

∫
3x 2e x d x

Solution:

Pick

u = 3x 2 differentiating du = 6x d x

dv = e x d x integrating v = ex

Plug into the integration by parts formula.

∫ ∫
3x 2e x d x = (3x 2)(e x) − (e x)(6x d x)

∫ ∫
3x 2e x d x = 3x 2e x − 6 xe x d x

Apply integration by parts again to replace the integral on the right side.
Pick

u=x differentiating du = 1 d x

dv = e x d x integrating v = ex

Plug into the integration by parts formula.

144
 ∫ ∫
xe x d x = (x)(e x) − (e x)(1 d x)

∫ ∫
xe x d x = xe x − e x d x

The integral on the right is now simple enough to evaluate directly.

∫
xe x d x = xe x − e x + C

Take the right side of this equation, and plug it into the equation from
earlier.

∫ ∫
3x 2e x d x = 3x 2e x − 6 xe x d x

∫
3x 2e x d x = 3x 2e x − 6 (xe x − e x + C)

∫
3x 2e x d x = 3x 2e x − 6xe x + 6e x − 6C

If C is a constant, then −6C is also a constant, so we can simplify.

∫
3x 2e x d x = 3x 2e x − 6xe x + 6e x + C

You could leave the answer this way, or factor it as

∫
3x 2e x d x = 3e x(x 2 − 2x + 2) + C

145
 2. Use integration by parts to evaluate the integral.

∫
e 3x cos(5x) d x

Solution:

First, break down the given integral into suitable expressions for u and dv
as follows:

u = cos(5x)

dv = e 3x d x

Differentiating u and integrating dv, we get

du = − 5 sin(5x) d x

1
∫
v = e 3x d x = e 3x
3

Plug the values into the formula for integration by parts.

∫ ∫
u dv = uv − v du

1 3x 1 3x
∫ ∫
e 3x cos(5x) d x = e cos(5x) − e [−5 sin(5x)] d x
3 3

1 3x 5 3x
∫ ∫
e 3x cos(5x) d x = e cos(5x) + e sin(5x) d x
3 3

146
Notice that the resulting integral on the right side of the equal sign is still
not readily integrable. We again use integration by parts and define a new
set of u and dv.

u = sin(5x)

dv = e 3x d x

and

du = 5 cos(5x) d x

1 3x
∫
3x
v= e dx = e
3

Replacing the integral on the right with the integration by parts formula
and the new values we found, we get

[ ]
1 3x 5
∫ ∫
e 3x cos(5x) d x = e cos(5x) + uv − v du
3 3

3[ (3 ) ∫ 3 ]
1 3x 5 1 3x 1 3x
∫
3x
e cos(5x) d x = e cos(5x) + (sin(5x)) e − e (5 cos(5x) d x)
3

[ ]
1 3x 5 1 3x 5 3x
∫ ∫
e 3x cos(5x) d x = e cos(5x) + e sin(5x) − e cos(5x) d x
3 3 3 3

1 3x 5 25 3x
∫ ∫
e 3x cos(5x) d x = e cos(5x) + e 3x sin(5x) − e cos(5x) d x
3 9 9

Notice that the resulting integral on the right side of the equal sign is
exactly the same as the given integral. So we can use a little algebra and
move it to the left-hand side to combine it with the given integral.

147
 25 3x 1 5
∫ 9 ∫
e 3x cos(5x) d x + e cos(5x) d x = e 3x cos(5x) + e 3x sin(5x) + C
3 9

9 3x 25 3x 1 3x 5 3x
9∫ 9 ∫
e cos(5x) d x + e cos(5x) d x = e cos(5x) + e sin(5x) + C
3 9

34 3x 1 3x 5 3x
9 ∫
e cos(5x) d x = e cos(5x) + e sin(5x) + C
3 9

Now multiply both sides by 9/34 to solve for the given integral, keeping in
mind that the 9/34 gets absorbed into the constant C.

34 [ 3 ]
9 1 3x 5
∫
e 3x cos(5x) d x = e cos(5x) + e 3x sin(5x) + C
9

3 3x 5
∫
e 3x cos(5x) d x = e cos(5x) + e 3x sin(5x) + C
34 34

1 3x
∫
e 3x cos(5x) d x = e [3 cos(5x) + 5 sin(5x)] + C
34

148
INTEGRATION BY PARTS THREE TIMES

1. Apply integration by parts three times to evaluate the integral.

∫
7x 3e x d x

Solution:

Pick

u = 7x 3 differentiating du = 21x 2 d x

dv = e x d x integrating v = ex

Plug into the integration by parts formula.

∫ ∫
7x 3e x d x = (7x 3)(e x) − (e x)(21x 2 d x)

∫ ∫
7x 3e x d x = 7x 3e x − 21 x 2e x d x

Apply integration by parts again to replace the integral on the right side.
Pick

u = x2 differentiating du = 2x d x

dv = e x d x integrating v = ex

Plug into the integration by parts formula.

149
 ∫ ∫
x 2e x d x = (x 2)(e x) − (e x)(2x d x)

∫ ∫
x 2e x d x = x 2e x − 2 xe x d x

Apply integration by parts again to replace the integral on the right side.
Pick

u=x differentiating du = 1 d x

dv = e x d x integrating v = ex

Plug into the integration by parts formula.

∫ ∫
xe x d x = (x)(e x) − (e x)(1 d x)

∫ ∫
xe x d x = xe x − e x d x

The integral on the right is now simple enough to evaluate directly.

∫
xe x d x = xe x − e x + C

Take the right side of this equation, and plug it into the equation from
earlier.

∫ ∫
x 2e x d x = x 2e x − 2 xe x d x

∫
x 2e x d x = x 2e x − 2 (xe x − e x + C)

150
 ∫
x 2e x d x = x 2e x − 2xe x + 2e x − 2C

If C is a constant, then −2C is also a constant, so we can simplify.

∫
x 2e x d x = x 2e x − 2xe x + 2e x + C

Take the right side of this equation, and plug it into the equation from
earlier.

∫ ∫
7x 3e x d x = 7x 3e x − 21 x 2e x d x

∫
7x 3e x d x = 7x 3e x − 21 (x 2e x − 2xe x + 2e x + C)

∫
7x 3e x d x = 7x 3e x − 21x 2e x + 42xe x − 42e x − 21C

If C is a constant, then −21C is also a constant, so we can simplify.

∫
7x 3e x d x = 7x 3e x − 21x 2e x + 42xe x − 42e x + C

You could leave the answer this way, or factor it as

∫
7x 3e x d x = 7e x (x 3 − 3x 2 + 6x − 6) + C

2. Apply integration by parts three times to evaluate the integral.

151
 ∫ ( 2x 3 + x 2) e x d x

Solution:

Pick

u = 2x 3 + x 2 differentiating du = 6x 2 + 2x d x

dv = e x d x integrating v = ex

Plug into the integration by parts formula.

∫ ( ∫
2x 3 + x 2) e x d x = (2x 3 + x 2)(e x) − (e x)(6x 2 + 2x d x)

∫ ( ∫
2x 3 + x 2) e x d x = 2x 3e x + x 2e x − (6x 2 + 2x)(e x) d x

∫ ( ∫
2x 3 + x 2) e x d x = 2x 3e x + x 2e x − 2 (3x 2 + x)(e x) d x

Apply integration by parts again to replace the integral on the right side.
Pick

u = 3x 2 + x differentiating du = 6x + 1 d x

dv = e x d x integrating v = ex

Plug into the integration by parts formula.

∫ ∫
(3x 2 + x)(e x) d x = (3x 2 + x)(e x) − (e x)(6x + 1 d x)

152
 ∫ ∫
(3x 2 + x)(e x) d x = 3x 2e x + xe x − (6x + 1)(e x) d x

Apply integration by parts again to replace the integral on the right side.
Pick

u = 6x + 1 differentiating du = 6 d x

dv = e x d x integrating v = ex

Plug into the integration by parts formula.

∫ ∫
(6x + 1)(e x) d x = (6x + 1)(e x) − (e x)(6 d x)

∫ ∫
(6x + 1)(e x) d x = 6xe x + e x − 6 e x d x

The integral on the right is now simple enough to evaluate directly.

∫
(6x + 1)(e x) d x = 6xe x + e x − 6e x + C

Take the right side of this equation, and plug it into the equation from
earlier.

∫ ∫
(3x 2 + x)(e x) d x = 3x 2e x + xe x − (6x + 1)(e x) d x

∫
(3x 2 + x)(e x) d x = 3x 2e x + xe x − (6xe x + e x − 6e x + C)

∫
(3x 2 + x)(e x) d x = 3x 2e x + xe x − 6xe x − e x + 6e x − C

153
 ∫
(3x 2 + x)(e x) d x = 3x 2e x − 5xe x + 5e x − C

If C is a constant, then −C is also a constant, so we can simplify.

∫
(3x 2 + x)(e x) d x = 3x 2e x − 5xe x + 5e x + C

Take the right side of this equation, and plug it into the equation from
earlier.

∫ ( ∫
2x 3 + x 2) e x d x = 2x 3e x + x 2e x − 2 (3x 2 + x)(e x) d x

∫ ( 2x 3 + x 2) e x d x = 2x 3e x + x 2e x − 2 (3x 2e x − 5xe x + 5e x + C)

∫ ( 2x 3 + x 2) e x d x = 2x 3e x + x 2e x − 6x 2e x + 10xe x − 10e x − 2C

∫ ( 2x 3 + x 2) e x d x = 2x 3e x − 5x 2e x + 10xe x − 10e x − 2C

If C is a constant, then −2C is also a constant, so we can simplify.

∫ ( 2x 3 + x 2) e x d x = 2x 3e x − 5x 2e x + 10xe x − 10e x + C

You could leave the answer this way, or factor it as

∫ ( 2x 3 + x 2) e x d x = e x (2x 3 − 5x 2 + 10x − 10) + C

154
 3. Use integration by parts three times to evaluate the integral.

∫
(ln x)3 d x

Solution:

Pick

(x)
1
u = (ln x)3 differentiating du = 3(ln x)2 dx

dv = d x integrating v=x

Plug into the integration by parts formula.

∫ ( (x) )
1
∫
(ln x)3 d x = ((ln x)3)(x) − (x) 3(ln x)2 dx

∫ ∫
(ln x)3 d x = x(ln x)3 − 3 (ln x)2 d x

Apply integration by parts again to replace the integral on the right side.
Pick

(x)
1
u = (ln x)2 differentiating du = 2(ln x) dx

dv = d x integrating v=x

Plug into the integration by parts formula.

155
 ∫ ( (x) )
1
∫
(ln x)2 d x = ((ln x)2)(x) − (x) 2(ln x) dx

∫ ∫
(ln x)2 d x = x(ln x)2 − 2 ln x d x

Apply integration by parts again to replace the integral on the right side.
Pick

1
u = ln x differentiating du = dx
x

dv = d x integrating v=x

Plug into the integration by parts formula.

∫ (x )
1
∫
ln x d x = (ln x)(x) − (x) dx

∫ ∫
ln x d x = x ln x − dx

The integral on the right is now simple enough to evaluate directly.

∫
ln x d x = x ln x − x + C

Take the right side of this equation, and plug it into the equation from
earlier.

∫ ∫
(ln x)2 d x = x(ln x)2 − 2 ln x d x

156
 ∫
(ln x)2 d x = x(ln x)2 − 2 (x ln x − x + C)

∫
(ln x)2 d x = x(ln x)2 − 2x ln x + 2x − 2C

If C is a constant, then −2C is also a constant, so we can simplify.

∫
(ln x)2 d x = x(ln x)2 − 2x ln x + 2x + C

Take the right side of this equation, and plug it into the equation from
earlier.

∫ ∫
(ln x)3 d x = x(ln x)3 − 3 (ln x)2 d x

∫
(ln x)3 d x = x(ln x)3 − 3 (x(ln x)2 − 2x ln x + 2x + C)

∫
(ln x)3 d x = x(ln x)3 − 3x(ln x)2 + 6x ln x − 6x − 3C

If C is a constant, then −3C is also a constant, so we can simplify.

∫
(ln x)3 d x = x(ln x)3 − 3x(ln x)2 + 6x ln x − 6x + C

You could leave the answer this way, or factor it as

∫
(ln x)3 d x = x [(ln x)3 − 3(ln x)2 + 6 ln x − 6] + C

157
INTEGRATION BY PARTS WITH U-SUBSTITUTION

1. Use integration by parts and substitution to evaluate the integral.

∫
tan−1 x d x

Solution:

Use integration by parts first. Pick

−1 1
u = tan x differentiating du = 2 dx
x +1

dv = d x integrating v=x

Plug into the integration by parts formula.

∫ (x + 1 )
1
∫
tan−1 x d x = (tan−1 x)(x) − (x) 2 dx

x
∫ ∫ x2 + 1
tan−1 x d x = x tan−1 x − dx

Use substitution to evaluate the integral that remains. Let

k = x2 + 1

dk
dk = 2x d x so d x =
2x

158
Substitute into the integral on the right.

x
∫ ∫ x2 + 1
tan−1 x d x = x tan−1 x − dx

∫ k ( 2x )
x dk
∫
tan−1 x d x = x tan−1 x −

1 1
∫ ∫
tan−1 x d x = x tan−1 x − dk
2 k

Integrate, then back-substitute.

1
∫
tan−1 x d x = x tan−1 x − ln | k | + C
2

1
∫
−1 −1
tan x d x = x tan x − ln | x 2 + 1 | + C
2

1
∫
tan−1 x d x = x tan−1 x − ln(x 2 + 1) + C
2

2. Use integration by parts and substitution to evaluate the integral.

∫
7x cos(9x) d x

Solution:

Use integration by parts first. Pick

159
 u = 7x differentiating du = 7 d x

1
dv = cos(9x) d x integrating v= sin(9x)
9

Plug into the integration by parts formula.

(9 ) ∫(9 )
1 1
∫
7x cos(9x) d x = (7x) sin(9x) − sin(9x) (7 d x)

7 7
∫ 9∫
7x cos(9x) d x = x sin(9x) − sin(9x) d x
9

Use substitution to evaluate the integral that remains. Let

k = 9x

dk
dk = 9 d x so d x =
9

Substitute into the integral on the right.

(9)
7 7 dk
∫ 9∫
7x cos(9x) d x = x sin(9x) − sin k
9

7 7
∫ ∫
7x cos(9x) d x = x sin(9x) − sin k dk
9 81

Integrate, then back-substitute.

7 7
∫
7x cos(9x) d x = x sin(9x) − (−cos k) + C
9 81

7 7
∫
7x cos(9x) d x = x sin(9x) + cos k + C
9 81

160
 7 7
∫
7x cos(9x) d x = x sin(9x) + cos(9x) + C
9 81

3. Use integration by parts and substitution to evaluate the integral.

∫
ln(3x + 5) d x

Solution:

Use substitution first. Let

k = 3x + 5

dk
dk = 3 d x so d x =
3

Substitute into the integral.

∫
ln(3x + 5) d x

(3)
dk
∫
ln k

1
3∫
ln k dk

Now use integration by parts. Pick

161
 1
u = ln k differentiating du = dk
k

dv = dk integrating v=k

Plug into the integration by parts formula.

∫ (k )
1
∫
ln k dk = (ln k)(k) − (k) dk

∫ ∫
ln k dk = k ln k − dk

Integrate.

∫
ln k dk = k ln k − k + C

Plug the value from the right side of this equation into the equation from
earlier.

1
∫
ln k dk
3

1
(k ln k − k + C)
3

Now back substitute.

1
((3x + 5)ln(3x + 5) − (3x + 5) + C)
3

1 1
[(3x + 5)ln(3x + 5) − (3x + 5)] + C
3 3

162
If C is a constant, then (1/3)C is also a constant, so we can simplify.

1
[(3x + 5)ln(3x + 5) − (3x + 5)] + C
3

163
PROVE THE REDUCTION FORMULA

1. Use integration by parts, and n = 8, to prove the reduction formula for

the integral.

∫ ∫
x n sin x d x = − x n cos x + n x n−1 cos x d x

Solution:

If n = 8, then

∫ ∫
x n sin x d x = x 8 sin x d x

If we’re going to apply integration by parts to the integral on the right side
of the equation, then pick

u = x8 differentiating du = 8x 7 d x

dv = sin x d x integrating v = − cos x

Plugging these values into the integration by parts formula gives

∫ ∫
x 8 sin x d x = (x 8)(−cos x) − (−cos x)(8x 7 d x)

∫ ∫
x 8 sin x d x = − x 8 cos x + 8 x 7 cos x d x

164
 ∫ ∫
x 8 sin x d x = − x 8 cos x + 8 x 8−1 cos x d x

The format of this equation now matches the format of the reduction
formula.

2. Use integration by parts, and n = 11, to prove the reduction formula

for the integral.

∫ ∫
x n cos x d x = x n sin x − n x n−1 sin x d x

Solution:

If n = 11, then

∫ ∫
x n cos x d x = x 11 cos x d x

If we’re going to apply integration by parts to the integral on the right side
of the equation, then pick

u = x 11 differentiating du = 11x 10 d x

dv = cos x d x integrating v = sin x

Plugging these values into the integration by parts formula gives

∫ ∫
x 11 cos x d x = (x 11)(sin x) − (sin x)(11x 10 d x)

165
 ∫ ∫
x 11 cos x d x = x 11 sin x − 11 x 10 sin x d x

∫ ∫
x 11 cos x d x = x 11 sin x − 11 x 11−1 sin x d x

The format of this equation now matches the format of the reduction
formula.

3. Use integration by parts, a = 5, and n = 9, to prove the reduction

formula for the integral.
n x
x a n
∫ ln a ∫
x na x d x = − x n−1a x d x
ln a

Solution:

If a = 5, and n = 9, then

∫ ∫
x na x d x = x 95x d x

If we’re going to apply integration by parts to the integral on the right side
of the equation, then pick

u = x9 differentiating du = 9x 8 d x

x 5x
dv = 5 d x integrating v=
ln 5

166
Plugging these values into the integration by parts formula gives

( ln 5 ) ∫ ( ln 5 )
x x
5 5
∫
x 95x d x = (x 9) − (9x 8 d x)

9 x
x 5 9
∫ ln 5 ln 5 ∫
9 x
x 5 dx = − x 85x d x

x 95x 9
∫ ln 5 ln 5 ∫
9 x
x 5 dx = − x 9−15x d x

The format of this equation now matches the format of the reduction
formula.

167
TABULAR INTEGRATION

1. Use tabular integration to evaluate the integral.

∫ ( 5x 2 + 4x − 3) e 2x d x

Solution:

Let f (x) = 5x 2 + 4x − 3 and g(x) = e 2x.

Derivatives of f (x) Antiderivatives of g(x)

5x 2 + 4x − 3 e 2x

1 2x
10x + 4 e
2

1 2x
10 e
4

1 2x
0 e
8

Evaluate the integral by multiplying the entry in the first line, first column,
by the entry in the second line, second column, beginning with a positive
product. Then continue to pattern going down the table using opposite
signs. The value of the integral will be

168
 ( 2 ) ( 4 ) ( 8 )
2 e 2x e 2x e 2x
(5x + 4x − 3) − (10x + 4) + 10 +C

Factor.

2 [ ( ) ( )
4 ]
e 2x 1 1
(5x 2 + 4x − 3) − (10x + 4) + 10 +C
2

( )
e 2x 5
5x 2 + 4x − 3 − 5x − 2 + +C
2 2

( )
e 2x 5
5x 2 − x − +C
2 2

2. Use tabular integration to evaluate the integral.

∫
x 3 cos(3x) d x

Solution:

Let f (x) = x 3 and g(x) = cos x.

Derivatives of f (x) Antiderivatives of g(x)

x3 cos(3x)

2 1
3x sin(3x)
3

169
 1
6x − cos(3x)
9

1
6 − sin(3x)
27

1
0 cos(3x)
81

Evaluate the integral by multiplying the entry in the first line, first column,
by the entry in the second line, second column, beginning with a positive
product. Then continue to pattern going down the table using opposite
signs. The value of the integral will be

x 3 sin 3x 3x 2 cos 3x 6x sin 3x 6 cos 3x

+ − − +C
3 9 27 81

x 3 sin 3x x 2 cos 3x 2x sin 3x 2 cos 3x

+ − − +C
3 3 9 27

3. Use tabular integration to evaluate the integral.

x 4e x
∫ 6
dx

Solution:

Let f (x) = x 4 and g(x) = e x /6.

Derivatives of f (x) Antiderivatives of g(x)

170
 1 x
x4 e
6

1 x
4x 3 e
6

1 x
12x 2 e
6

1 x
24x e
6

1 x
24 e
6

1 x
0 e
6

Evaluate the integral by multiplying the entry in the first line, first column,
by the entry in the second line, second column, beginning with a positive
product. Then continue to pattern going down the table using opposite
signs. The value of the integral will be

4 ex 3 e
x
2 e
x
ex ex
x ⋅ − 4x ⋅ + 12x ⋅ − 24x ⋅ + 24 ⋅ +C
6 6 6 6 6

ex 4
(x − 4x + 12x − 24x + 24) + C
3 2
6

171
DISTINCT LINEAR FACTORS

1. Use partial fractions to evaluate the integral.

4x + 5
∫ x 2 + 5x + 6
dx

Solution:

Factor the denominator, then do the partial fractions decomposition.

4x + 5 A B
= +
(x + 2) (x + 3) x + 2 x + 3

4x + 5 = A(x + 3) + B(x + 2)

4x + 5 = Ax + 3A + Bx + 2B

4x + 5 = (A + B)x + (3A + 2B)

Then the system of equations is

A+B =4

3A + 2B = 5

Solve A + B = 4 for A.

A=4−B

Substitute A = 4 − B into 3A + 2B = 5.

172
 3(4 − B) + 2B = 5

12 − 3B + 2B = 5

12 − B = 5

12 = 5 + B

7=B

Then plugging this back into A = 4 − B gives

A=4−7

A=−3

Then the integral becomes

4x + 5
∫ x 2 + 5x + 6
dx

3 7
∫ x+2 x+3
− + dx

−3 ln | x + 2 | + 7 ln | x + 3 | + C

173
DISTINCT QUADRATIC FACTORS

1. Use partial fractions to evaluate the integral.

3x + 6
∫ (x 2 + 2)(x 2 + 1)
dx

Solution:

Factor the denominator, then do the partial fractions decomposition.

3x + 6 Ax + B Cx + D
= + 2
(x 2 + 2)(x 2 + 1) x2 + 2 x +1

3x + 6 = (Ax + B)(x 2 + 1) + (Cx + D)(x 2 + 2)

3x + 6 = Ax 3 + Ax + Bx 2 + B + Cx 3 + 2Cx + Dx 2 + 2D

3x + 6 = (A + C)x 3 + (B + D)x 2 + (A + 2C)x + (B + 2D)

Then the system of equations is

A+C =0

B+D =0

A + 2C = 3

B + 2D = 6

Solve the system

174
 A+C =0

A + 2C = 3

Solve A + C = 0 for A to get A = − C. Plug this into A + 2C = 3 to get

−C + 2C = 3

C=3

Then A = − 3. Now solve the system

B+D =0

B + 2D = 6

Solve B + D = 0 for B to get B = − D. Plug this into B + 2D = 6 to get

−D + 2D = 6

D=6

Then B = − 6. Then the integral becomes

3x + 6
∫ (x 2 + 2)(x 2 + 1)
dx

−3x − 6 3x + 6
∫ x2 + 2
+ 2 dx
x +1

3x 6 3x 6
∫
− − + + dx
x +2 x +2 x +1 x +1
2 2 2 2

3x 6 3x 6
∫ x2 + 2 ∫ x2 + 2 ∫ x2 + 1 ∫ x2 + 1
− d x − d x + d x + dx

175
Use u-substitution.

u = x2 + 2

du du
= 2x, so du = 2x d x, so d x =
dx 2x

and

u = x2 + 1

du du
= 2x, so du = 2x d x, so d x =
dx 2x

Substituting into the integral gives

∫ u ( 2x ) ∫ x 2 + 2 ∫ u ( 2x ) ∫ x 2 + 1
3x du 6 3x du 6
− − d x + + dx

3 1 6 3 1 6
∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
− du − d x + du + dx
2 u x +2
2 2 u x +1
2

3 6 3 6
∫ ∫
− ln u − d x + ln u + dx
2 x +2
2 2 x +1
2

3 6 3 6
∫ x2 + 2 ∫ x2 + 1
2 2
− ln(x + 2) − d x + ln(x + 1) + dx
2 2

Rewrite the integral.

3 3 3 6
∫ ∫
− ln(x 2 + 2) − dx + ln(x 2 + 1) + dx
2 x2
+1 2 x +1
2
2

176
 3 1 3 6
∫ ∫
− ln(x 2 + 2) − 3 dx + ln(x 2 + 1) + dx
2 x2
+1 2 x +1
2
2

3 1 3 1
∫ ∫
− ln(x 2 + 2) − 3 dx + ln(x 2 + 1) + 6 2 dx

( 2)
2 x
2 2 x +1
+1

Use inverse tangent rules to integrate.

3 x 3
− ln(x 2 + 2) − 3 2 arctan + ln(x 2 + 1) + 6 arctan x + C
2 2 2

177
REPEATED LINEAR FACTORS

1. Use partial fractions to evaluate the integral.

5x − 3
∫ (x + 2)2
dx

Solution:

Factor the denominator, then do the partial fractions decomposition.

5x − 3 A B
= +
(x + 2)(x + 2) (x + 2)2 x + 2

5x − 3 = A + B(x + 2)

5x − 3 = A + Bx + 2B

5x − 3 = (B)x + (A + 2B)

Then the system of equations is

B=5

−3 = A + 2B

Substitute B = 5 into −3 = A + 2B.

−3 = A + 2(5)

−3 = A + 10

178
 −13 = A

Then the integral becomes

5x − 3
∫ (x + 2)(x + 2)
dx

−13 5
∫ (x + 2)2 x + 2
+ dx

1 1
∫ (x + 2)2 ∫ x+2
−13 d x + 5 dx

1
∫ ∫ x+2
−13 (x + 2)−2 d x + 5 dx

Integrate.

13(x + 2)−1 + 5 ln | x + 2 | + C

13
+ 5 ln | x + 2 | + C
x+2

2. Use partial fractions to evaluate the integral.

x + 12
∫ (3x − 2)2
dx

Solution:

Factor the denominator, then do the partial fractions decomposition.

179
 x + 12 A B
= +
(3x − 2)(3x − 2) (3x − 2)2 3x − 2

x + 12 = A + B(3x − 2)

x + 12 = A + 3Bx − 2B

x + 12 = (3B)x + (A − 2B)

Then the system of equations is

3B = 1

A − 2B = 12

Then B = 1/3, and

1
A − 2 ⋅ = 12
3

2
A − = 12
3

36 2
A= +
3 3

38
A=
3

Then the integral becomes

x + 12
∫ (3x − 2)(3x − 2)
dx

180
 38 1

∫ (3x − 2)2
3 3
+ dx
3x − 2

38 1 1 1
3 ∫ (3x − 2)2 3 ∫ 3x − 2
dx + dx

38 1 1
3 ∫ 3 ∫ 3x − 2
−2
(3x − 2) d x + dx

Integrate.

38 1
− (3x − 2)−1 + ln | 3x − 2 | + C
9 9

38 1
− + ln | 3x − 2 | + C
9(3x − 2) 9

3. Use partial fractions to evaluate the integral.

7x − 4
∫ (5x + 1)2
dx

Solution:

Factor the denominator, then do the partial fractions decomposition.

7x − 4 A B
= +
(5x + 1)(5x + 1) (5x + 1)2 5x + 1

7x − 4 = A + B(5x + 1)

181
 7x − 4 = A + 5Bx + B

7x − 4 = (5B)x + (A + B)

Then the system of equations is

5B = 7

A+B =−4

Then B = 7/5, and we can substitute B = 7/5 into A + B = − 4

7
A+ =−4
5

20 7
A=− −
5 5

27
A=−
5

Then the integral becomes

7x − 4
∫ (5x + 1)(5x + 1)
dx

− 27 7

∫ (5x + 1)2
5 5
+ dx
5x + 1

27 1 7 1
∫ ∫
− d x + dx
5 (5x + 1) 2 5 5x + 1

27 7 1
∫ ∫
− (5x + 1)−2 d x + dx
5 5 5x + 1

182
Integrate.

27 7
(5x + 1)−1 + ln | 5x + 1 | + C
25 25

27 7
+ ln | 5x + 1 | + C
25(5x + 1) 25

4. Use partial fractions to evaluate the integral.

12x + 9
∫ (2x + 7)2
dx

Solution:

Factor the denominator, then do the partial fractions decomposition.

12x + 9 A B
= +
(2x + 7)(2x + 7) (2x + 7)2 2x + 7

12x + 9 = A + B(2x + 7)

12x + 9 = A + 2Bx + 7B

12x + 9 = (2B)x + (A + 7B)

Then the system of equations is

2B = 12

A + 7B = 9

183
Then B = 6, and we can substitute B = 6 into A + 7B = 9.

A + 7(6) = 9

A + 42 = 9

A = − 33

Then the integral becomes

12x + 9
∫ (2x + 7)(2x + 7)
dx

−33 6
∫ (2x + 7)2 2x + 7
+ dx

1 1
∫ (2x + 7)2 ∫ 2x + 7
−33 d x + 6 dx

1
∫ ∫ 2x + 7
−2
−33 (2x + 7) dx + 6 dx

Integrate.

33
(2x + 7)−1 + 3 ln | 2x + 7 | + C
2

33
+ 3 ln | 2x + 7 | + C
2(2x + 7)

5. Use partial fractions to evaluate the integral.

184
 24x + 41
∫ (3x + 4)2
dx

Solution:

Factor the denominator, then do the partial fractions decomposition.

24x + 41 A B
= +
(3x + 4)(3x + 4) (3x + 4)2 3x + 4

24x + 41 = A + B(3x + 4)

24x + 41 = A + 3Bx + 4B

24x + 41 = (3B)x + (A + 4B)

Then the system of equations is

3B = 24

A + 4B = 41

Then B = 8 and we can substitute B = 8 into A + 4B = 41.

A + 4(8) = 41

A + 32 = 41

A=9

Then the integral becomes

185
 24x + 41
∫ (3x + 4)(3x + 4)
dx

9 8
∫ (3x + 4)2 3x + 4
+ dx

1
∫ ∫ 3x + 4
9 (3x + 4)−2 d x + 8 dx

Integrate.

−1 8
−3(3x + 4) + ln | 3x + 4 | + C
3

3 8
− + ln | 3x + 4 | + C
3x + 4 3

186
REPEATED QUADRATIC FACTORS

1. Rewrite the integral using partial fractions, but do not evaluate it.

x 2 − 3x + 2
∫ (x 2 + 2)2
dx

Solution:

Factor the denominator, then do the partial fractions decomposition.

x 2 − 3x + 2 Ax + B Cx + D
= +
(x 2 + 2)(x 2 + 2) (x 2 + 2)2 x2 + 2

x 2 − 3x + 2 = Ax + B + (Cx + D)(x 2 + 2)

x 2 − 3x + 2 = Ax + B + Cx 3 + 2Cx + Dx 2 + 2D

x 2 − 3x + 2 = (C)x 3 + (D)x 2 + (A + 2C)x + (B + 2D)

Then the system of equations is

C=0

D=1

A + 2C = − 3

B + 2D = 2

187
Substituting C = 0 into A + 2C = − 3 gives

A + 2(0) = − 3

A=−3

Substituting D = 1 into B + 2D = 2 gives

B + 2(1) = 2

B+2=2

B=0

Then the integral becomes

x 2 − 3x + 2
∫ (x 2 + 2)(x 2 + 2)
dx

Ax + B Cx + D
∫ (x 2 + 2)2
+ 2 dx
x +2

−3x + 0 0x + 1
∫ (x 2 + 2)2 x 2 + 2
+ dx

x 1
∫ (x 2 + 2)2 ∫ x2 + 2
−3 dx + dx

2. Rewrite the integral using partial fractions, but do not evaluate it.

x 2 − 4x + 6
∫ (x 2 + 3)2
dx

188
Solution:

Factor the denominator, then do the partial fractions decomposition.

x 2 − 4x + 6 Ax + B Cx + D
= + 2
(x 2 + 3)(x 2 + 3) (x 2 + 3)2 x +3

x 2 − 4x + 6 = Ax + B + (Cx + D)(x 2 + 3)

x 2 − 4x + 6 = Ax + B + Cx 3 + 3Cx + Dx 2 + 3D

x 2 − 4x + 6 = (C)x 3 + (D)x 2 + (A + 3C)x + (B + 3D)

Then the system of equations is

C=0

D=1

A + 3C = − 4

B + 3D = 6

Substituting C = 0 into A + 3C = − 4 gives

A + 3(0) = − 4

A=−4

Substituting D = 1 into B + 3D = 6 gives

B + 3(1) = 6

189
 B+3=6

B=3

Then the integral becomes

x 2 − 4x + 6
∫ (x 2 + 3)(x 2 + 3)
dx

−4x + 3 0x + 1
∫ (x 2 + 3)2 x 2 + 3
+ dx

x 1 1
∫ (x 2 + 3)2 ∫ (x 2 + 3)2 ∫ x2 + 3
−4 dx + 3 dx + dx

3. Rewrite the integral using partial fractions, but do not evaluate it.

4x 3 − 2x 2 + x + 1
∫
dx
(2x + 1)
2 2

Solution:

Factor the denominator, then do the partial fractions decomposition.

4x 3 − 2x 2 + x + 1 Ax + B Cx + D
= +
(2x 2 + 1)(2x 2 + 1) (2x 2 + 1)2 2x 2 + 1

4x 3 − 2x 2 + x + 1 = Ax + B + (Cx + D)(2x 2 + 1)

4x 3 − 2x 2 + x + 1 = Ax + B + 2Cx 3 + Cx + 2Dx 2 + D

190
 4x 3 − 2x 2 + x + 1 = (2C)x 3 + (2D)x 2 + (A + C)x + (B + D)

Then the system of equations is

2C = 4

2D = − 2

A+C =1

B+D =1

Then C = 2 and D = − 1. Substitute C = 2 into A + C = 1.

A+2=1

A=−1

Substitute D = − 1 into B + D = 1.

B−1=1

B=2

Then the integral becomes

4x 3 − 2x 2 + x + 1
∫ (2x 2 + 1)(2x 2 + 1)
dx

−1x + 2 2x − 1
∫ (2x 2 + 1)2 2x 2 + 1
+ dx

x 1 x 1
∫ (2x 2 + 1)2 ∫ (2x 2 + 1)2 ∫ 2x 2 + 1 ∫ 2x 2 + 1
− d x + 2 d x + 2 d x − dx

191
 4. Rewrite the integral using partial fractions, but do not evaluate it.

x 3 − 2x 2 + 3x + 5
∫
dx
(x 2 + 1)3

Solution:

Factor the denominator, then do the partial fractions decomposition.

x 3 − 2x 2 + 3x + 5 Ax + B Cx + D Ex + F
= + + 2
(x 2 + 1)(x 2 + 1)(x 2 + 1) (x 2 + 1)3 (x 2 + 1)2 x +1

x 3 − 2x 2 + 3x + 5 = Ax + B + (Cx + D)(x 2 + 1) + (Ex + F )(x 2 + 1)2

x 3 − 2x 2 + 3x + 5 = Ax + B + Cx 3 + Cx + Dx 2 + D + (Ex + F )(x 4 + 2x 2 + 1)

x 3 − 2x 2 + 3x + 5 = Ax + B + Cx 3 + Cx + Dx 2 + D

+Ex 5 + 2Ex 3 + Ex + Fx 4 + 2Fx 2 + F

x 3 − 2x 2 + 3x + 5 = (E)x 5 + (F )x 4 + (C + 2E)x 3 + (D + 2F )x 2

+(A + C + E)x + (B + D + F )

Then the system of equations is

E=0

F=0

192
 C + 2E = 1

D + 2F = − 2

A+C+E =3

B+D+F =5

Substitute E = 0 into C + 2E = 1.

C + 2(0) = 1

C=1

Substitute F = 0 into D + 2F = − 2.

D + 2(0) = − 2

D =−2

Substitute C = 1 and E = 0 into A + C + E = 3.

A+1+0=3

A=2

Substitute D = − 2 and F = 0 into B + D + F = 5.

B−2+0=5

B=7

Then the integral becomes

193
 x 3 − 2x 2 + 3x + 5
∫ (x 2 + 1)(x 2 + 1)(x 2 + 1)
dx

2x + 7 1x − 2 0x + 0
∫ (x 2 + 1)3 (x 2 + 1)2 x 2 + 1
+ + dx

2x + 7 x−2
∫ (x 2 + 1)3 ∫ (x 2 + 1)2
dx + dx

x 1 x 1
∫ (x 2 + 1)3 ∫ (x 2 + 1)3 ∫ (x 2 + 1)2 ∫ (x 2 + 1)2
2 dx + 7 dx + dx − 2 dx

194
RATIONALIZING SUBSTITUTIONS

1. Use a rationalizing substitution to rewrite the integral in terms of u, but

don’t integrate it.

x + 16
∫
dx
x

Solution:

Set up the rationalizing substitution.

u= x + 16, so u 2 = x + 16, so x = u 2 − 16

1
du = d x, so d x = 2 x + 16 du
2 x + 16

Substitute into the integral.

u
∫x
⋅ 2 x + 16 du

u
∫ u 2 − 16
2 ⋅ u du

u2
∫ u − 16
2 2 du

195
 2. Use a rationalizing substitution to rewrite the integral in terms of u, but
don’t integrate it.

3x + 5
∫
dx
x

Solution:

Set up the rationalizing substitution.

u= 3x + 5, so u 2 = 3x + 5, so 3x = u 2 − 5 and x = (u 2 − 5)/3

3 2
du = d x, so d x = 3x + 5 du
2 3x + 5 3

Substitute into the integral.

u 2
∫x 3
⋅ 3x + 5 du

2 u
3∫
⋅ u du
u2 − 5
3

2 3u 2
∫
du
3 u −5
2

u2
∫ u −5
2 2 du

196
 3. Use a rationalizing substitution to rewrite the integral in terms of u, but
don’t integrate it.

7x − 2
∫
dx
x

Solution:

Set up the rationalizing substitution.

u= 7x − 2, so u 2 = 7x − 2, so 7x = u 2 + 2 and x = (u 2 + 2)/7

7 2
du = d x, so d x = 7x − 2 du
2 7x − 2 7

Substitute into the integral.

u 2
∫
⋅ 7x − 2 du
u2 + 2 7
7

2 7
7 ∫ u2 + 2
u⋅ ⋅ u du

u2
∫ u +2
2 2 du

197
HOW TO FACTOR DIFFICULT DENOMINATORS

1. Use partial fractions to factor the denominator and evaluate the

integral.

2x 2 − 5x + 4
∫ 4x 3 − x 2 − 4x + 1
dx

Solution:

Factor the denominator by grouping terms.

4x 3 − x 2 − 4x + 1

(4x 3 − x 2) + (−4x + 1)

x 2(4x − 1) − (4x − 1)

(x 2 − 1)(4x − 1)

(x + 1)(x − 1)(4x − 1)

Then the partial fractions decomposition will be

2x 2 − 5x + 4 A B C
= + +
(x + 1)(x − 1)(4x − 1) 4x − 1 x + 1 x − 1

2x 2 − 5x + 4 = A(x + 1)(x − 1) + B(x − 1)(4x − 1) + C(x + 1)(4x − 1)

2x 2 − 5x + 4 = A(x 2 − 1) + B(4x 2 − 5x + 1) + C(4x 2 + 3x − 1)

198
 2x 2 − 5x + 4 = Ax 2 − A + 4Bx 2 − 5Bx + B + 4Cx 2 + 3Cx − C

2x 2 − 5x + 4 = (A + 4B + 4C)x 2 + (−5B + 3C)x + (−A + B − C)

Then the system of equations is

A + 4B + 4C = 2

−5B + 3C = − 5

−A + B − C = 4

Solve the system using any method. Using Gaussian elimination and
working on the first column gives

1 4 4 | 2
0 −5 3 | −5
−1 1 −1 | 4

1 4 4 | 2
0 −5 3 | −5
0 5 3 | 6

Working on the second column gives

32
1 0 5
| −2
0 1 − 35 | 1
0 0 6 | 1

Working on the third column gives

199
 1 0 0 | − 46
15
11
0 1 0 | 10
1
0 0 1 | 6

So the integral is

46 11 1
∫
− + + dx
15(4x − 1) 10(x + 1) 6(x − 1)

23 11 1
− ln | 4x − 1 | + ln | x + 1 | + ln | x − 1 | + C
30 10 6

2. Use partial fractions to factor the denominator and evaluate the

integral.

3x 2 + 7x − 2
∫ x 5 − 34x 3 + 225x
dx

Solution:

Factor the denominator.

x 5 − 34x 3 + 225x

x(x 4 − 34x 2 + 225)

x(x 2 − 9)(x 2 − 25)

200
 x(x + 3)(x − 3)(x + 5)(x − 5)

Then the partial fractions decomposition will be

3x 2 + 7x − 2 A B C D E
= + + + +
x(x + 3)(x − 3)(x + 5)(x − 5) x x+3 x−3 x+5 x−5

3x 2 + 7x − 2 = A(x + 3)(x − 3)(x + 5)(x − 5) + Bx(x − 3)(x + 5)(x − 5)

+Cx(x + 3)(x + 5)(x − 5) + Dx(x + 3)(x − 3)(x − 5) + Ex(x + 3)(x − 3)(x + 5)

3x 2 + 7x − 2 = A(x 2 − 9)(x 2 − 25) + B(x 2 − 3x)(x 2 − 25)

+C(x 2 + 3x)(x 2 − 25) + D(x 2 − 9)(x 2 − 5x) + E(x 2 − 9)(x 2 + 5x)

3x 2 + 7x − 2 = A(x 4 − 34x 2 + 225) + B(x 4 − 25x 2 − 3x 3 + 75x)

+C(x 4 − 25x 2 + 3x 3 − 75x) + D(x 4 − 5x 3 − 9x 2 + 45x)

+E(x 4 + 5x 3 − 9x 2 − 45x)

3x 2 + 7x − 2 = Ax 4 − 34Ax 2 + 225A + Bx 4 − 25Bx 2 − 3Bx 3 + 75Bx

+Cx 4 − 25Cx 2 + 3Cx 3 − 75Cx + Dx 4 − 5Dx 3 − 9Dx 2 + 45Dx

+Ex 4 + 5Ex 3 − 9Ex 2 − 45Ex

3x 2 + 7x − 2 = Ax 4 + Bx 4 + Cx 4 + Dx 4 + Ex 4 − 3Bx 3 + 3Cx 3 − 5Dx 3 + 5Ex 3

−34Ax 2 − 25Bx 2 − 25Cx 2 − 9Dx 2 − 9Ex 2

+75Bx − 75Cx + 45Dx − 45Ex + 225A

3x 2 + 7x − 2 = (A + B + C + D + E)x 4 + (−3B + 3C − 5D + 5E)x 3

201
 +(−34A − 25B − 25C − 9D − 9E)x 2

+(75B − 75C + 45D − 45E)x + (225A)

Then the system of equations is

A+B+C+D+E =0

−3B + 3C − 5D + 5E = 0

−34A − 25B − 25C − 9D − 9E = 3

75B − 75C + 45D − 45E = 7

225A = − 2

So A = − 2/225, and the remaining system is

2
B+C+D+E =
225

−3B + 3C − 5D + 5E = 0

607
−25B − 25C − 9D − 9E =
225

75B − 75C + 45D − 45E = 7

Solve the system using any method. Using Gaussian elimination and
working on the first column gives

202
 2
1 1 1 1 | 225
−3 3 −5 5 | 0
607
−25 −25 −9 −9 | 225
75 −75 45 −45 | 7

2
1 1 1 1 | 225
6
0 6 −2 8 | 225
657
0 0 16 16 | 225
1,425
0 −150 −30 −120 | 225

Working on the second column gives

4
− 13 1
1 0 3
| 225

− 13 4 1
0 1 3
| 225
657
0 0 16 16 | 225
1,575
0 0 −80 80 | 225

Working on the third column gives

1 0 0 − 53 645
| − 2,700
5 705
0 1 0 3
| 10,800
657
0 0 1 1 | 3,600
4,860
0 0 0 160 | 225

203
Working on the fourth column gives

15
1 0 0 0 | − 1,080
1,725
0 1 0 0 | − 10,800
171
0 0 1 0 | 3,600
27
0 0 0 1 | 200

1
1 0 0 0 | − 72
23
0 1 0 0 | − 144
19
0 0 1 0 | 400
27
0 0 0 1 | 200

So the integral is

−2 1 23 19 27
∫ 225x 72(x + 3) 144(x − 3) 400(x + 5) 200(x − 5)
− − + + dx

2 1 23
− ln | x | − ln | x + 3 | − ln | x − 3 |
225 72 144

19 27
+ ln | x + 5 | + ln | x − 5 | + C
400 200

3. Use partial fractions to factor the denominator and evaluate the

integral.

204
 4x 2 + 3x + 1
∫ x 5 + x 4 − 13x 3 − 13x 2 + 36x + 36
dx

Solution:

Use polynomial long division to factor out x + 1 from the denominator.

x 5 + x 4 − 13x 3 − 13x 2 + 36x + 36

(x + 1)(x 4 − 13x 2 + 36)

(x + 1)(x 2 − 4)(x 2 − 9)

(x + 1)(x + 2)(x − 2)(x + 3)(x − 3)

Then the partial fractions decomposition will be

4x 2 + 3x + 1 A B C D E
= + + + +
(x + 1)(x + 2)(x − 2)(x + 3)(x − 3) x + 1 x + 2 x − 2 x + 3 x − 3

4x 2 + 3x + 1 = A(x + 2)(x − 2)(x + 3)(x − 3) + B(x + 1)(x − 2)(x + 3)(x − 3)

+C(x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 3)(x − 3) + D(x + 1)(x + 2)(x − 2)(x − 3)

+E(x + 1)(x + 2)(x − 2)(x + 3)

4x 2 + 3x + 1 = A(x 2 − 4)(x 2 − 9) + B(x 2 − x − 2)(x 2 − 9)

+C(x 2 + 3x + 2)(x 2 − 9) + D(x 2 − 2x − 3)(x 2 − 4)

+E(x 2 − 4)(x 2 + 4x + 3)

205
 4x 2 + 3x + 1 = A(x 4 − 13x 2 + 36) + B(x 4 − x 3 − 11x 2 + 9x + 18)

+C(x 4 − 9x 2 + 3x 3 − 27x + 2x 2 − 18) + D(x 4 − 4x 2 − 2x 3 + 8x − 3x 2 + 12)

+E(x 4 + 4x 3 − x 2 − 16x − 12)

4x 2 + 3x + 1 = Ax 4 − 13Ax 2 + 36A + Bx 4 − Bx 3 − 11Bx 2 + 9Bx + 18B

+Cx 4 − 9Cx 2 + 3Cx 3 − 27Cx + 2Cx 2 − 18C

+Dx 4 − 4Dx 2 − 2Dx 3 + 8Dx − 3Dx 2 + 12D

+Ex 4 + 4Ex 3 − Ex 2 − 16Ex − 12E

4x 2 + 3x + 1 = (A + B + C + D + E)x 4 + (−B + 3C − 2D + 4E)x 3

+(−13A − 11B − 7C − 7D − E)x 2 + (9B − 27C + 8D − 16E)x

+(36A + 18B − 18C + 12D − 12E)

Then the system of equations is

A+B+C+D+E =0

−B + 3C − 2D + 4E = 0

−13A − 11B − 7C − 7D − E = 4

9B − 27C + 8D − 16E = 3

36A + 18B − 18C + 12D − 12E = 1

Solve the system using any method. Using Gaussian elimination and
working on the first column gives

206
 1 1 1 1 1 | 0
0 −1 3 −2 4 | 0
−13 −11 −7 −7 −1 | 4
0 9 −27 8 −16 | 3
36 18 −18 12 −12 | 1

1 1 1 1 1 | 0
0 −1 3 −2 4 | 0
0 2 6 6 12 | 4
0 9 −27 8 −16 | 3
0 −18 −54 −24 −48 | 1

Working on the second column gives

1 1 1 1 1 | 0
0 1 −3 2 −4 | 0
0 2 6 6 12 | 4
0 9 −27 8 −16 | 3
0 −18 −54 −24 −48 | 1

1 0 4 −1 5 | 0
0 1 −3 2 −4 | 0
0 0 12 2 20 | 4
0 0 0 −10 20 | 3
0 0 −108 12 −120 | 1

Working on the third column gives

207
 1 0 4 −1 5 | 0
0 1 −3 2 −4 | 0
1 5 1
0 0 1 6 3
| 3
0 0 0 −10 20 | 3
0 0 −108 12 −120 | 1

1 0 0 − 53 − 53 | − 43
5
0 1 0 2
1 | 1
1 5 1
0 0 1 6 3
| 3
0 0 0 −10 20 | 3
0 0 0 30 60 | 37

Working on the fourth column gives

1 0 0 − 53 − 53 | − 43
5
0 1 0 2
1 | 1
1 5 1
0 0 1 6 3
| 3
3
0 0 0 1 −2 | − 10
0 0 0 30 60 | 37

1 0 0 0 −5 | − 11
6
7
0 1 0 0 6 | 4
23
0 0 1 0 2 | 60
3
0 0 0 1 −2 | − 10
0 0 0 0 120 | 46

208
Working on the fifth column gives

1 0 0 0 −5 | − 11
6
7
0 1 0 0 6 | 4
23
0 0 1 0 2 | 60
3
0 0 0 1 −2 | − 10
23
0 0 0 0 1 | 60

1
1 0 0 0 0 | 12

0 1 0 0 0 | − 11
20

0 0 1 0 0 | − 23
60
7
0 0 0 1 0 | 15
23
0 0 0 0 1 | 60

So the integral is

1 11 23 7 23
∫ 12(x + 1) 20(x + 2) 60(x − 2) 15(x + 3) 60(x − 3)
− − + + dx

1 11 23 7 23
ln | x + 1 | − ln | x + 2 | − ln | x − 2 | + ln | x + 3 | + ln | x − 3 | + C
12 20 60 15 60

209
TWO WAYS TO FIND THE CONSTANTS

1. Use an alternative approach for partial fractions to evaluate the

integral by setting the factors of the constants equal to 0 to find the other
constants.

3x − 2
∫ x 2 + 9x + 18
dx

Solution:

Use a partial fractions decomposition on the integrand.

3x − 2 A B
= +
(x + 3)(x + 6) x + 3 x + 6

3x − 2 = A(x + 6) + B(x + 3)

Because x + 6 = 0 gives x = − 6,

3(−6) − 2 = A(−6 + 6) + B(−6 + 3)

−20 = − 3B

20
B=
3

Because x + 3 = 0 gives x = − 3,

3(−3) − 2 = A(−3 + 6) + B(−3 + 3)

210
 −11 = 3A

11
A=−
3

Then the integral becomes

11 20
∫
− + dx
3(x + 3) 3(x + 6)

11 20
− ln | x + 3 | + ln | x + 6 | + C
3 3

2. Use an alternative approach for partial fractions to evaluate the

integral by setting the factors of the constants equal to 0 to find the other
constants.

8x + 13
∫ x 2 + x − 12
dx

Solution:

Use a partial fractions decomposition on the integrand.

8x + 13 A B
= +
(x + 4)(x − 3) x + 4 x − 3

8x + 13 = A(x − 3) + B(x + 4)

Because x − 3 = 0 gives x = 3,

211
 8(3) + 13 = A(3 − 3) + B(3 + 4)

37 = 7B

37
B=
7

Because x + 4 = 0 gives x = − 4,

8(−4) + 13 = A(−4 − 3) + B(−4 + 4)

−19 = − 7A

19
A=
7

Then the integral becomes

19 37
∫ 7(x + 4) 7(x − 3)
+ dx

19 37
ln | x + 4 | + ln | x − 3 | + C
7 7

3. Use an alternative approach for partial fractions to evaluate the

integral by setting the factors of the constants equal to 0 to find the other
constants.

x − 21
∫ 9x 2 + 9x + 2
dx

212
Solution:

Use a partial fractions decomposition on the integrand.

x − 21 A B
= +
(3x + 1)(3x + 2) 3x + 1 3x + 2

x − 21 = A(3x + 2) + B(3x + 1)

Because 3x + 2 = 0 gives x = − 2/3,

( ( ) ) ( ( ) )
2 2 2
− − 21 = A 3 − +2 +B 3 − +1
3 3 3

2
− − 21 = − B
3

65
− =−B
3

65
=B
3

Because 3x + 1 = 0 gives x = − 1/3,

( ( 3) ) ( ( 3) )
1 1 1
− − 21 = A 3 − +2 +B 3 − +1
3

1
− − 21 = A
3

64
− =A
3

213
Then the integral becomes

64 65
∫
− + dx
3(3x + 1) 3(3x + 2)

64 ln | 3x + 1 | 65 ln | 3x + 2 |
− ⋅ + ⋅ +C
3 3 3 3

65 ln | 3x + 2 | 64 ln | 3x + 1 |
− +C
9 9

65 ln | 3x + 2 | − 64 ln | 3x + 1 |
+C
9

214
SIN^M COS^N, ODD M

1. Evaluate the trigonometric integral.

∫
sin5(3x 2 + 2x + 1)cos(3x 2 + 2x + 1)(6x + 2) d x

Solution:

Use u-substitution.

u = sin(3x 2 + 2x + 1)

du
= cos(3x 2 + 2x + 1)(6x + 2)
dx

du = cos(3x 2 + 2x + 1)(6x + 2) d x

du
dx =
cos(3x 2 + 2x + 1)(6x + 2)

Substitute.

du
∫
u 5 cos(3x 2 + 2x + 1)(6x + 2) ⋅
cos(3x 2 + 2x + 1)(6x + 2)

∫
u 5 du

Integrate and back-substitute.

215
1 6
u +C
6

1
(sin(3x 2 + 2x + 1))6 + C
6

1 6 2
sin (3x + 2x + 1) + C
6

216
SIN^M COS^N, ODD N

1. Evaluate the trigonometric integral.

π

∫− π
3
(4 + cos x)sin x d x
6

Solution:

Use u-substitution.

u = 4 + cos x

du du
= − sin x, so du = − sin x d x, so d x = −
dx sin x

Change the limits of integration.

(3) (3)
π π 1 9
u = 4 + cos =4+ =
2 2

( 6) ( 6)
π π 3
u − = 4 + cos − =4+
2

Substitute into the integral.

( sin x )
9
du
∫4+
2
u sin x −
3
2

217
 9

∫4+
2
− u du
3
2

Integrate and evaluate over the interval.

9
1 2 2
− u
2 4+
3
2

( )
2

2( 2 )
1 9 1 3
− + 4+
2 2

2(4 ) 2( 4)
1 81 1 3
− + 16 + 4 3 +

81 3
− +8+2 3+
8 8

7
− +2 3
4

2. Evaluate the trigonometric integral.

∫
sin(2x)cos3(2x) d x

Solution:

Use u-substitution.

218
 u = cos(2x)

du du
= − 2 sin(2x), so du = − 2 sin(2x) d x, so d x = −
dx 2 sin(2x)

Substitute into the integral.

du
∫
sin(2x) ⋅ u 3 ⋅ −
2 sin(2x)

1 3
∫
− u du
2

Integrate, then back-substitute.

2 4 )
(
1 1 4
− u +C

1
− u4 + C
8

1
− cos4(2x) + C
8

219
SIN^M COS^N, M AND N EVEN

1. Evaluate the trigonometric integral.

∫
sin2(2x + 3)cos2(2x + 3) d x

Solution:

Use the trig identity sin θ cos θ = (1/2)sin(2θ) to rewrite the integrand.

sin2(2x + 3)cos2(2x + 3)

[sin(2x + 3)cos(2x + 3)] [sin(2x + 3)cos(2x + 3)]

[2 ]
2
1
sin(2(2x + 3))

1 2
sin (4x + 6)
4

Use the trig identity sin2 θ = (1/2)(1 − cos(2θ)) to rewrite the integrand.

[ ]
1 1
(1 − cos(2(4x + 6)))
4 2

1
(1 − cos(8x + 12))
8

1 1
− cos(8x + 12)
8 8

220
Integrate.

1 1
∫8 8
− cos(8x + 12) d x

1 1
x− sin(8x + 12) + C
8 64

2. Evaluate the trigonometric integral.

∫
sin4(2x)cos2(2x) d x

Solution:

Use the trig identity sin θ cos θ = (1/2)sin(2θ) to rewrite the integrand.

sin4(2x)cos2(2x)

sin2(2x)sin2(2x)cos2(2x)

sin2(2x)(sin(2x)cos(2x))(sin(2x)cos(2x))

[2 ]
2
1
sin2(2x) sin(2(2x))

1 2
sin (2x)sin2(4x)
4

Use the trig identity sin2 θ = (1/2)(1 − cos(2θ)) to rewrite the integrand.

221
 4 (2 )(2 )
1 1 1
(1 − cos(2(2x))) (1 − cos(2(4x)))

1
(1 − cos(4x))(1 − cos(8x))
16

1
[1 − cos(8x) − cos(4x) + cos(8x)cos(4x)]
16

Use the trig identity cos a cos b = (1/2)[cos(a − b) + cos(a + b)] to rewrite the
integrand.

16 [ ]
1 1
1 − cos(8x) − cos(4x) + [cos(8x − 4x) + cos(8x + 4x)]
2

16 [ ]
1 1 1
1 − cos(8x) − cos(4x) + cos(4x) + cos(12x)
2 2

16 [ ]
1 1 1
1 − cos(8x) − cos(4x) + cos(12x)
2 2

Integrate.

1 1 1
16 ∫
1 − cos(8x) − cos(4x) + cos(12x) d x
2 2

( )
1 1 1 1
x − sin(8x) − sin(4x) + sin(12x) + C
16 8 8 24

1 1 1 1
x− sin(8x) − sin(4x) + sin(12x) + C
16 128 128 384

222
 3. Evaluate the trigonometric integral.

∫
sin6(3x)cos4(3x) d x

Solution:

Use the trig identity sin θ cos θ = (1/2)sin(2θ) to rewrite the integrand.

∫
sin2(3x)sin4(3x)cos4(3x) d x

∫
sin2(3x)[sin(3x)cos(3x)] d x
4

[2 ]
4
1
∫
2
sin (3x) sin(2(3x)) d x

1
16 ∫
sin2(3x)sin4(6x) d x

Use the trig identity sin2 θ = (1/2)(1 − cos(2θ)) to rewrite the integrand.

1 1
16 ∫ 2
(1 − cos(2(3x)))sin4(6x) d x

1
32 ∫
(1 − cos(6x))sin4(6x) d x

Use the trig identity sin2 θ = (1/2)(1 − cos(2θ)) to rewrite the integrand.

1
32 ∫
(1 − cos(6x))(sin2(6x))2 d x

223
 [2 ]
2
1 1
32 ∫
(1 − cos(6x)) (1 − cos(2(6x))) d x

1 1
32 ∫
(1 − cos(6x)) (1 − cos(12x))2 d x
4

1
128 ∫
(1 − cos(6x))(1 − cos(12x))2 d x

1
128 ∫
(1 − cos(6x))(1 − 2 cos(12x) + cos2(12x)) d x

1
128 ∫
1 − 2 cos(12x) + cos2(12x) − cos(6x)

+2 cos(6x)cos(12x) − cos(6x)cos2(12x) d x

Use the trig identity cos2 θ = (1/2)(1 + cos(2θ)) to rewrite the integrand.

1 1
128 ∫
1 − 2 cos(12x) + (1 + cos(2(12x))) − cos(6x)
2

+2 cos(6x)cos(12x) − cos(6x)cos2(12x) d x

1 1 1
128 ∫
1 − 2 cos(12x) + + cos(24x) − cos(6x)
2 2

+2 cos(6x)cos(12x) − cos(6x)cos2(12x) d x

1 3 1
128 ∫ 2
− cos(6x) − 2 cos(12x) + cos(24x)
2

+2 cos(6x)cos(12x) − cos(6x)cos2(12x) d x

224
Use the trig identity cos a cos b = (1/2)[cos(a − b) + cos(a + b)] to rewrite the
integrand.

1 3 1
128 ∫ 2
− cos(6x) − 2 cos(12x) + cos(24x)
2

[2 ]
1
+2 [ cos(12x − 6x) + cos(12x + 6x)] − cos(6x)cos2(12x) d x

1 3 1
128 ∫ 2
− cos(6x) − 2 cos(12x) + cos(24x)
2

+cos(6x) + cos(18x) − cos(6x)cos2(12x) d x

Use the trig identity cos a cos b = (1/2)[cos(a − b) + cos(a + b)] to rewrite the
integrand.

1 3 1
128 ∫ 2
− cos(6x) − 2 cos(12x) + cos(24x)
2

+cos(6x) + cos(18x) − cos(6x)cos(12x)cos(12x) d x

1 3 1
128 ∫ 2
− cos(6x) − 2 cos(12x) + cos(24x)
2

1
+cos(6x) + cos(18x) − [cos(12x − 6x) + cos(12x + 6x)] cos(12x) d x
2

1 3 1
128 ∫ 2
− cos(6x) − 2 cos(12x) + cos(24x)
2

[ 2 ]
1 1
+cos(6x) + cos(18x) + − cos(6x) − cos(18x) cos(12x) d x
2

225
 1 3 1
128 ∫ 2
− cos(6x) − 2 cos(12x) + cos(24x) + cos(6x) + cos(18x)
2

1
− [cos(6x)cos(12x) + cos(18x)cos(12x)] d x
2

1 3 1
128 ∫ 2
− cos(6x) − 2 cos(12x) + cos(24x) + cos(6x) + cos(18x)
2

2 [2
[cos(12x − 6x) + cos(12x + 6x)] + cos(18x)cos(12x)] d x
1 1
−

1 3 1
128 ∫ 2
− cos(6x) − 2 cos(12x) + cos(24x) + cos(6x) + cos(18x)
2

2 [2 ]
1 1 1
− cos(6x) + cos(18x) + cos(18x)cos(12x) d x
2

1 3 1
128 ∫ 2
− cos(6x) − 2 cos(12x) + cos(24x) + cos(6x) + cos(18x)
2

1 1 1
− cos(6x) − cos(18x) − cos(18x)cos(12x) d x
4 4 2

1 3 1
128 ∫ 2
− cos(6x) − 2 cos(12x) + cos(24x) + cos(6x) + cos(18x)
2

[ [cos(18x − 12x) + cos(18x + 12x)]] d x

1 1 1 1
− cos(6x) − cos(18x) −
4 4 2 2

1 3 1
128 ∫ 2
− cos(6x) − 2 cos(12x) + cos(24x) + cos(6x) + cos(18x)
2

1 1 1
− cos(6x) − cos(18x) − [cos(6x) + cos(30x)] d x
4 4 4

226
 1 3 1
128 ∫ 2
− cos(6x) − 2 cos(12x) + cos(24x) + cos(6x) + cos(18x)
2

1 1 1 1
− cos(6x) − cos(18x) − cos(6x) − cos(30x) d x
4 4 4 4

1 3 1 1
128 ∫ 2
− cos(6x) + cos(6x) − cos(6x) − cos(6x) − 2 cos(12x)
4 4

1 1 1
+cos(18x) − cos(18x) + cos(24x) − cos(30x) d x
4 2 4

1 3 1
∫
− cos(6x) − 2 cos(12x)
128 2 2

3 1 1
+ cos(18x) + cos(24x) − cos(30x) d x
4 2 4

Integrate.

128 ( 2 )
1 3 1 1 1 1 1
x− sin(6x) − sin(12x) + sin(18x) + sin(24x) − sin(30x) + C
12 6 24 48 120

256 ( )
1 1 1 1 1 1
3x − sin(6x) − sin(12x) + sin(18x) + sin(24x) − sin(30x) + C
6 3 12 24 60

227
TAN^M SEC^N, ODD M

1. Evaluate the trigonometric integral.

∫
tan3(2x)sec(2x) d x

Solution:

Use the trig identity tan2 θ = sec2 θ − 1 to rewrite the integrand.

∫
tan2(2x)tan(2x)sec(2x) d x

∫
(sec2(2x) − 1)tan(2x)sec(2x) d x

∫
sec2(2x)tan(2x)sec(2x) − tan(2x)sec(2x) d x

∫ ∫
sec2(2x)tan(2x)sec(2x) d x − tan(2x)sec(2x) d x

Use u-substitution.

u = sec(2x)

du du
= 2 sec(2x)tan(2x), so du = 2 sec(2x)tan(2x) d x, so d x =
dx 2 sec(2x)tan(2x)

Substitute and integrate the first integral.

228
 du
∫ 2 sec(2x)tan(2x) ∫
u 2 tan(2x)sec(2x) ⋅ − tan(2x)sec(2x) d x

1 2
∫ ∫
u du − tan(2x)sec(2x) d x
2

2 3 ) ∫
(
1 1 3
u − tan(2x)sec(2x) d x

1
∫
sec3(2x) − tan(2x)sec(2x) d x
6

Integrate the second integral.

1 1
sec3(2x) − sec(2x) + C
6 2

2. Evaluate the trigonometric integral.

∫
tan5(3x)sec(3x) d x

Solution:

Use the trig identity tan2 θ = sec2 θ − 1 to rewrite the integrand.

∫
tan4(3x)tan(3x)sec(3x) d x

∫
(tan2(3x))2tan(3x)sec(3x) d x

229
 ∫
(sec2(3x) − 1)2tan(3x)sec(3x) d x

Use u-substitution.

u = sec(3x)

du du
= 3 sec(3x)tan(3x), so du = 3 sec(3x)tan(3x) d x, so d x =
dx 3 sec(3x)tan(3x)

Substitute.

du
∫
2 2
(u − 1) tan(3x)sec(3x) ⋅
3 sec(3x)tan(3x)

1
3∫
(u 2 − 1)2 du

1 4
3∫
u − 2u 2 + 1 du

Integrate and back-substitute.

( )
1 1 5 2 3
u − u +u +C
3 5 3

3 (5 )
1 1 2
sec5(3x) − sec3(3x) + sec(3x) + C
3

230
TAN^M SEC^N, EVEN N

1. Evaluate the trigonometric integral.

∫
tan2(4x)sec4(4x) d x

Solution:

Use the trig identity sec2 θ = 1 + tan2 θ to rewrite the integrand.

∫
tan2(4x)sec2(4x)sec2(4x) d x

∫
tan2(4x)sec2(4x)(1 + tan2(4x)) d x

Use u-substitution.

u = tan(4x)

du 2 2 du
= 4 sec (4x), so du = 4 sec (4x) d x, so d x =
dx 4 sec2(4x)

Substitute.

( 4 sec2(4x) )
du
∫
u 2 sec2(4x)(1 + u 2)

1 2
4∫
u (1 + u 2) du

231
 1 2
4∫
u + u 4 du

Integrate and back-substitute.

( 5 )
1 1 3 1 5
u + u +C
4 3

4 (3 )
1 1 1
tan3(4x) + tan5(4x) + C
5

2. Evaluate the trigonometric integral.

∫
tan4(2x)sec4(2x) d x

Solution:

Use the trig identity sec2 θ = 1 + tan2 θ to rewrite the integrand.

∫
tan4(2x)sec2(2x)sec2(2x) d x

∫
tan4(2x)sec2(2x)(1 + tan2 θ) d x

Use u-substitution.

u = tan(2x)

232
 du du
= 2 sec2(2x), so du = 2 sec2(2x) d x, so d x =
dx 2 sec2(2x)

Substitute.

( 2 sec2(2x) )
du
∫
u 4 sec2(2x)(1 + u 2)

1 4
2∫
u (1 + u 2) du

1 4
2∫
u + u 6 du

Integrate and back-substitute.

( 7 )
1 1 5 1 7
u + u +C
2 5

2 (5 )
1 1 1
tan5(2x) + tan7(2x) + C
7

3. Evaluate the trigonometric integral.

∫
tan4(3x − 1)sec4(3x − 1) d x

Solution:

Use the trig identity sec2 θ = 1 + tan2 θ to rewrite the integrand.

233
 ∫
tan4(3x − 1)sec2(3x − 1)(1 + tan2 θ) d x

Use u-substitution.

u = tan(3x − 1)

du 2 2 du
= 3 sec (3x − 1), so du = 3 sec (3x − 1) d x, so d x =
dx 3 sec2(3x − 1)

Substitute.

du
∫
4 2 2
u sec (3x − 1)(1 + u ) ⋅
3 sec2(3x − 1)

1 4
3∫
u (1 + u 2) du

1 4
3∫
u + u 6 du

Integrate and back-substitute.

( 7 )
1 1 5 1 7
u + u +C
3 5

3 (5 )
1 1 1
tan5(3x − 1) + tan7(3x − 1) + C
7

234
SIN(MX) COS(NX)

1. Evaluate the trigonometric integral.

∫
5 sin(6x)cos(3x) d x

Solution:

Use the trig identity sin a cos b = (1/2)(sin(a − b) + sin(a + b)) to rewrite the
integrand.

1
∫ 2
5 ⋅ (sin(6x − 3x) + sin(6x + 3x)) d x

5
2∫
sin(3x) + sin(9x) d x

Integrate.

2( 3 )
5 1 1
− cos(3x) − cos(9x) + C
9

6( )
5 1
− cos(3x) + cos(9x) + C
3

2. Evaluate the trigonometric integral.

235
 ∫
2 sin(9x)cos(4x) d x

Solution:

Use the trig identity sin a cos b = (1/2)(sin(a − b) + sin(a + b)) to rewrite the
integrand.

1
∫ 2
2 ⋅ (sin(9x − 4x) + sin(9x + 4x)) d x

∫
sin(5x) + sin(13x) d x

Integrate.

1 1
− cos(5x) − cos(13x) + C
5 13

3. Evaluate the trigonometric integral.

1
∫3
sin(12x)cos(7x) d x

Solution:

Use the trig identity sin a cos b = (1/2)(sin(a − b) + sin(a + b)) to rewrite the
integrand.

236
 1 1
∫3 2
⋅ (sin(12x − 7x) + sin(12x + 7x)) d x

1
6∫
sin(5x) + sin(19x) d x

Integrate.

6( 5 )
1 1 1
− cos(5x) − cos(19x) + C
19

237
SIN(MX) SIN(NX)

1. Evaluate the trigonometric integral.

∫
6 sin(9x)sin(2x) d x

Solution:

Use the trig identity sin a sin b = (1/2)(cos(a − b) − cos(a + b)) to rewrite the
integrand.

1
∫ 2
6 ⋅ (cos(9x − 2x) − cos(9x + 2x)) d x

∫
3 cos(7x) − cos(11x) d x

Integrate.

(7 )
1 1
3 sin(7x) − sin(11x) + C
11

2. Evaluate the trigonometric integral.

1
∫2
sin(8x)sin(4x) d x

238
Solution:

Use the trig identity sin a sin b = (1/2)(cos(a − b) − cos(a + b)) to rewrite the
integrand.

1 1
∫2 2
⋅ (cos(8x − 4x) − cos(8x + 4x)) d x

1
∫
cos(4x) − cos(12x) d x
4

Integrate.

( )
1 1 1
sin(4x) − sin(12x) + C
4 4 12

16 ( )
1 1
sin(4x) − sin(12x) + C
3

3. Evaluate the trigonometric integral.

∫
8 sin(14x)sin(7x) d x

Solution:

Use the trig identity sin a sin b = (1/2)(cos(a − b) − cos(a + b)) to rewrite the
integrand.

239
 1
∫ 2
8 ⋅ (cos(14x − 7x) − cos(14x + 7x)) d x

∫
4 cos(7x) − cos(21x) d x

Integrate.

(7 )
1 1
4 sin(7x) − sin(21x) + C
21

7( )
4 1
sin(7x) − sin(21x) + C
3

240
COS(MX) COS(NX)

1. Evaluate the trigonometric integral.

∫
7 cos(8x)cos(3x) d x

Solution:

Use the trig identity cos a cos b = (1/2)(cos(a − b) + cos(a + b)) to rewrite the
integrand.

1
∫ 2
7 ⋅ (cos(8x − 3x) + cos(8x + 3x)) d x

7
2∫
cos(5x) + cos(11x) d x

Integrate.

2 (5 )
7 1 1
sin(5x) + sin(11x) + C
11

2. Evaluate the trigonometric integral.

∫
5 cos(15x)cos(5x) d x

241
Solution:

Use the trig identity cos a cos b = (1/2)(cos(a − b) + cos(a + b)) to rewrite the
integrand.

1
∫ 2
5 ⋅ (cos(15x − 5x) + cos(15x + 5x)) d x

5
∫
cos(10x) + cos(20x) d x
2

Integrate.

( )
5 1 1
sin(10x) + sin(20x) + C
2 10 20

4( )
1 1
sin(10x) + sin(20x) + C
2

3. Evaluate the trigonometric integral.

∫
49 cos(21x)cos(14x) d x

Solution:

Use the trig identity cos a cos b = (1/2)(cos(a − b) + cos(a + b)) to rewrite the
integrand.

242
 1
∫
49 ⋅ (cos(21x − 14x) + cos(21x + 14x)) d x
2

49
2 ∫
cos(7x) + cos(35x) d x

Integrate.

2 (7 )
49 1 1
sin(7x) + sin(35x) + C
35

2( )
7 1
sin(7x) + sin(35x) + C
5

243
INVERSE HYPERBOLIC INTEGRALS

1. Evaluate the hyperbolic integral.

∫
x sinh(3x 2 + 7) d x

Solution:

Use u-substitution.

u = 3x 2 + 7

du du
= 6x, so du = 6x d x, so d x =
dx 6x

Substitute.

du
∫
x sinh u ⋅
6x

1
∫
sinh u du
6

Integrate and back-substitute.

1
cosh u + C
6

1
cosh(3x 2 + 7) + C
6

244
 2. Evaluate the hyperbolic integral using the substitution x = 3 cosh u.

x2 − 3
∫
dx
x 2

Solution:

Starting with the substitution x = 3 cosh u, we get

x= 3 cosh u

x 2 = 3 cosh2 u

x 2 − 3 = 3 cosh2 u − 3

x2 − 3 = 3 cosh2 u − 3

x2 − 3 = 3(cosh2 u − 1)

x2 − 3 = 3 cosh2 u − 1

Using the substitution sinh2 u = cosh2 u − 1 gives

x2 − 3 = 3 sinh2 u

x2 − 3 = 3 sinh u

And

245
 dx = 3 sinh u du

Substituting into the integral gives

3 sinh u
∫
⋅ 3 sinh u du
( 3 cosh u)
2

3 sinh u
∫ 3 cosh2 u
⋅ sinh u du

sinh2 u
∫ cosh2 u
du

Substitute using sinh2 u = cosh2 u − 1.

cosh2 u − 1
∫ cosh2 u
du

cosh2 u 1
∫ cosh2 u cosh2 u
− du

∫
1 − sech2u du

Integrate, then back-substitute using

( 3)
−1 x
u = cosh

You get

u − tanh u + C

246
 ( 3) ( ( 3 ))
x x
cosh−1 − tanh cosh−1 +C

247
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION WITH SECANT

1. Set up and simplify the integral for trig substitution, but don’t
integrate.

3
∫
dx
9x 2 + 6x

Solution:

Rewrite the integrand.

3
∫
dx
9 (x 2 + 23 x)

1
∫
dx
x 2 + 23 x

1
∫
dx
( 9)
x 2+ 2x+ 1 − 1
3 9

1
∫
dx

( 3)
2
1 1
x + − 9

248
Set up the trig substitution.

( 3)
2
2 2 1 1
u −a = x+ −
9

1 1
u = x + and a =
3 3

1 1 1 1
x + = sec θ so x = − + sec θ
3 3 3 3

1
d x = sec θ tan θ dθ
3

Substitute.

1 1
∫
⋅ sec θ tan θ dθ
3
( 3 3)
2
1 1 1 1
− + sec θ +
3
− 9

1 sec θ tan θ
3∫
dθ

(3 sec θ) −
2
1 1
9

1 sec θ tan θ
3∫
dθ
1 1
9
sec2 θ − 9

1 sec θ tan θ
3∫
dθ
1
9
(sec 2θ − 1)

Simplify with the trig identity sec2 θ − 1 = tan2 θ.

249
 1 sec θ tan θ
∫
dθ
3 1
tan2 θ
9

1 sec θ tan θ
∫
dθ
3 1
tan θ
3

∫
sec θ dθ

2. Set up and simplify the integral for trig substitution, but don’t
integrate.

5
∫
dx
4x 2 + 4x

Solution:

Rewrite the integrand.

5
∫
dx
4(x 2 + x)

5 1
2∫
dx
x2 + x

5 1
2∫
dx
1 1
x2 + x + 4
− 4

250
 5 1
2∫
dx

(x + 2)
2
1 1
− 4

Set up the trig substitution.

( 2)
2
1 1
u2 − a2 = x + −
4

1 1
u = x + and a =
2 2

1 1 1 1
x+ = sec θ so x = − + sec θ
2 2 2 2

1
dx = sec θ tan θ dθ
2

Substitute.

5 1 1
2∫
⋅ sec θ tan θ dθ
2
( 2 2)
2
1 1 1 1
− + sec θ +
2
− 4

5 sec θ tan θ
4∫
dθ

(2 sec θ) −
2
1 1
4

5 sec θ tan θ
4∫
dθ
1 1
4
sec2 θ − 4

251
 5 sec θ tan θ
4∫
dθ
1
4
(sec2 θ − 1)

Simplify with the trig identity sec2 θ − 1 = tan2 θ.

5 sec θ tan θ
∫
dθ
4 1
tan2 θ
4

5 sec θ tan θ
4 ∫ 1 tan θ
dθ
2

5
2∫
sec θ dθ

3. Set up and simplify the integral for trig substitution, but don’t
integrate.

dx
∫ x2 x2 − 9

Solution:

Set up the trig substitution.

u2 − a2 = x2 − 9

u = x and a = 3

252
 x = 3 sec θ

d x = 3 sec θ tan θ dθ

Substitute.

3 sec θ tan θ dθ
∫ (3 sec θ)2 (3 sec θ)2 − 9

3 sec θ tan θ dθ
∫ 9 sec2 θ 9 sec2 θ − 9

tan θ
∫ 3 sec θ 9(sec2 θ − 1)
dθ

Simplify with the trig identity sec2 θ − 1 = tan2 θ.

tan θ
∫ 3 sec θ 9 tan2 θ
dθ

tan θ
∫ 3 sec θ(3 tan θ)
dθ

1 1
∫
dθ
9 sec θ

1
∫
cos θ dθ
9

4. Set up and simplify the integral for trig substitution, but don’t
integrate.

253
 4 dx
∫ x 2 x 2 − 25

Solution:

Set up the trig substitution.

u 2 − a 2 = x 2 − 25

u = x and a = 5

x = 5 sec θ

d x = 5 sec θ tan θ dθ

Substitute.

4(5 sec θ tan θ dθ)

∫ (5 sec θ)2 (5 sec θ)2 − 25

20 sec θ tan θ dθ
∫ 25 sec2 θ 25 sec2 θ − 25

4 tan θ
∫ 5 sec θ 25(sec2 θ − 1)
dθ

Simplify with the trig identity sec2 θ − 1 = tan2 θ.

4 tan θ
∫ 5 sec θ 25 tan2 θ
dθ

254
 4 tan θ
∫ 5 sec θ(5 tan θ)
dθ

4 1
∫
dθ
25 sec θ

4
25 ∫
cos θ dθ

255
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION WITH SINE

1. Set up and simplify the integral for trig substitution, but don’t
integrate.

3x
∫
dx
64 − 49x 2

Solution:

Set up the trig substitution.

a 2 − u 2 = 64 − 49x 2

u = 7x and a = 8

8
7x = 8 sin θ so x = sin θ
7

8
dx = cos θ dθ
7

Substitute.

3 ⋅ 87 sin θ 8
∫
⋅ cos θ dθ
7
49 ( 87 sin θ)
2
64 −

256
 192 sin θ cos θ
49 ∫
dθ
64 − 49 ( 64
49
sin 2θ
)

192 sin θ cos θ

49 ∫
dθ
64 − 64 sin2 θ

192 sin θ cos θ

49 ∫
dθ
64(1 − sin2 θ)

Simplify with the trig identity 1 − sin2 θ = cos2 θ.

192 sin θ cos θ

49 ∫ 64 cos2 θ
dθ

192 sin θ cos θ

∫
dθ
49 8 cos θ

24
49 ∫
sin θ dθ

2. Set up and simplify the integral for trig substitution, but don’t
integrate.

2x
∫
dx
121 − 144x 2

Solution:

257
Set up the trig substitution.

a 2 − u 2 = 121 − 144x 2

u = 12x and a = 11

11
12x = 11 sin θ so x = sin θ
12

11
dx = cos θ dθ
12

Substitute.
11
2⋅ sin θ 11
∫
12
⋅ cos θ dθ
12
144 ( 12 sin θ)
2
11
121 −

121 sin θ cos θ

72 ∫
dθ
121 − 144 ( 121
144
sin2 θ)

121 sin θ cos θ

72 ∫
dθ
121 − 121 sin2 θ

121 sin θ cos θ

72 ∫
dθ
121(1 − sin2 θ)

Simplify with the trig identity 1 − sin2 θ = cos2 θ.

121 sin θ cos θ

72 ∫ 11 cos θ
dθ

258
 11
∫
sin θ dθ
72

3. Set up and simplify the integral for trig substitution, but don’t
integrate.

6x
∫
dx
81 − 36x 2

Solution:

Rewrite the integrand.

6x
∫
dx
9(9 − 4x 2)

6x
∫ 3 9 − 4x 2
dx

2x
∫
dx
9 − 4x 2

Set up the trig substitution.

a 2 − u 2 = 9 − 4x 2

u = 2x and a = 3

259
 3
2x = 3 sin θ so x = sin θ
2

3
dx = cos θ dθ
2

Substitute.

2 ⋅ 32 sin θ 3
∫
⋅ cos θ dθ
2
4(2 sin θ)
2
3
9−

9 sin θ cos θ
2∫
dθ
9 − 4 ( 4 sin2 θ)
9

9 sin θ cos θ
2∫
dθ
9− 9 sin2 θ

9 sin θ cos θ
2∫
dθ
9(1 − sin2 θ)

3 sin θ cos θ
2 ∫ 1 − sin2 θ
dθ

Simplify with the trig identity 1 − sin2 θ = cos2 θ.

3 sin θ cos θ
2∫
dθ
cos2 θ

3 sin θ cos θ
∫
dθ
2 cos θ

260
 3
∫
sin θ dθ
2

4. Set up and simplify the integral for trig substitution, but don’t
integrate.

35x
∫
dx
25 − 100x 2

Solution:

Rewrite the integrand.

35x
∫
dx
25(1 − 4x 2)

35x
∫ 5 1 − 4x 2
dx

7x
∫
dx
1 − 4x 2

Set up the trig substitution.

a 2 − u 2 = 1 − 4x 2

u = 2x and a = 1

261
 1
2x = sin θ so x = sin θ
2

1
dx = cos θ dθ
2

Substitute.

7 ⋅ 12 sin θ 1
∫
⋅ cos θ dθ
2
4(2 sin θ)
2
1
1−

7 sin θ cos θ
4∫
dθ
1 − 4 ( 4 sin2 θ)
1

7 sin θ cos θ
4 ∫ 1 − sin2 θ
dθ

Simplify with the trig identity 1 − sin2 θ = cos2 θ.

7 sin θ cos θ
4∫
dθ
cos θ
2

7 sin θ cos θ
4 ∫ cos θ
dθ

7
∫
sin θ dθ
4

262
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION WITH TANGENT

1. Set up and simplify the integral for trig substitution, but don’t
integrate.

∫
36x 2 + 25 d x

Solution:

Set up the trig substitution.

u 2 + a 2 = 36x 2 + 25

u = 6x and a = 5

5
6x = 5 tan θ so x = tan θ
6

5
dx = sec2 θ dθ
6

Substitute.

(6 )
2
5 5
∫
36 tan θ + 25 ⋅ sec2 θ dθ
6

( 36 )
5 25
6∫
sec2 θ 36 tan2 θ + 25 dθ

263
 5
6∫
sec2 θ 25 tan2 θ + 25 dθ

5
6∫
sec2 θ 25(tan2 θ + 1) dθ

25
6 ∫
sec2 θ tan2 θ + 1 dθ

Simplify with the trig identity tan2 θ + 1 = sec2 θ.

25
6 ∫
sec2 θ sec2 θ dθ

25
6 ∫
sec2 θ sec θ dθ

25
6 ∫
sec3 θ dθ

2. Set up and simplify the integral for trig substitution, but don’t
integrate.

∫
4x 2 + 81 d x

Solution:

Set up the trig substitution.

u 2 + a 2 = 4x 2 + 81

264
 u = 2x and a = 9

9
2x = 9 tan θ so x = tan θ
2

9
dx = sec2 θ dθ
2

Substitute.

(2 )
2
9 9
∫
4 tan θ + 81 ⋅ sec2 θ dθ
2

(4 )
9 81
2∫
sec2 θ 4 tan2 θ + 81 dθ

9
2∫
sec2 θ 81 tan2 θ + 81 dθ

9
2∫
sec2 θ 81(tan2 θ + 1) dθ

81
2 ∫
sec2 θ tan2 θ + 1 dθ

Simplify with the trig identity tan2 θ + 1 = sec2 θ.

81
2 ∫
sec2 θ sec2 θ dθ

81
2 ∫
sec2 θ sec θ dθ

265
 81
2 ∫
sec3 θ dθ

3. Set up and simplify the integral for trig substitution, but don’t
integrate.

7
∫
dx
x 2 + 4x + 8

Solution:

Rewrite the integrand by completing the square.

7
∫
dx
(x 2 + 4x + 4) + 4

7
∫
dx
(x + 2)2 + 4

Set up the trig substitution.

u 2 + a 2 = (x + 2)2 + 4

u = x + 2 and a = 2

x + 2 = 2 tan θ so x = − 2 + 2 tan θ

d x = 2 sec2 θ dθ

266
Substitute.

7
∫
⋅ 2 sec2 θ dθ
(−2 + 2 tan θ + 2)2 + 4

sec2 θ
∫
14 dθ
(2 tan θ)2 +4

sec2 θ
∫
14 dθ
4 tan2 θ +4

sec2 θ
∫
14 dθ
4(tan2 θ + 1)

sec2 θ
∫
7 dθ
tan2 θ +1

Simplify with the trig identity tan2 θ + 1 = sec2 θ.

sec2 θ
∫
7 dθ
sec2 θ

sec2 θ
∫ sec θ
7 dθ

∫
7 sec θ dθ

267
IMPROPER INTEGRALS, CASE 1

1. Evaluate the improper integral.

∞
5
∫1
dx
x 3

Solution:

Replace the upper limit, rewriting the integral as

b
5
∫
lim dx
b→∞ 1 x 3

b→∞ ∫1
lim 5x −3 d x

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

b
5x −2
lim
b→∞ −2 1

b
5 1
− lim 2
2 b→∞ x 1

5 1 1
− lim 2 − 2
2 b→∞ b 1

268
 2 ( ∞2 )
5 1
− −1

5 5
− (0 − 1) =
2 2

2. Evaluate the improper integral.

∞
7
∫3 (x − 2)2
dx

Solution:

Replace the upper limit, rewriting the integral as

b
7
b→∞ ∫3 (x − 2)2
lim dx

b→∞ ∫3
lim 7(x − 2)−2 d x

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

b
7(x − 2)−1
lim
b→∞ −1 3

b
1
−7 lim
b→∞ x − 2 3

269
 1 1
−7 lim −
b→∞ b − 2 3−2

(∞ − 2 1)
1 1
−7 −

−7(0 − 1)

3. Evaluate the improper integral.

∞

∫0
2e −2x d x

Solution:

Replace the upper limit, rewriting the integral as

b→∞ ∫0
lim 2e −2x d x

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

b
lim − e −2x
b→∞ 0

b
1
− lim 2x
b→∞ e 0

270
 1 1
− lim −
b→∞ e 2b e 2(0)

( e 2(∞) 1)
1 1
− −

−(0 − 1)

4. Evaluate the improper integral.

∞
3x
∫0
dx
2 + 2x 2

Solution:

Simplify the integrand.

∞ ∞
3x 3x 3 ∞ x
∫0 ∫0 2(1 + x 2) 2 ∫0 1 + x 2
dx = dx = dx
2 + 2x 2

Replace the upper limit, rewriting the integral as

3 b x
b→∞ 2 ∫0 1 + x 2
lim dx

Let

u = 1 + x2

271
 du
du = 2x d x, so d x =
2x

Substitute, then integrate.

b→∞ 2 ∫x=0 u ( 2x )
3 x=b x du
lim

3 x=b 1
∫
lim du
b→∞ 4 x=0 u

x=b
3
lim ln | u |
b→∞ 4 x=0

Back-substitute.

x=b
3
lim ln | 1 + x 2 |
b→∞ 4 x=0

b
3
lim ln(1 + x 2)
b→∞ 4 0

Evaluate over the interval.

3 3
lim ln(1 + b ) − ln(1 + 02)
2
b→∞ 4 4

3 3
lim ln(1 + b 2) − ln(1)
b→∞ 4 4

3 3
lim ln(1 + b 2) − (0)
b→∞ 4 4

272
 3
lim ln(1 + b 2)
b→∞ 4

3
ln(1 + ∞2)
4

3
ln(∞)
4

3
(∞)
4

273
IMPROPER INTEGRALS, CASE 2

1. Evaluate the improper integral.

0

∫−∞
e 3x d x

Solution:

Replace the lower limit, rewriting the integral as

0

a→−∞ ∫a
lim e 3x d x

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

0
e 3x
lim
a→−∞ 3 a

e 3(0) e 3a
lim −
a→−∞ 3 3

1 e 3a
lim −
a→−∞ 3 3

1 e 3(−∞)
−
3 3

1 1
−
3 3e ∞

274
 1
−0
3

1
3

2. Evaluate the improper integral.

1

∫−∞
2
xe x d x

Solution:

Replace the lower limit, rewriting the integral as

1

a→−∞ ∫a
2
lim xe x d x

Use u-substitution.

u = x2

du
du = 2x d x, so d x =
2x

Substitute.

( 2x )
x=1
du
a→−∞ ∫x=a
lim xe u

275
 x=1
1
2 a→−∞ ∫x=a
lim e u du

Integrate, back-substitute, then evaluate over the interval.

x=1
1
lim e u
2 a→−∞ x=a

1
1 2
lim e x
2 a→−∞ a

1 2 2
lim e 1 − e a
2 a→−∞

1 2
lim e − e a
2 a→−∞

1
2( )
(−∞)2
e − e

1
(e − ∞)
2

1
(−∞)
2

−∞

3. Evaluate the improper integral.

−2
2 2
∫−∞ x − 1 x + 1
− dx

276
Solution:

Replace the lower limit, rewriting the integral as

−2
2 2
a→−∞ ∫a
lim − dx
x−1 x+1

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

−2
lim 2 ln | x − 1 | − 2 ln | x + 1 |
a→−∞ a

−2
2 lim ln | x − 1 | − ln | x + 1 |
a→−∞ a

2 lim ln | − 2 − 1 | − ln | − 2 + 1 | − (ln | a − 1 | − ln | a + 1 | )
a→−∞

2 lim ln | − 3 | − ln | − 1 | − ln | a − 1 | + ln | a + 1 |
a→−∞

2 lim ln 3 − ln 1 − ln | a − 1 | + ln | a + 1 |
a→−∞

2 lim ln 3 − ln | a − 1 | + ln | a + 1 |
a→−∞

|a + 1|
2 lim ln 3 + ln
a→−∞ |a − 1|

( a→−∞ | a − 1 | )
|a + 1|
2 ln 3 + 2 ln lim

277
 | 1 + a1 |
2 ln 3 + 2 ln lim
a→−∞ | 1 − a1 |

(1)
1
2 ln 3 + 2 ln

2 ln 3 + 2(0)

2 ln 3

ln 9

4. Evaluate the improper integral.

3
3
∫−∞ x 2 + 9
dx

Solution:

Replace the lower limit, rewriting the integral as

3
3
a→−∞ ∫a x 2 + 9
lim dx

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

3
x
lim arctan
a→−∞ 3 a

278
 3 a
lim arctan − arctan
a→−∞ 3 3
a
lim arctan 1 − arctan
a→−∞ 3
π a
lim − arctan
a→−∞ 4 3
π −∞
− arctan
4 3
π
− arctan(−∞)
4

4 ( 2)
π π
− −

π π
+
4 2

3π
4

5. Evaluate the improper integral.

0
2 dx
∫−∞ e x

Solution:

Replace the lower limit, rewriting the integral as

279
 0
2 dx
a→−∞ ∫a e x
lim

0
1
∫
2 lim dx
a→−∞ a e x

a→−∞ ∫a
2 lim e −x d x

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

0
2 lim − e −x
a→−∞ a

2 lim − e −0 − (−e −a)

a→−∞

2 lim − e −0 + e −a
a→−∞

2 lim − 1 + e −a
a→−∞

2 lim e −a − 1
a→−∞

2(e −(−∞) − 1)

2(e ∞ − 1)

2(∞ − 1)

2(∞)

280
 6. Evaluate the improper integral.
0

∫−∞
4e −4x d x

Solution:

Replace the lower limit, rewriting the integral as

0

a→−∞ ∫a
lim 4e −4x d x

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

0
4 −4x
lim e
a→−∞ −4 a

0
lim − e −4x
a→−∞ a

lim − e −4(0) − (−e −4(a))

a→−∞

lim − 1 + e −4a
a→−∞

lim e −4a − 1
a→−∞

e −4(−∞) − 1

281
e 4∞ − 1

e∞ − 1

∞−1

282
IMPROPER INTEGRALS, CASE 3

1. Evaluate the improper integral.

∞

∫−∞
2
2xe −x d x

Solution:

Separate the integral in two, splitting the interval at 0.

0 ∞

∫−∞ ∫0
−x 2 2
2xe dx + 2xe −x d x

Replace the infinite limits, rewriting the integral as

0 b

a→−∞ ∫a b→∞ ∫0
2 2
lim 2xe −x d x + lim 2xe −x d x

Use u-substitution.

u = − x2

du
du = − 2x d x, so d x =
−2x

Substitute.

( −2x ) b→∞ ∫x=0 ( −2x )

x=0 x=b
du du
a→−∞ ∫x=a
lim 2xe u + lim 2xe u

283
 x=0 x=b

a→−∞ ∫x=a b→∞ ∫x=0

u
lim − e du + lim − e u du

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

x=0 x=b
u u
lim − e + lim − e
a→−∞ x=a b→∞ x=0

0 b
−x 2 −x 2
lim − e + lim − e
a→−∞ a b→∞ 0

2 2 2 2
lim − e −0 − (−e −a ) + lim − e −b − (−e −0 )
a→−∞ b→∞

2 2
lim − e 0 + e −a + lim − e −b + e 0
a→−∞ b→∞

2 2
lim e −a − 1 + lim 1 − e −b
a→−∞ b→∞

2 2
e −(−∞) − 1 + 1 − e −(∞)

e −∞ − e −∞

2. Evaluate the improper integral.

∞
3 dx
∫−∞ x 2 + 1

284
Solution:

Separate the integral in two, splitting the interval at 0.

0 ∞
3 dx 3 dx
∫−∞ x 2 + 1 ∫0 x 2 + 1
+

Replace the infinite limits, rewriting the integral as

0 b
3 dx 3 dx
a→−∞ ∫a x 2 + 1 b→∞ ∫0 x 2 + 1
lim + lim

0 b
1 1
a→−∞ ∫a x 2 + 1 b→∞ ∫0 x 2 + 1
3 lim d x + 3 lim dx

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

0 b
3 lim arctan x + 3 lim arctan x
a→−∞ a b→∞ 0

3 lim arctan 0 − arctan a + 3 lim arctan b − arctan 0

a→−∞ b→∞

3(arctan 0 − arctan(−∞)) + 3(arctan(∞) − arctan 0)

( ( 2 )) (2 )
π π
3 0− − +3 −0

3π 3π
+
2 2

3π

285
 3. Evaluate the improper integral.
∞

∫−∞
x 2 + 7x + 1 d x

Solution:

Separate the integral in two, splitting the interval at 0.

0 ∞

∫−∞ ∫0
2
x + 7x + 1 d x + x 2 + 7x + 1 d x

Replace the infinite limits, rewriting the integral as

0 b

a→−∞ ∫a b→∞ ∫0
lim x 2 + 7x + 1 d x + lim x 2 + 7x + 1 d x

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

0 b
1 3 7 2 1 3 7 2
lim x + x + x + lim x + x + x
a→−∞ 3 2 a b→∞ 3 2 0

(3 ) b→∞ 3 (3 )
1 3 7 2 1 3 7 2 1 7 1 3 7 2
lim (0) + (0) + 0 − (a) + (a) + a + lim (b)3 + (b)2 + b − (0) + (0) + 0
a→−∞ 3 2 2 2 2

1 3 7 2 1 7
lim − a − a − a + lim b 3 + b 2 + b
a→−∞ 3 2 b→∞ 3 2

1 7 1 7
− (−∞) − (−∞) − (−∞) + (∞) + (∞)2 + (∞)
3 2 3
3 2 3 2

286
 1 7 1 7
∞− ∞+∞+ ∞+ ∞+∞
3 2 3 2

2
∞+∞
3

The value diverges to ∞.

4. Evaluate the improper integral.

∞

∫−∞
3
3x 2e −x d x

Solution:

Separate the integral in two, splitting the interval at 0.

0 ∞

∫−∞ ∫0
3 3
3x 2e −x d x + 3x 2e −x d x

Replace the infinite limits, rewriting the integral as

0 b

a→−∞ ∫a b→∞ ∫0
3 3
lim 3x 2e −x d x + lim 3x 2e −x d x

Use u-substitution.

u = − x3

287
 du
du = − 3x 2 d x, so d x =
−3x 2

Substitute.

( −3x 2 ) b→∞ ∫x=0 ( −3x 2 )

x=0 x=b
du du
a→−∞ ∫x=a
2 u 2 u
lim 3x e + lim 3x e

x=0 x=b

a→−∞ ∫x=a b→∞ ∫x=0

u
lim − e du + lim − e u du

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

x=0 x=b
lim − e u + lim − e u
a→−∞ x=a b→∞ x=0

0 b
3 3
lim − e −x + lim − e −x
a→−∞ a b→∞ 0

3 3 3 3
lim − e −0 − (−e −a ) + lim − e −b − (−e −0 )
a→−∞ b→∞

3 3 3 3
lim − e −0 + e −a + lim − e −b + e −0
a→−∞ b→∞

3 3
lim e −a − 1 + lim 1 − e −b
a→−∞ b→∞

3 3
e −(−∞) − 1 + 1 − e −(∞)
3 3
e −(−∞) − e −(∞)

e ∞ − e −∞

∞−0

288
∞

289
IMPROPER INTEGRALS, CASE 4

1. Evaluate the improper integral.

0
3 cos x
∫− π
dx
2 sin x
2

Solution:

The integrand is undefined at the upper bound, x = 0. Therefore, rewrite

the integral as

b
3 cos x
b→0− ∫− π
lim dx
2 sin x
2

b
3 cos x
2 b→0 ∫− π sin x
lim− dx
2

Use u-substitution.

u = sin x

du
du = cos x d x, so d x =
cos x

Substitute.

2 b→0 ∫x=− π u ( cos x )

x=b
3 cos x du
lim−
2

290
 x=b
3 1
∫
lim− du
2 b→0 x=− π u
2

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

x=b
3
lim− ln | u |
2 b→0 x=− π2

b
3
lim ln | sin x |
2 b→0− − π2

( 2)
3 3 π
lim ln | sin b | − ln sin −
2 b→0− 2

3 3
lim− ln | sin b | − ln | − 1 |
2 b→0 2

3 3
lim− ln | sin b | − ln 1
2 b→0 2

3
lim− ln | sin b |
2 b→0

3
(−∞)
2

−∞

2. Evaluate the improper integral.

291
 0
ex d x
∫−8 e x − 1

Solution:

The integrand is undefined at the upper bound, x = 0. Therefore, rewrite

the integral as

b
ex d x
b→0 ∫−8 e x − 1
lim−

Use u-substitution.

u = ex − 1

du
du = e x d x, so d x =
ex

Substitute.

b→0 ∫x=−8 u ( e x )
x=b
e x du
lim−

x=b
1
∫x=−8 u
lim− du
b→0

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

x=b
lim ln | u |
b→0− x=−8

292
 b
lim− ln | e x − 1 |
b→0 −8

lim− ln | e b − 1 | − ln | e −8 − 1 |
b→0

ln | 1 − 1 | − ln | e −8 − 1 |

ln | 0 | − ln | e −8 − 1 |

−∞ − ln | e −8 − 1 |

−∞

3. Evaluate the improper integral.

0 −x
e dx
∫−9 −x

Solution:

The integrand is undefined at the upper bound, x = 0. Therefore, rewrite

the integral as

b −x
e dx
∫−9
lim−
b→0 −x

Use u-substitution.

293
 u= −x

1
du = − d x, so d x = − 2 −x du
2 −x

Substitute.

x=b
eu
lim−
∫
b→0 x=−9 u
( −2 −x du)

x=b
eu
∫ (u du)
−2 lim−
b→0 x=−9 u

x=b

∫x=−9
−2 lim− e u du
b→0

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

x=b
u
−2 lim− e
b→0 x=−9

b
−x
−2 lim− e
b→0 −9

−b −(−9)
−2 lim− e −e
b→0

−b 9
−2 lim− e −e
b→0

−0
−2(e − e 3)

−2(1 − e 3)

294
 −2 + 2e 3

2e 3 − 2

4. Evaluate the improper integral.

3
2x − 3
∫1
dx
3x − x 2

Solution:

The integrand is undefined at the upper bound, x = 3. Therefore, rewrite

the integral as

b
2x − 3
b→3− ∫1
lim dx
3x − x2

Use u-substitution.

u = 3x − x 2

du
du = (3 − 2x) d x, so d x =
3 − 2x

Substitute.

u ( 3 − 2x )
x=b
2x − 3 du
b→3− ∫x=1
lim

295
 u ( −(3 − 2x) )
x=b
2x − 3 du
∫x=1
− lim−
b→3

u ( 2x − 3 )
x=b
2x − 3 du
∫x=1
− lim−
b→3

x=b
1
∫x=1
− lim− du
b→3 u

x=b

∫x=1
1
− lim− u − 2 du
b→3

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

x=b
1
− lim− 2u 2
b→3 x=1

x=b
− lim− 2 u
b→3 x=1

b
− lim− 2 3x − x 2
b→3 1

− lim− 2 3b − b 2 − 2 3(1) − 12
b→3

− lim− 2 3b − b 2 − 2 2
b→3

lim− 2 2 − 2 3b − b 2
b→3

296
 2 2 − 2 3(3) − 32

2 2−2 9−9

2 2 − 2(0)

2 2

5. Evaluate the improper integral.

2 2
x
∫0
dx
8 − x2

Solution:

The integrand is undefined at the upper bound, x = 2 2. Therefore, rewrite

the integral as

b
x
∫0
lim −
dx
b→2 2 8 − x2

Use u-substitution.

u = 8 − x2

du
du = − 2x d x, so d x =
−2x

Substitute.

297
 u ( −2x )
x=b
x du
∫x=0
lim −
b→2 2

x=b
1 1
∫x=0
− lim du
2 b→2 2
−
u

x=b
1
∫x=0
1
− lim u − 2 du
2 b→2 2
−

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

x=b
1 1
− lim − 2u 2
2 b→2 2 x=0

x=b
− lim −
u
b→2 2 x=0

b
− lim −
8 − x2
b→2 2 0

− lim −
8 − b2 − 8 − 02
b→2 2

( )
− 8 − (2 2)2 − 8

− ( 8 − 4(2) − 8)

− 8−8+ 8

8− 0

298
 2 2

6. Evaluate the improper integral.

3
x−1
∫1 x 2 − 4x + 3
dx

Solution:

Simplify the integrand by factoring the denominator.

3
x−1
∫1 (x − 1)(x − 3)
dx

3
1
∫1 x − 3
dx

The integrand is undefined at the upper bound, x = 3. Therefore, rewrite

the integral as

b
1
∫1 x − 3
lim− dx
b→3

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

b
lim ln | x − 3 |
b→3− 1

299
lim− ln | b − 3 | − ln | 1 − 3 |
b→3

lim ln | b − 3 | − ln | − 2 |
b→3−

lim− ln | b − 3 | − ln 2
b→3

ln | 3 − 3 | − ln 2

ln 0 − ln 2

−∞ − ln 2

−∞

300
IMPROPER INTEGRALS, CASE 5

1. Evaluate the improper integral.

2
3
∫0
dx
x
3

Solution:

The integrand is undefined at the lower bound, x = 0. Therefore, rewrite

the integral as
2
3
a→0+ ∫a
lim dx
x
3

∫a
1
lim+ 3x − 3 d x
a→0

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

2
9 2
lim+ x 3
a→0 2 a

9 2 9 2
lim+ (2) 3 − (a) 3
a→0 2 2

9 2 9 2
(2) 3 − (0) 3
2 2

301
 9 2
(2) 3
2

9 3
4
2

2. Evaluate the improper integral.

5
3
∫−1
dx
x+1

Solution:

The integrand is undefined at the lower bound, x = − 1. Therefore, rewrite

the integral as

5
3
∫a
lim + dx
a→−1 x+1

∫a
1
3 lim + (x + 1)− 2 d x
a→−1

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

5
1
3 lim + 2(x + 1) 2
a→−1 a

5
6 lim + x+1
a→−1 a

302
 6 lim + 5+1− a+1
a→−1

6( 6 − −1 + 1 )

6 6

3. Evaluate the improper integral.

7
5
∫3 x − 3
dx

Solution:

The integrand is undefined at the lower bound, x = 3. Therefore, rewrite

the integral as
7
5
∫a x − 3
lim+ dx
a→3

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

7
lim 5 ln | x − 3 |
a→3+ a

lim 5 ln | 7 − 3 | − 5 ln | a − 3 |
a→3+

5 ln 4 − 5 ln | 3 − 3 |

303
 5 ln 4 − 5 ln 0

5 ln 4 − (−∞)

5 ln 4 + ∞

4. Evaluate the improper integral.

6
9
∫0 5 4 x 3
dx

Solution:

The integrand is undefined at the lower bound, x = 0. Therefore, rewrite

the integral as

6
9
a→0+ ∫a
lim 4
dx
5 x3

6
9
5 a→0 ∫a
3
lim+ x − 4 d x

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

6
9 1
lim+ 4x 4
5 a→0 a

304
 6
36 1
lim+ x 4
5 a→0 a

36 1 1
lim+ 6 4 − a 4
5 a→0

36 1
5 ( )
1
6 4 − 04

36 4
6
5

5. Evaluate the improper integral.

7
x2
∫−1 x 3 + 1
dx

Solution:

The integrand is undefined at the lower bound, x = − 1. Therefore, rewrite

the integral as
7
x2
∫
lim + dx
a→−1 a x + 1
3

Use u-substitution.

u = x3 + 1

305
 du
du = 3x 2 d x, so d x =
3x 2

Substitute.

u ( 3x 2 )
x=7
x 2 du
∫x=a
lim +
a→−1

x=7
1 1
3 a→−1+ ∫x=a u
lim du

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

x=7
1
lim ln | u |
3 a→−1+ x=a

7
1
lim + ln | x 3 + 1 |
3 a→−1 a

1
lim + ln | 73 + 1 | − ln | a 3 + 1 |
3 a→−1

1
lim + ln 344 − ln | a 3 + 1 |
3 a→−1

1
(ln 344 − ln 0)
3

1
(ln 344 − (−∞))
3

1
(ln 344 + ∞)
3

306
 1
(∞)
3

6. Evaluate the improper integral.

4
x+4
∫−4
dx
x + 8x + 16
2

Solution:

Simplify the integrand by factoring the denominator.

4
x+4
∫−4
dx
(x + 4)(x + 4)

4
1
∫−4
dx
x+4

The integrand is undefined at the lower bound, x = − 4. Therefore, rewrite

the integral as
4
1
a→−4+ ∫a x + 4
lim dx

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

307
 4
lim + ln | x + 4 |
a→−4 a

lim + ln | 4 + 4 | − ln | a + 4 |
a→−4

lim ln 8 − ln | a + 4 |
a→−4+

ln 8 − ln | − 4 + 4 |

ln 8 − ln 0

ln 8 − (−∞)

ln 8 + ∞

308
IMPROPER INTEGRALS, CASE 6

1. Evaluate the improper integral.

2
3
∫−2 2 5 x 3
dx

Solution:

The integrand is undefined between the lower and upper bounds, at x = 0.

So we’ll split the integral in two at x = 0.
0 2
3 3
∫−2 2 5 x 3 ∫0 2 5 x 3
dx + dx

The first integral is undefined at the upper bound, and the second integral
is undefined at the lower bound, so rewrite the expression as

b 2
3 3
∫−2 2 5 x 3 ∫a 2 5 x 3
lim− d x + lim+ dx
b→0 a→0

b 2
3 1 3 1
2 b→0− ∫−2 5 x 3 2 a→0 ∫a 5 x 3
lim d x + lim+ dx

b 2
3 3
2 b→0 ∫−2 2 a→0 ∫a
3 3
lim− x − 5 d x + lim+ x − 5 d x

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

309
 b 2
3 5 2 3 5 2
lim− x 5 + lim+ x 5
2 b→0 2 −2 2 a→0 2 a

3 5 2 5 2 3 5 2 5 2
lim− b 5 − (−2) 5 + lim+ (2) 5 − a 5
2 b→0 2 2 2 a→0 2 2

( ) ( )
3 5 2 5 2 3 5 2 5 2
(0) 5 − (−2) 5 + (2) 5 − (0) 5
2 2 2 2 2 2

( ) ( )
3 5 2 3 5 2
− (−2) 5 + (2) 5
2 2 2 2

15 2 15 2
− (−2) 5 + (2) 5
4 4

15 5 15 5
− 4+ 4
4 4

15 5 15 5
4− 4
4 4

2. Evaluate the improper integral.

4
7 dx
∫0 2(x − 2)2

Solution:

310
The integrand is undefined between the lower and upper bounds, at x = 2.
So we’ll split the integral in two at x = 2.
2 4
7 dx 7 dx
∫0 2(x − 2)2 ∫2 2(x − 2)2
+

The first integral is undefined at the upper bound, and the second integral
is undefined at the lower bound, so rewrite the expression as
a 4
7 dx 7 dx
a→2 ∫0 2(x − 2)2 a→2+ ∫a 2(x − 2)2
lim− + lim

a 4
7 1 7 1
2 a→2− ∫0 (x − 2)2 2 a→2 ∫a (x − 2)2
lim d x + lim+ dx

a 4
7 7
2 a→2 ∫0 2 a→2 ∫a
lim− (x − 2)−2 d x + lim+ (x − 2)−2 d x

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

a 4
7 7
lim− − (x − 2)−1 + lim+ − (x − 2)−1
2 a→2 0 2 a→2 a

a 4
7 1 7 1
lim− − + lim+ −
2 a→2 (x − 2) 0 2 a→2 (x − 2) a

2 a→2− (a − 2) ( (0 − 2) ) 2 a→2+ (4 − 2) ( (a − 2) )
7 1 1 7 1 1
lim − − − + lim − − −

7 1 1 7 1 1
lim− − + + lim+ − +
2 a→2 a − 2 0 − 2 2 a→2 4−2 a−2

311
 7 1 1 7 1 1
lim− − − + lim+ −
2 a→2 a − 2 2 2 a→2 a − 2 2

7 7
(∞) + (∞)
2 2

3. Evaluate the improper integral.

8
3 dx
∫−27 3
x

Solution:

The integrand is undefined between the lower and upper bounds, at x = 0.

So we’ll split the integral in two at x = 0.
0 8
3 dx 3 dx
∫−27 ∫0
+
x x
3 3

The first integral is undefined at the upper bound, and the second integral
is undefined at the lower bound, so rewrite the expression as

b 8
3 dx 3 dx
∫−27 ∫a
lim− + lim+
x x
3 3
b→0 a→0

b 8

∫−27 ∫a
− 13 1
3 lim− x d x + 3 lim+ x− 3 d x
b→0 a→0

312
Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

( 2 ) b→0 ( 2 ) a→0
b 8
3 2 3 2
3 lim− x 3 +3 lim+ x 3
−27 a

b 8
9 2 9 2
lim− x 3 + lim+ x 3
2 b→0 −27 2 a→0 a

9 2 2 9 2 2
lim− b 3 − (−27) 3 + lim+ 8 3 − a 3
2 b→0 2 a→0

9 2 9 2
lim− b 3 − (−3)2 + lim+ 22 − a 3
2 b→0 2 a→0

9 2 9 2
lim− b − (−3) + lim+ 22 − a 3
3 2
2 b→0 2 a→0

9 2 9 2
lim− b − 9 + lim+ 4 − a 3
3
2 b→0 2 a→0

9 2 9 2
(0 − 9) + (4 − 0 3 )
3
2 2

9 9
(−9) + (4)
2 2

81 36
− +
2 2

45
−
2

4. Evaluate the improper integral.

313
 3
x+2
∫−3 x 2 − 4
dx

Solution:

The integrand is undefined between the lower and upper bounds, at x = 2.

So we’ll split the integral in two at x = 2.
2 3
x+2 x+2
∫−3 x 2 − 4 ∫2 x 2 − 4
d x + dx

The first integral is undefined at the upper bound, and the second integral
is undefined at the lower bound, so rewrite the expression as

b 3
x+2 x+2
b→2− ∫−3 x 2 − 4 a→2 ∫a x 2 − 4
lim d x + lim+ dx

b 3
x+2 x+2
b→2− ∫−3 (x + 2)(x − 2) a→2 ∫a (x + 2)(x − 2)
lim d x + lim+ dx

b 3
1 1
∫ ∫
lim− d x + lim+ dx
b→2 −3 x − 2 a→2 a x − 2

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

b 3
lim− ln | x − 2 | + lim+ ln | x − 2 |
b→2 −3 a→2 a

lim− ln | b − 2 | − ln | − 3 − 2 | + lim+ ln | 3 − 2 | − ln | a − 2 |
b→2 a→2

314
 lim− ln | b − 2 | − ln 5 + lim+ ln 1 − ln | a − 2 |
b→2 a→2

lim ln | b − 2 | − ln 5 + lim+ − ln | a − 2 |
b→2− a→2

ln | 2 − 2 | − ln 5 + (−ln | 2 − 2 | )

ln 0 − ln 5 − ln 0

−∞ − ln 5 − (−∞)

−∞ − ln 5 + ∞

This value is indeterminate, which means that the integral does not
converge.

5. Evaluate the improper integral.

6
4 4
∫0 x − 3 x + 3
− dx

Solution:

The integrand is undefined between the lower and upper bounds, at x = 3.

So we’ll split the integral in two at x = 3.

3 6
4 4 4 4
∫0 x − 3 x + 3 ∫3 x − 3 x + 3
− dx + − dx

315
The first integral is undefined at the upper bound, and the second integral
is undefined at the lower bound, so rewrite the expression as

b 6
4 4 4 4
b→3− ∫0 x − 3 a→3 ∫a x − 3
lim − d x + lim+ − dx
x+3 x+3

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

b 6
lim 4 ln | x − 3 | − 4 ln | x + 3 | + lim+ 4 ln | x − 3 | − 4 ln | x + 3 |
b→3− 0 a→3 a

lim 4 ln | b − 3 | − 4 ln | b + 3 | − (4 ln | 0 − 3 | − 4 ln | 0 + 3 | )
b→3−

+ lim+ 4 ln | 6 − 3 | − 4 ln | 6 + 3 | − (4 ln | a − 3 | − 4 ln | a + 3 | )
a→3

lim− 4 ln | b − 3 | − 4 ln | b + 3 | − 4 ln 3 + 4 ln 3
b→3

+ lim+ 4 ln 3 − 4 ln 9 − 4 ln | a − 3 | + 4 ln | a + 3 |
a→3

lim− 4(ln | b − 3 | − ln | b + 3 | ) + lim+ 4 ln 3 − 4 ln 9 + 4(ln | a + 3 | − ln | a − 3 | )

b→3 a→3

4 ln 3 + 4 ln 6 − 4 ln 6 − 4 ln 9 + lim− 4 ln | b − 3 | − 4 lim+ ln | a − 3 |
b→3 a→3

1
4 ln + lim− 4 ln | b − 3 | − 4 lim+ ln | a − 3 |
3 b→3 a→3

1
4 ln + ∞ − ∞
3

The integral does not converge.

316
COMPARISON THEOREM

1. Use the Comparison Theorem to say whether the integral converges

or diverges.
∞
1
∫1
dx
2 + 2x 2

Solution:

Let

1
f (x) =
x2

1
g(x) =
2 + 2x 2

Compare the two functions using limits and L’Hospital’s Rule.

1
g(x) 2 + 2x 2 x2 2x 2 1
lim = lim 1 = lim = lim = lim =
x→∞ f (x) x→∞ x→∞ 2 + 2x 2 x→∞ 4x x→∞ 4 2
x2

So g(x) ≤ f (x) on [1,∞). Now compare the integral of both functions on

[1,∞).

∞ b b
1 1
∫1 ∫ ∫
−2
d x = lim d x = lim x dx
x 2 b→∞ 1 x 2 b→∞ 1

317
Integrate and evaluate over the interval.

b
x −1
lim
b→∞ −1 1

b
1
lim −
b→∞ x 1

b ( 1)
1 1
lim − − −
b→∞

1
lim 1 −
b→∞ b

1
1−
∞

1−0

So f (x) converges on [1,∞). Since g(x) ≤ f (x) on [1,∞), and f (x) converges on
[1,∞), g(x) also converges on [1,∞).

2. Use the Comparison Theorem to say whether the integral converges

or diverges.
∞
1
∫1
dx
5x + e x

318
Solution:

Let

1
f (x) =
ex

1
g(x) =
5x + e x

Compare the two functions.

1
g(x) 5x + e x ex
= =
f (x) 1 5x + e x
ex

So

ex
0< <1
5x + e x

on [1,∞). Now compare the integral of both functions on [1,∞).

∞ b b
1 1
∫1 b→∞ ∫1 e x b→∞ ∫1
−x
d x = lim d x = lim e dx
ex

Integrate and evaluate over the interval.

b
lim − e −x
b→∞ 1

b
1
lim − x
b→∞ e 1

319
 ( e)
1 1
lim − b − −
b→∞ e

1 1
lim − b
b→∞ e e

1 1
−
e e∞

1
e

So f (x) converges on [1,∞). Since g(x) ≤ f (x) on [1,∞), and f (x) converges on
[1,∞), g(x) also converges on [1,∞).

3. Can we use the harmonic series 1/x as a comparison series to say

whether or not the integral converges?
∞
x
∫1
dx
x2 + 1

Solution:

We’ll call the original function

x
g(x) =
x2 + 1

If we take just the leading terms from the numerator and denominator, we
get

320
 x 1
f (x) = =
x2 x

This comparison series is the harmonic series, which we know diverges.

Therefore, as long as g(x) ≥ f (x), we know the original series will diverge as
well.

x 1
≥
x2 + 1 x

x2 + 1
x≥
x

x2 ≥ x2 + 1

This inequality will always be false, which means the harmonic series is
useless to us as a comparison series, and we therefore can’t use the
harmonic series to as a comparison series to say whether or not the
integral converges.

321
INTEGRALS USING REDUCTION FORMULAS

1. Use a reduction formula to evaluate the integral.

∫
cot4 x d x

Solution:

Split up the integrand and make a substitution.

∫
cot4 x d x

∫
cot2 x cot2 x d x

∫
cot2 x (csc2 x − 1) d x

∫ ∫
cot2 x csc2 x d x − cot2 x d x

For the first integral, use substitution.

u = cot x

du = − csc2 x d x

du
dx =
−csc2 x

322
Make the substitution.

du
∫ ∫
u 2 csc2 x ⋅ − cot 2
x dx
−csc x
2

∫ ∫
− u 2 du − cot2 x d x

1
∫
− u 3 + C − cot2 x d x
3

1
∫
− cot3 x + C − cot2 x d x
3

Work on the second integral.

1
∫
− cot3 x + C − 1 + cot2 x − 1 d x
3

1
∫
− cot3 x + C − csc2 x − 1 d x
3

1
− cot3 x + C − (−cot x − x)
3

1
− cot3 x + cot x + x + C
3

2. Use a reduction formula to evaluate the integral.

∫
sec4 x d x

323
Solution:

Split up the integrand and make a substitution.

∫
sec4 x d x

∫
sec2 x sec2 x d x

∫
sec2 x (tan2 x + 1) d x

∫ ∫
sec2 x tan2 x d x + sec2 x d x

For the first integral, use substitution.

u = tan x

du = sec2 x d x

du
dx =
sec2 x

Make the substitution.

du
∫ ∫
sec2 x ⋅ u 2 + sec 2
x dx
sec x
2

∫ ∫
u 2 du + sec2 x d x

324
 1 3
∫
u + C + sec2 x d x
3

1
∫
tan3 x + C + sec2 x d x
3

Work on the second integral.

1
tan3 x + C + tan x
3

1
tan3 x + tan x + C
3

3. Use a reduction formula to evaluate the integral.

∫
csc4 x d x

Solution:

Split up the integrand and make a substitution.

∫
csc4 x d x

∫
csc2 x csc2 x d x

∫
csc2 x (cot2 x + 1) d x

325
 ∫ ∫
csc2 x cot2 x d x + csc2 x d x

For the first integral, use substitution.

u = cot x

du = − csc2 x d x

du
dx =
−csc2 x

Make the substitution.

du
∫ −csc2 x ∫
2 2 2
csc x ⋅ u + csc x dx

∫ ∫
− u 2 du + csc2 x d x

1 3
∫
− u + C + csc2 x d x
3

1
∫
− cot3 x + C + csc2 x d x
3

Work on the second integral.

1
− cot3 x + C + (−cot x)
3

1
− cot3 x − cot x + C
3

326
AREA BETWEEN UPPER AND LOWER CURVES

1. Find the area, in square units, between the two curves. Round your
answer to two decimal places.

f (x) = − 2x 2 + 7

g(x) = − x + 3

Solution:

Find the intersection points of the curves.

−2x 2 + 7 = − x + 3

2x 2 − x − 4 = 0

Use the quadratic formula.

−b ± b 2 − 4ac
x=
2a

−(−1) ± (−1)2 − 4(2)(−4) 1± 1 + 32 1± 33

x= = =
2(2) 4 4

Between these two points, f (x) > g(x). Therefore, the area between the
curves is

327
 1+ 33

∫1 −
4
A= − 2x 2 + 7 − (−x + 3) d x
33
4

1+ 33

∫1 −
4
A= − 2x 2 + 7 + x − 3 d x
33
4

1+ 33

∫1 −
4
A= − 2x 2 + x + 4 d x
33
4

Integrate and evaluate over the interval.

1+ 33
2 3 1 2 4
A = − x + x + 4x
3 2 1− 33
4

3 2

3( ) 2( ) ( )
2 1+ 33 1 1+ 33 1+ 33
A=− + +4
4 4 4

3 2

3( ) 2( ) ( )
2 1 − 33 1 1 − 33 1 − 33
− − + +4
4 4 4

3 2

3( ) 2( ) ( )
2 1 + 33 1 1 + 33 1 + 33
A=− + +4
4 4 4

3 2

3( ) 2( ) ( )
2 1 − 33 1 1 − 33 1 − 33
+ − −4
4 4 4

A ≈ 7.90

328
 2. Find the area, in square units, between the two curves.

f (x) = − 3x 2 + 9x

g(x) = 3x 2 − 9x

Solution:

Find the intersection points of the curves.

−3x 2 + 9x = 3x 2 − 9x

6x 2 − 18x = 0

x 2 − 3x = 0

x(x − 3) = 0

x = 0, 3

Between these two points, f (x) > g(x). Therefore, the area between the
curves is
3

∫0
A= f (x) − g(x) d x

∫0
A= − 3x 2 + 9x − (3x 2 − 9x) d x

329
 3

∫0
A= − 3x 2 + 9x − 3x 2 + 9x d x

∫0
A= − 6x 2 + 18x d x

Integrate and evaluate over the interval.

3
6 18 2
A = − x3 + x
3 2 0

3
A = − 2x 3 + 9x 2
0

3
A = 9x 2 − 2x 3
0

A = 9(3)2 − 2(3)3 − (9(0)2 − 2(0)3)

A = 9(9) − 2(27)

A = 81 − 54

A = 27

330
AREA BETWEEN LEFT AND RIGHT CURVES

1. Find the area, in square units, between the two curves. Round your
answer to two decimal places.

f (y) = 2y 2 + 12y + 15

g(y) = − 2y 2 − 12y − 15

Solution:

Find the intersection points of the curves.

2y 2 + 12y + 15 = − 2y 2 − 12y − 15

4y 2 + 24y + 30 = 0

2y 2 + 12y + 15 = 0

Use the quadratic formula.

−b ± b 2 − 4ac
y=
2a

−12 ± 122 − 4(2)(15) −12 ± 144 − 120 −12 ± 24

y= = =
2(2) 4 4

−12 ± 2 6 −6 ± 6
= =
4 2

331
Between these two points, g(y) > f (y). Therefore, the area between the
curves is

−6 + 6

∫ −6 −
2
A= − 2y 2 − 12y − 15 − (2y 2 + 12y + 15) dy
6
2

−6 + 6

∫ −6 −
2
A= − 2y 2 − 12y − 15 − 2y 2 − 12y − 15 dy
6
2

−6 + 6

∫ −6 −
2
A= − 4y 2 − 24y − 30 dy
6
2

Integrate and evaluate over the interval.

−6 + 6
4 3 24 2 2
A=− y − y − 30y
3 2 −6 − 6
2

−6 + 6
4 3 2
A = − y − 12y 2 − 30y
3 −6 − 6
2

3 2

3( ) ( ) ( )
4 −6 + 6 −6 + 6 −6 + 6
A=− − 12 − 30
2 2 2

3 2

3( ) ( ) ( )
4 −6 − 6 −6 − 6 −6 − 6
− − − 12 − 30
2 2 2

332
 3 2

3( ) ( ) ( )
4 −6 + 6 −6 + 6 −6 + 6
A=− − 12 − 30
2 2 2

3 2

3( ) ( ) ( )
4 −6 − 6 −6 − 6 −6 − 6
+ + 12 + 30
2 2 2

A ≈ 9.80

2. Find the area, in square units, between the two curves, and between
y = − 2 and y = − 5.

f (y) = 2y 2 + 12y + 19

y2
g(y) = − − 4y − 10
2

Solution:

Find the intersection points of the curves.

2 y2
2y + 12y + 19 = − − 4y − 10
2

4y 2 + 24y + 38 = − y 2 − 8y − 20

5y 2 + 32y + 58 = 0

Use the quadratic formula.

333
 −b ± b 2 − 4ac
y=
2a

−32 ± 322 − 4(5)(58) −32 ± 1,024 − 1,160 −32 ± −136

y= = =
2(5) 10 10

Because we can’t take the square root of a negative number, this means
that the curves do not intersect. Which means only y = − 2 and y = − 5
provide the limits of integration. f (y) is to the right of g(y), so

−2

( 2 )
y2
∫−5
2
A= 2y + 12y + 19 − − − 4y − 10 dy

−2
y2
∫−5
2
A= 2y + 12y + 19 + + 4y + 10 dy
2

−2
5 2
∫−5
A= y + 16y + 29 dy
2

Integrate and evaluate over the interval.

−2
5y 3 16y 2
A= + + 29y
6 2 −5

−2
5y 3
A= + 8y 2 + 29y
6 −5

( 6 )
5(−2)3 5(−5) 3
A= + 8(−2)2 + 29(−2) − + 8(−5)2 + 29(−5)
6

334
 ( )
5(−8) 5(−125)
A= + 8(4) − 58 − + 8(25) − 145
6 6

( )
40 625
A=− + 32 − 58 − − + 200 − 145
6 6

40 625
A=− + 32 − 58 + − 200 + 145
6 6

585
A= − 81
6

A = 16.5

3. Find the area, in square units, between the two curves.

f (y) = − y 3 + 6y

g(y) = − y 2

Solution:

Find the intersection points of the curves.

−y 3 + 6y = − y 2

y 3 − y 2 − 6y = 0

y(y 2 − y − 6) = 0

y(y − 3)(y + 2) = 0

335
 y = − 2, 0, 3

Between y = − 2 and y = 0, g(y) is to the right of f (y). And between y = 0 and

y = 3, f (y) is to the right of g(y). Therefore, the area between the curves is
0 3

∫−2 ∫0
A= − y 2 − (−y 3 + 6y) dy + − y 3 + 6y − (−y 2) dy

0 3

∫−2 ∫0
A= − y 2 + y 3 − 6y dy + − y 3 + 6y + y 2 dy

0 3

∫−2 ∫0
A= y 3 − y 2 − 6y dy + − y 3 + y 2 + 6y dy

Integrate and evaluate over the interval.

(4 ) ( 4 2 )
0 3
1 4 1 3 1 1 6
A= y − y − 3y 2 + − y4 + y3 + y2
3 −2 3 0

(4 )
1 4 1 3 1 1
A= (0) − (0) − 3(0)2 − (−2)4 − (−2)3 − 3(−2)2
4 3 3

[ 4 ( 4 )]
1 4 1 3 6 2 1 4 1 3 6 2
+ − (3) + (3) + (3) − − (0) + (0) + (0)
3 2 3 2

1 4 1 3 2 1 4 1 3 6 2
A = − (−2) + (−2) + 3(−2) − (3) + (3) + (3)
4 3 4 3 2

1 1 1 1 6
A = − (16) + (−8) + 3(4) − (81) + (27) + (9)
4 3 4 3 2

8 81
A = − 4 − + 12 − + 9 + 27
3 4

336
 8 81
A=− − + 44
3 4

32 243 528
A=− − +
12 12 12

253
A=
12

4. Find the area, in square units, between the two curves.

y2 1
f (y) = − 3y −
2 2

g(y) = 3

Solution:

Find the intersection points of the curves.

y2 1
− 3y − = 3
2 2

y 2 − 6y − 1 = 6

y 2 − 6y − 7 = 0

(y − 7)(y + 1) = 0

y = − 1, 7

337
Between these two points, g(y) is to the right of f (y). Therefore, the area
between the curves is

(2 2)
y2 1
∫−1
A= 3− − 3y − dy

7
y2 1
∫−1
A= 3− + 3y + dy
2 2

7
y2 7
∫−1 2
A= − + 3y + dy
2

Integrate and evaluate over the interval.

7
y3 3 2 7
A=− + y + y
6 2 2 −1

( )
(7)3 3 2 7 (−1)3 3 2 7
A=− + (7) + (7) − − + (−1) + (−1)
6 2 2 6 2 2

343 147 49 1 3 7
A=− + + − − +
6 2 2 6 2 2

344 200
A=− +
6 2

300 172
A= −
3 3

128
A=
3

338
 5. Find the area, in square units, between the two curves, and between
y = 0 and y = 4.

f (y) = 2y 2 − 8y + 9

y2
g(y) = − 2y − 1
2

Solution:

Find the intersection points of the curves.

2 y2
2y − 8y + 9 = − 2y − 1
2

4y 2 − 16y + 18 = y 2 − 4y − 2

3y 2 − 12y + 20 = 0

Use the quadratic formula.

−b ± b 2 − 4ac
y=
2a

−(−12) ± (−12)2 − 4(3)(20) 12 ± 144 − 240 12 ± −96

y= = =
2(3) 6 6

Because we can’t take the square root of a negative number, this means
that the curves do not intersect. Which means only y = 0 and y = 4 provide
the limits of integration. f (y) is to the right of g(y), so

339
 4

(2 )
y2
∫0
2
A = 2y − 8y + 9 − − 2y − 1 dy

4 2
y
∫0
A = 2y 2 − 8y + 9 − + 2y + 1 dy
2

4
3 2
∫0 2
A= y − 6y + 10 dy

Integrate and evaluate over the interval.

4
3 3 6 2
A= y − y + 10y
2(3) 2 0

4
1
A = y 3 − 3y 2 + 10y
2 0

(2 )
1 3 1 3
A= (4) − 3(4)2 + 10(4) − (0) − 3(0)2 + 10(0)
2

1
A= (64) − 3(16) + 40
2

A = 32 − 48 + 40

A = 24

340
SKETCHING THE AREA BETWEEN CURVES

1. Find the area of the region in the first quadrant that’s enclosed by the
graphs of the curves.

y= x

y =x−2

Solution:

The graph of the region is

341
Since these are more left-right curves, we should integrate with respect to
y, which means we need to solve both equations for x.

y= x becomes x = y 2

y = x − 2 becomes x = y + 2

Find the intersection points of the curves.

y2 = y + 2

y2 − y − 2 = 0

(y − 2)(y + 1) = 0

y = − 1, 2

So

x =y+2

x =−1+2

x=1

and

x =y+2

x =2+2

x=4

342
The curves intersect at (1, − 1) and (4,2), but only (4,2) is in the first
quadrant. With respect to y, that means the region is bounded below by
y = 0 and bounded above by y = 2.

So the area enclosed by the curves in the first quadrant is

2

∫0
A= (y + 2) − y 2 dy

Integrate and evaluate over the interval.

2
y2 y3
A= + 2y −
2 3 0

(2 3) (2 3)
22 23 02 03
A= + 2(2) − − + 2(0) −

( )
8
A= 2+4− − (0 + 0 − 0)
3

10
A=
3

2. Find the area of the region that’s enclosed by the graphs of the
curves.

y = x3

y= x+2

343
 y=− x+2

Solution:

The graph of the region is

Since these are more left-right curves, we should integrate with respect to
y, which means we need to solve both equations for x.
1
y = x 3 becomes x = y 3

y= x + 2 and y = − x + 2 both become x = y 2 − 2

Find the intersection points of the curves.

1
y 3 = y2 − 2

344
 y = (y 2 − 2)3

y = (y 4 − 4y 2 + 4)(y 2 − 2)

y = y 6 − 6y 4 + 12y 2 − 8

The roots of this polynomial are y = − 1 and y ≈ 1.79

So

x = y2 − 2

x = (−1)2 − 2

x =−1

and

x = y2 − 2

x = 1.792 − 2

x ≈ 1.20

The curves intersect at (−1, − 1) and (1.20,1.79). With respect to y, that

means the region is bounded below by y = − 1 and bounded above by
y = 1.79.

So the area enclosed by the curves in the first quadrant is

1.79

∫−1
1
A= y 3 − (y 2 − 2) dy

Integrate and evaluate over the interval.

345
 1.79
3 4 1
A = y 3 − y 3 + 2y
4 3 −1

(4 )
3 4 1 3 4 1
A= (1.79) 3 − (1.79)3 + 2(1.79) − (−1) 3 − (−1)3 + 2(−1)
4 3 3

3 4 1 3 3 1
A = (1.79) − (1.79) + 2(1.79) − − + 2
3
4 3 4 3

A ≈ 4.215

3. Find the area of the region that’s enclosed by the graphs of the
curves.

y = 2x 2

y = x 4 − 2x 2

Solution:

The graph of the region is

346
The region is symmetric about the y-axis, so the best way to calculate the
area is by integrating half the region with respect to x and then doubling
the answer.

Find the intersection points of the curves.

2x 2 = x 4 − 2x 2

x 4 − 4x 2 = 0

x 2(x 2 − 4) = 0

x 2(x + 2)(x − 2) = 0

x = − 2, 0, 2

So

y = 2x 2

347
 y = 2(−2)2

y=8

and

y = 2x 2

y = 2(0)2

y=0

and

y = 2x 2

y = 2(−2)2

y=8

The curves intersect at (−2,8), (0,0), and (2,8). With respect to x, that means
we’ll integrate from x = − 2 to x = 0, and then double the result.

So the area enclosed by the curves in the first quadrant is

2

∫0
A=2 2x 2 − (x 4 − 2x 2) d x

∫0
A=2 2x 2 − x 4 + 2x 2 d x

∫0
A=2 4x 2 − x 4 d x

348
 2

∫0
A= 8x 2 − 2x 4 d x

Integrate and evaluate over the interval.

2
8 2
A = x3 − x5
3 5 0

( )
8 3 2 5 8 3 2 5
A= (2) − (2) − (0) − (0)
3 5 3 5

8 2
A = (8) − (32)
3 5

64 64
A= −
3 5

320 192
A= −
15 15

128
A=
15

349
DIVIDING THE AREA BETWEEN CURVES INTO EQUAL PARTS

1. The line x = k divides the area bounded by the curves into two equal
parts. Find k.

f (x) = 4x − x 2

g(x) = 5 − 2x

Solution:

The graph of the area, with the line x = k, bounded by the two functions is:

Find the intersection points of the curves.

4x − x 2 = 5 − 2x

350
 x 2 − 6x + 5 = 0

(x − 5)(x − 1) = 0

x = 1, 5

So

y = 5 − 2x

y = 5 − 2(1)

y=3

and

y = 5 − 2x

y = 5 − 2(5)

y =−5

The curves intersect at (1,3) and (5, − 5). With respect to x, that means the
region is bounded below by x = 1 and bounded above by x = 5.

∫1
(4x − x 2) − (5 − 2x) d x

∫1
4x − x 2 − 5 + 2x d x

∫1
− x 2 + 6x − 5 d x

351
Integrate and evaluate over the interval.

5
1
− x 3 + 3x 2 − 5x
3 1

( 3 )
1 1
− (5)3 + 3(5)2 − 5(5) − − (1)3 + 3(1)2 − 5(1)
3

125 1
− + 75 − 25 + − 3 + 5
3 3

124
− + 52
3

124 156
− +
3 3

32
3

Half of this area is 16/3, which means we can set up an integral on [1,k]
that’s equal to 16/3.

k
16
∫1
(4x − x 2) − (5 − 2x) d x =
3

k
16
∫1
2
4x − x − 5 + 2x d x =
3

k
16
∫1
2
− x + 6x − 5 d x =
3

k
1 16
− x 3 + 3x 2 − 5x =
3 1 3

352
 ( 3 )
1 3 2 1 3 2 16
− k + 3k − 5k − − (1) + 3(1) − 5(1) =
3 3

1 3 2 1 16
− k + 3k − 5k + − 3 + 5 =
3 3 3

−k 3 + 9k 2 − 15k + 1 − 9 + 15 = 16

−k 3 + 9k 2 − 15k = 9

The roots of the polynomial are

k=3

k =3±2 3

but x = 3 − 2 3 and x = 3 + 2 3 are both outside the interval of the

bounded region. Which means x = 3 must be the line that divides the area
of the region in half.

2. The line x = k divides the area bounded by the curves into two equal
parts, for x > 0. Find k. Round your answer to the nearest three decimal
places.

f (x) = x 3 − 12x

g(x) = x 2

Solution:

353
The graph of the area, with the line x = k, bounded by the two functions is:

Find the intersection points of the curves.

x 3 − 12x = x 2

x 3 − x 2 − 12x = 0

x(x 2 − x − 12) = 0

x(x − 4)(x + 3) = 0

x = − 3, 0, 4

So

y = x2

354
 y = (−3)2

y=9

and

y = x2

y = 02

y=0

and

y = x2

y = 42

y = 16

The two curves intersect at (−3,9), (0,0) and (4,16). But we’re only interested
in x > 0, so we can ignore (−3,9). So the area of the enclosed region is:
4

∫0
(x 2) − (x 3 − 12x) d x

∫0
x 2 − x 3 + 12x d x

4
1 3 1 4
x − x + 6x 2
3 4 0

355
 (3 )
1 3 1 4 2 1 3 1 4
(4) − (4) + 6(4) − (0) − (0) + 6(0)2
3 4 4

1 1
(64) − (256) + 6(16)
3 4

64
− 64 + 96
3

64
+ 32
3

64 96
+
3 3

160
3

Half of this area is 80/3, which means we can set up an integral on [0,k]
that’s equal to 80/3.

k
80
∫0
(x 2) − (x 3 − 12x) d x =
3

k
80
∫0
x 2 − x 3 + 12x d x =
3

k
1 3 1 4 80
x − x + 6x 2 =
3 4 0 3

(3 )
1 3 1 4 1 3 1 4 80
k − k + 6k 2 − (0) − (0) + 6(0)2 =
3 4 4 3

356
 1 3 1 4 80
k − k + 6k 2 =
3 4 3

1 1 80
(12) k 3 − (12) k 4 + (12)6k 2 = (12)
3 4 3

4k 3 − 3k 4 + 72k 2 = 320

3k 4 − 4k 3 − 72k 2 + 320 = 0

The roots of the polynomial are

k ≈ 2.20

k ≈ 5.19

but only k ≈ 2.20 is inside the interval x = [0,4]. Which means x ≈ 2.20 must
be the line that divides the area of the region in half.

3. The line x = k divides the area bounded by the curves on π /4 ≤ x ≤ 5π /4

into two equal parts. Find k.

f (x) = sin x

g(x) = cos x

Solution:

The graph of the area, with the line x = k, bounded by the two functions is:

357
Find the intersection points of the curves.

sin x = cos x

π 5π
x= ,
4 4

So

y = sin x
π
y = sin
4

2
y=
2

and

358
 y = sin x

5π
y = sin
4

2
y=−
2

The two curves intersect at (π /4, 2 /2) and (5π /4, − 2 /2). So the area of the
enclosed region is:
5π

∫π
4
sin x − cos x d x
4

5π
4
−cos x − sin x
π
4

( 4)
5π 5π π π
−cos − sin − −cos − sin
4 4 4

5π 5π π π
−cos − sin + cos + sin
4 4 4 4

( 2 ) ( 2 )
2 2 2 2
− − − − + +
2 2

2 2 2 2
+ + +
2 2 2 2

4 2
2

359
 2 2

Half of this area is 2, which means we can set up an integral on [π /4,k]

that’s equal to 2.

∫π
sin x − cos x d x = 2
4

k
−cos x − sin x = 2
π
4

( )
π π
−cos k − sin k − −cos − sin = 2
4 4

π π
−cos k − sin k + cos + sin = 2
4 4

2 2
−cos k − sin k + + = 2
2 2

−cos k − sin k + 2= 2

−cos k − sin k = 0

−cos k = sin k

3π
k=
4

Which means x = 3π /4 must be the line that divides the area of the region
in half.

360
 ARC LENTH OF Y=F(X)

1. Find the arc length of the curve over [0,2].

4 2 3
y= x2 + 6
3

Solution:

The derivative of the function is

3 4 2 3 −1
f′(x) = ⋅ x2
2 3
1
f′(x) = 2 2x 2

f′(x) = 2 2x

Then the arc length over the interval is

∫a
1 + [ f′(x)] d x
2
L=

2
1 + [2 2x ] d x
2

∫0
L=

∫0
L= 1 + 4(2x) d x

361




 2

∫0
L= 1 + 8x d x

Use substitution.

u = 1 + 8x

du du
= 8, so du = 8 d x, so d x =
dx 8

Substitute, integrate, then back-substitute and evaluate over the interval.

( 8 )
x=2
du
∫x=0
L= u

1 x=2 1
8 ∫x=0
L= u 2 du

8 3 )
(
x=2
1 2 3
L= u2
x=0

x=2
1 3
L= u2
12 x=0

2
1 3
L= (1 + 8x) 2
12 0

1 3 1 3
L= (1 + 8(2)) 2 − (1 + 8(0)) 2
12 12

1 3 1 3
L= (17) 2 − (1) 2
12 12

362
 1 3 1
L= (17) 2 −
12 12

17 17 − 1
L=
12

2. Find the arc length of the curve over [−3,3]. Round your answer to the
nearest three decimal places.

y = x2 − 3

Solution:

The derivative of the function is

f′(x) = 2x

Then the arc length over the interval is

∫a
1 + [ f′(x)] d x
2
L=

∫−3
1 + [2x] d x
2
L=

∫−3
L= 1 + 4x 2 d x

Use trigonometric substitution.

363


 a=1

u = 2x

2x = tan θ, so θ = arctan(2x)

1
x= tan θ
2

1
d x = sec2 θ dθ
2

Substitute.

(2 )
x=3
1
∫x=−3
2
L= 1 + tan θ sec2 θ dθ

1 x=3
2 ∫x=−3
L= sec2 θ 1 + tan2 θ dθ

1 x=3
2 ∫x=−3
L= sec2 θ sec2 θ dθ

1 x=3
2 ∫x=−3
L= sec3 θ dθ

Integrate.

2 (2 )
x=3
1 1 1
L= sec θ tan θ + ln | sec θ + tan θ |
2 x=−3

x=3
1
L = (sec θ tan θ + ln | sec θ + tan θ | )
4 x=−3

364
Back-substitute, then evaluate over the interval.

1
L= (sec(arctan(2x))tan(arctan(2x))
4
3
+ln | sec(arctan(2x)) + tan(arctan(2x)) | )
−3

3
1
L = ( (2x)2 + 1 ⋅ (2x) + ln (2x) + 1 + (2x) )
2
4 −3

3
1
L = (2x 4x 2 + 1 + ln 4x + 1 + 2x )
2
4 −3

1
L = (2(3) 4(3)2 + 1 + ln 4(3)2 + 1 + 2(3) )
4

1
− (2(−3) 4(−3)2 + 1 + ln 4(−3)2 + 1 + 2(−3) )
4

1 1
L = (6 37 + ln 37 + 6 ) − ( − 6 37 + ln 37 − 6 )
4 4

3 1 3 1
L= 37 + ln( 37 + 6) + 37 − ln( 37 − 6)
2 4 2 4

1 1
L = 3 37 + ln( 37 + 6) − ln( 37 − 6)
4 4

1
L = 3 37 +
4 [ln( 37 + 6) − ln( 37 − 6)]

365
 1 37 + 6
L = 3 37 + ln
4 37 − 6

L ≈ 19.494

3. Set up the arc length integral of the curve over [−1,2]. Do not evaluate
the integral.

x3
y= + x2 + 5
3

Solution:

The derivative of the function is

f′(x) = x 2 + 2x

Then the arc length over the interval is

∫a
1 + [ f′(x)] d x
2
L=

∫−1
1 + [x 2 + 2x] d x
2
L=

∫−1
L= 1 + x 4 + 4x 3 + 4x 2 d x

366


 4. Set up the arc length integral of the curve over [−π, π]. Do not evaluate
the integral.

y = sin x − 5

Solution:

The derivative of the function is

f′(x) = cos x

Then the arc length over the interval is

∫a
1 + [ f′(x)] d x
2
L=

∫−π
L= 1 + [cos x]2 d x

∫−π
L= 1 + cos2 x d x

5. Set up the arc length integral of the curve over [−π /4,π /4]. Do not
evaluate the integral.

y = tan x sec x + 2

367


 Solution:

The derivative of the function is

f′(x) = sec2 x sec x + tan x sec x tan x

f′(x) = sec3 x + tan2 x sec x

Then the arc length over the interval is

∫a
1 + [ f′(x)] d x
2
L=

∫− π
4
L= 1 + (sec3 x + tan2 x sec x)2 d x
4

∫− π
4
L= 1 + tan4 x sec2 x + 2 tan2 x sec4 x + sec6 x d x
4

368



 ARC LENTH OF X=G(Y)

1. Find the arc length of the curve on the interval 1 ≤ y ≤ 6.

y 2 ln y
x= − −8
2 4

Solution:

The derivative of the function is

1
g′(y) = y −
4y

Then the arc length over the interval is

∫c
1 + [g′(y)] dy
2
L=

[ ]
6 2
1
∫1
L= 1+ y− dy
4y

6
1 1
∫1
2
L= 1+y − + dy
2 16y 2

6
1 1
∫1
L= y2 + + dy
16y 2 2

369


 ( 4y )
6 2
1
∫1
L= y+ dy

6
1
∫1
L= y+ dy
4y

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

6
1 1
L = y 2 + ln | y |
2 4 1

( )
1 2 1 1 2 1
L= (6) + ln | 6 | − (1) + ln | 1 |
2 4 2 4

1 1 1
L = 18 + ln 6 − − (0)
4 2 4

35 1
L= + ln 6
2 4

2. Find the arc length of the curve on the interval 0 ≤ y ≤ 4.

1 2 3
x= (y + 2) 2 + 5
3

Solution:

The derivative of the function is

370
 1 2 1
g′(y) = (y + 2) 2 (2y)
2
1
g′(y) = y(y 2 + 2) 2

g′(y) = y y2 + 2

Then the arc length over the interval is

∫c
1 + [g′(y)] dy
2
L=

[ ]
4 2

∫0
L= 1+ y y2 + 2 dy

∫0
L= 1 + y 2(y 2 + 2) dy

∫0
L= y 4 + 2y 2 + 1 dy

∫0
L= (y 2 + 1)2 dy

∫0
L= y 2 + 1 dy

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

4
1 3
L = y +y
3 0

371




 (3 )
1 3 1 3
L = (4) + 4 − (0) + 0
3

64
L= +4
3

64 12
L= +
3 3

76
L=
3

3. Find the arc length of the curve on the interval 4 ≤ y ≤ 16.

3
x = y 2 + 15

Solution:

The derivative of the function is

3 1
g′(y) = y2
2

3
g′(y) = y
2

Then the arc length over the interval is

∫c
1 + [g′(y)] dy
2
L=

372



 [2 ]
16 2
3
∫4
L= 1+ y dy

16
9
∫4
L= 1+ y dy
4

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

3

3 9( 4 )
16
2 4 9 2
L= ⋅ 1+ y
4

27 ( 4 )
16
8 9 2
L= 1+ y
4

3 3

27 ( ) 27 ( 4 )
8 9 8 9 2 2
L= 1 + (16) − 1 + (4)
4

8 3 8
( )
3
L= 1 + 36 2
− (1 + 9) 2
27 27

8 3 8 3
L= (37) 2 − (10) 2
27 27

296 37 80 10
L= −
27 27

296 37 − 80 10
L=
27

4. Find the arc length of the curve on the interval 1 ≤ y ≤ 8.

373
 3

x = (1 − y )
2 2
3

Solution:

The derivative of the function is

( 3 )
3 2 1
1

g′(y) = (1 − y 3 ) − y − 3
2 2

(1 − y )
2
− 13 2
g′(y) = − y 3

Then the arc length over the interval is

∫c
1 + [g′(y)] dy
2
L=

2
8

[ ]
1

1 + −y − 3 (1 − y 3 )
∫1
1 2 2
L= dy

8
1 + y − 3 (1 − y 3 ) dy
∫1
2 2
L=

8
1 + (y − 3 − y 0) dy
∫1
2
L=

∫1
2
L= 1 + y − 3 − 1 dy

374



 8

∫1
2
L= y − 3 dy

8 1

∫1 ( ) dy
2
− 23
L= y

∫1
1
L= y − 3 dy

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

8
3 2
L = y3
2 1

3 2 3 2
L= (8) 3 − (1) 3
2 2

3 3
L= (4) − (1)
2 2

3
L= (4 − 1)
2

3
L = (3)
2

9
L=
2

5. Find the arc length of the curve on the interval 1 ≤ y ≤ 5.

375
 y2
x= − ln y
8

Solution:

The derivative of the function is

y 1
g′(y) = −
4 y

Then the arc length over the interval is

∫c
1 + [g′(y)] dy
2
L=

[4 y ]
5 2
y 1
∫1
L= 1+ − dy

5
y2 1 1
∫1
L= 1+ − + 2 dy
16 2 y

5
y2 1 1
∫1
L= + + dy
16 2 y 2

(4 y)
5 2
y 1
∫1
L= + dy

5
y 1
∫1 4 y
L= + dy

376


Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

5
y2
L= + ln | y |
8 1

52 12
L= + ln | 5 | − − ln | 1 |
8 8

25 1
L= + ln 5 − − 0
8 8

24
L= + ln 5
8

L = 3 + ln 5

377
AVERAGE VALUE

1. Find the average value of f (x) over the interval [−3,5].

f (x) = − 3x 3 − 5x 2 + x + 4

Solution:

Plug the interval and the function into the average value integral formula.

b
1
∫
favg = f (x) d x
b−a a

5
1
5 − (−3) ∫−3
favg = − 3x 3 − 5x 2 + x + 4 d x

8( 4 )
5
1 3 4 5 3 1 2
favg = − x − x + x + 4x
3 2 −3

8( 4 )
1 3 5 1
favg = − (5)4 − (5)3 + (5)2 + 4(5)
3 2

8( 4 )
1 3 5 1
− − (−3) − (−3) + (−3)2 + 4(−3)
4 3
3 2

( ) ( )
1 1,875 625 25 1 243 135 9
favg = − − + + 20 − − + + − 12
8 4 3 2 8 4 3 2

1,875 625 25 20 243 135 9 12

favg = − − + + + − − +
32 24 16 8 32 24 16 8

378
 1,632 760 16 32
favg = − − + +
32 24 16 8

95
favg = − 51 − +1+4
3

95
favg = − 46 −
3

138 95
favg = − −
3 3

233
favg = −
3

2. Find the average value of g(x) over the interval [−4,3].

1 3 3 2 2
g(x) = x + x + x − 2
3 2 5

Solution:

Plug the interval and the function into the average value integral formula.

b
1
b − a ∫a
gavg = g(x) d x

3
1 1 3 3 2 2
3 − (−4) ∫−4 3
gavg = x + x + x − 2 dx
2 5

379
 ( )
3
1 1 4 1 3 1 2
gavg = x + x + x − 2x
7 12 2 5 −4

7 ( 12 ) 7 ( 12 )
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
gavg = (3)4 + (3)3 + (3)2 − 2(3) − (−4)4 + (−4)3 + (−4)2 − 2(−4)
2 5 2 5

27 27 9 6 64 24 16
gavg = + + − − + −
28 14 35 7 21 7 35

7 27 64 27 18
gavg = − + − + +
35 28 21 14 7

84 405 1,280 810 1,080

gavg = − + − + +
420 420 420 420 420

931
gavg =
420

133
gavg =
60

3. Find the average value of h(x) over the interval [−2,3].

h(x) = 3(2x − 5)2

Solution:

Plug the interval and the function into the average value integral formula.

b
1
∫
havg = h(x) d x
b−a a

380
 3
1
3 − (−2) ∫−2
havg = 3(2x − 5)2 d x

3 3
5 ∫−2
havg = 4x 2 − 20x + 25 d x

5 (3 )
3
3 4 3
havg = x − 10x 2 + 25x
−2

3
4 3
havg = x − 6x 2 + 15x
5 −2

(5 )
4 3 4
havg = (3) − 6(3)2 + 15(3) − (−2)3 − 6(−2)2 + 15(−2)
5

108 32
havg = − 54 + 45 + + 24 + 30
5 5

140
havg = + 45
5

havg = 28 + 45

havg = 73

4. Set up the average value formula for f (x) over the interval [−4,4]. Do
not evaluate the integral.

f (x) = 16 − x 2

381
Solution:

Plug the interval and the function into the average value integral formula.

b
1
∫
favg = f (x) d x
b−a a

4
1
4 − (−4) ∫−4
favg = 16 − x 2 d x

1 4
8 ∫−4
favg = 16 − x 2 d x

382
MEAN VALUE THEOREM FOR INTEGRALS

1. Use the Mean Value Theorem for integrals to find a value for f (c).
20

∫4
f (x) d x = 26

Solution:

Comparing the integral to the Mean Value Theorem formula,

∫a
f (x) d x = f (c)(b − a)

we have a = 4 and b = 20. So we can set up the equation for f (c).

f (c)(20 − 4) = 26

16f (c) = 26

26 13
f (c) = =
16 8

2. Use the Mean Value Theorem for integrals to find a value for g(c).

35

∫−15
g(x) d x = − 20

383
Solution:

Comparing the integral to the Mean Value Theorem formula,

∫a
g(x) d x = g(c)(b − a)

we have a = − 15 and b = 35. So we can set up the equation for g(c).

g(c)(35 − (−15)) = − 20

50g(c) = − 20

20 2
g(c) = − =−
50 5

3. Use the Mean Value Theorem for integrals to find a value for h(c).

∫−1
h(x) d x = 48

Solution:

Comparing the integral to the Mean Value Theorem formula,

∫a
h(x) d x = h(c)(b − a)

384
we have a = − 1 and b = 5. So we can set up the equation for h(c).

h(c)(5 − (−1)) = 48

6h(c) = 48

48
h(c) = =8
6

385
SURFACE AREA OF REVOLUTION

1. Find the surface area of the object generated by revolving the curve
around the x-axis on the interval 2 ≤ x ≤ 7.

1
f (x) = x+4
3

Solution:

The surface area of an object formed by rotating the graph of a function

y = f (x) on the interval [a, b] is given by

( dx )
b 2
dy
∫a
A= 2π y 1+ dx

If we plug in what we’ve been given, we get

∫2 ( 3 ) (3)
7 2
1 1
A = 2π x+4 1+ dx

∫2 ( 3 )
7
1 1
A = 2π x+4 1+ dx
9

∫2 ( 3 )
7
1 10
A = 2π x+4 dx
9

386
 7
2 10π 1
∫2 3
A= x + 4 dx
3

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

7

(6 )
2 10π 2
x
A= + 4x
3
2

( ) ( )
2 10π 72 2 10π 22
A= + 4(7) − + 4(2)
3 6 3 6

( 6 ) ( )
2 10π 49 2 10π 4
A= + 28 − +8
3 3 6

( 6 ) ( 6 )
2 10π 49 168 2 10π 4 48
A= + − +
3 6 3 6

( 6 ) (6 )
2 10π 217 2 10π 52
A= −
3 3

434 10π 104 10π

A= −
18 18

Combine into one fraction.

434 10π − 104 10π

A=
18

330 10π
A=
18

387
 55 10π
A=
3

2. Find the surface area of the object generated by revolving the curve
around the x-axis on the interval 1 ≤ x ≤ 5.

2
g(x) = x+5
3

Solution:

The surface area of an object formed by rotating the graph of a function

y = g(x) on the interval [a, b] is given by

( dx )
b 2
dy
∫a
A= 2π y 1+ dx

If we plug in what we’ve been given, we get

∫1 ( 3 ) (3)
5 2
2 2
A = 2π x+5 1+ dx

∫1 ( 3 )
5
2 4
A = 2π x+5 1+ dx
9

∫1 ( 3 )
5
2 13
A = 2π x+5 dx
9

388
 5
2 13π 2
∫1 3
A= x + 5 dx
3

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

(3 )
2 13π 1 2
A= x + 5x
3
1

(3 ) ( )
2 13π 1 2 2 13π 1 2
A= (5) + 5(5) − (1) + 5(1)
3 3 3

( 3 ) ( )
2 13π 25 2 13π 1
A= + 25 − +5
3 3 3

( 3 ) ( 3 )
2 13π 25 75 2 13π 1 15
A= + − +
3 3 3 3

( 3 ) (3 )
2 13π 100 2 13π 16
A= −
3 3

200 13π 32 13π

A= −
9 9

Combine into one fraction.

168 13π
A=
9

56 13π
A=
3

389
 3. Set up the integral that approximates the surface area of the object
generated by revolving the curve around the x-axis on the interval
−3 ≤ x ≤ 3. Do not evaluate the integral.

h(x) = x 2 + 3

Solution:

The surface area of an object formed by rotating the graph of a function

y = h(x) on the interval [a, b] is given by

( dx )
b 2
dy
∫a
A= 2π y 1+ dx

If we plug in what we’ve been given, we get

3

∫−3
A= 2π(x 2 + 3) 1 + (2x)2 d x

∫−3
A = 2π (x 2 + 3) 1 + 4x 2 d x

4. Find the surface area of the object generated by revolving the curve
around the line y = − 1 on the interval 3 ≤ x ≤ 9.

g(x) = 2 2x + 7

390
Solution:

The surface area of an object formed by rotating the graph of a function

y = g(x) on the interval [a, b] is given by

( dx )
b 2
dy
∫a
A= 2π y 1+ dx

Since the curve is rotated around the line y = − 1, which is 1 unit below the
x-axis, add 1 to the function to get g(x) = 2 2x + 8 in the integral.

9
2π (2 2x + 8)
∫3
A= 1 + (2 2)2 d x

∫3 (
A = 2π 2 2x + 8) 1 + 4(2) d x

∫3
A = 2 9π 2 2x + 8 d x

∫3
A = 6π 2 2x + 8 d x

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

9
A = 6π ( 2x 2 + 8x)
3

A = 6π ( 2(9)2 + 8(9)) − 6π ( 2(3)2 + 8(3))

391
A = 6π (81 2 + 72) − 6π (9 2 + 24)

A = 6π (81 2 + 72 − 9 2 − 24)

A = 6π (72 2 + 48)

A = 144π (3 2 + 2)

392
SURFACE OF REVOLUTION EQUATION

1. Find an equation for the surface generated by revolving the curve

around the x-axis.

3x 2 + 2y 2 = 8

Solution:

Pick a point P(x, y, z) on the surface of the rotation. Then pick another point
Q(x, y1,0) with the same x-coordinate as point P.

Then for point Q, the equation is 3x 2 + 2y12 = 8. Since the distance from the
x-axis to point P is the same as the distance from the x-axis to point Q, the
square of the distances are also equal.

dP = y2 + z2 dP2 = y 2 + z 2

dQ = y12 + 02 dQ2 = y12

So

y12 = y 2 + z 2

Substitute this expression into the original equation, simplify, and get an
equation for the surface.

3x 2 + 2 (y 2 + z 2) = 8

393
 3x 2 + 2y 2 + 2z 2 = 8

2. Find an equation for the surface generated by revolving the curve

around the y-axis.

5x 2 = 8y 2

Solution:

Pick a point P(x, y, z) on the surface of the rotation. Then pick another point
Q(x, y1,0) with the same y-coordinate as point P.

Then for point Q, the equation is 5x12 = 8y 2. Since the distance from the y
-axis to point P is the same as the distance from the y-axis to point Q, the
square of the distances are also equal.

dP = y2 + z2 dP2 = y 2 + z 2

dQ = x12 + 02 dQ2 = x12

So

x12 = x 2 + z 2

Substitute this expression into the original equation, simplify, and get an
equation for the surface.

5(x 2 + z 2) = 8y 2

394
 5x 2 + 5z 2 = 8y 2

3. Find an equation for the surface generated by revolving the curve

around the x-axis.

9x 2 + 25y 2 = 36

Solution:

Pick a point P(x, y, z) on the surface of the rotation. Then pick another point
Q(x, y1,0) with the same x-coordinate as point P.

Then for point Q, the equation is 9x 2 + 25y12 = 36. Since the distance from
the x-axis to point P is the same as the distance from the x-axis to point Q,
the square of the distances are also equal.

dP = y2 + z2 dP2 = y 2 + z 2

dQ = y12 + 02 dQ2 = y12

So

y12 = y 2 + z 2

Substitute this expression into the original equation, simplify, and get an
equation for the surface.

9x 2 + 25(y 2 + z 2) = 36

395
9x 2 + 25y 2 + 25z 2 = 36

396
DISKS, HORIZONTAL AXIS

1. Use disks to find the volume of the solid that’s formed by rotating the
region enclosed by the curves about the x-axis.

y = x 2 + 2x + 3

x = − 3 and x = 1

Solution:

A sketch of the region and the axis of revolution y = 0 is

The volume given by disks is

397
 b

∫a
π [ f (x)] d x
2
V=

∫−3
V= π(x 2 + 2x + 3)2 d x

∫−3
V= π(x 4 + 2x 3 + 3x 2 + 2x 3 + 4x 2 + 6x + 3x 2 + 6x + 9) d x

∫−3
V=π x 4 + 4x 3 + 10x 2 + 12x + 9 d x

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

(5 )
1
1 5 4 10 3
V=π x +x + x + 6x 2 + 9x
3 −3

(5 )
1 5 10 3
V=π (1) + 1 + (1) + 6(1)2 + 9(1)
4
3

(5 )
1 10
−π (−3)5 + (−3)4 + (−3)3 + 6(−3)2 + 9(−3)
3

(5 )
1 10
V=π +1+ +6+9
3

(5 )
1 10
−π (−243) + 81 + (−27) + 6(9) − 27
3

(5 ) ( 5 )
1 10 243
V=π + + 16 − π − + 81 − 90 + 54 − 27
3

398
 (5 ) ( 5 )
1 10 243
V=π + + 16 − π − + 18
3

( 15 15 ) ( 15 )
3 50 240 729 270
V=π + + −π − +
15 15

293 459
V= π+ π
15 15

752π
V=
15

2. Use disks to find the volume of the solid that’s formed by rotating the
region enclosed by the curves about the x-axis.

y= x−1

x = 1 and x = 10

Solution:

A sketch of the region and the axis of revolution y = 0 is

399
The volume given by disks is

∫a
π [ f (x)] d x
2
V=

10
π ( x − 1) d x
2

∫1
V=

10

∫1
V=π x − 1 dx

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

(2 )
10
1 2
V=π x −x
1

(2 ) (2 )
1 1 2
V=π (10)2 − 10 − π (1) − 1

400
 (2 )
1
V = π(50 − 10) − π −1

1
V = 40π + π
2

81π
V=
2

3. Use disks to find the volume of the solid that’s formed by rotating the
region enclosed by the curves about the x-axis.

y = 2 sec x
π π
x = − and x =
3 3

Solution:

A sketch of the region and the axis of revolution y = 0 is

401
The volume given by disks is

∫a
π [ f (x)] d x
2
V=

∫− π
3
V= π(2 sec x)2 d x
3

∫− π
3
V = 4π sec2 x d x
3

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

π
3
V = 4π tan x
− π3

402
 ( 3)
π π
V = 4π tan − 4π tan −
3

V = 4π 3 − 4π (− 3 )

V = 4 3π + 4 3π

V = 8 3π

4. Set up the integral that approximates the volume of the solid that’s
formed by rotating the region enclosed by the curves about the x-axis. Do
not evaluate the integral.

y = arctan x

x = 0 and x = 5

Solution:

A sketch of the region and the axis of revolution y = 0 is

403
The volume given by disks is

∫a
π [ f (x)] d x
2
V=

∫0
V= π arctan2 x d x

∫0
V=π arctan2 x d x

5. Use disks to find the volume of the solid that’s formed by rotating the
region enclosed by the curves about the x-axis.

y= 25 − x 2

404
 x = − 4 and x = 4

Solution:

A sketch of the region and the axis of revolution y = 0 is

The volume given by disks is

∫a
π [ f (x)] d x
2
V=

∫−4 [
π 25 − x ] d x
2
2
V=

∫−4
V=π 25 − x 2 d x

405
Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

( 3 )
4
1
V = π 25x − x 3
−4

( ) ( )
1 1
V = π 25(4) − (4)3 − π 25(−4) − (−4)3
3 3

( 3 ) ( 3)
64 64
V = π 100 − − π −100 +

( 3 3 )
300 64 300 64
V=π − + −
3 3

472π
V=
3

406
DISKS, VERTICAL AXIS

1. Use disks to find the volume of the solid that’s formed by rotating the
region enclosed by the curves about the y-axis.

1
x= y − 2 and x = 0
6

y = 1 and y = 6

Solution:

A sketch of the region and the axis of revolution x = 0 is

The volume given by disks is

407
 d

∫c
π [ f (y)] dy
2
V=

∫1 [ 6 ]
6 2
1
V= π y − 2 dy

6
1 2 2
∫1 36
V=π y − y + 4 dy
3

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

( 108 )
6
1 3 1 2
V=π y − y + 4y
3 1

( 108 ) ( 108 )
1 1 1 1
V=π (6)3 − (6)2 + 4(6) − π (1)3 − (1)2 + 4(1)
3 3

( 108 3 )
1 1
V = π (2 − 12 + 24) − π − +4

( )
1 1
V = π 2 − 12 + 24 − + −4
108 3

( 108 3 )
1 1
V = π 10 − +

( 108 108 108 )

1,080 1 36
V=π − +

1,115π
V=
108

408
 2. Use disks to find the volume of the solid that’s formed by rotating the
region enclosed by the curves about the y-axis.

3
x= y + 2 and x = 0
7

y = 2 and y = 5

Solution:

A sketch of the region and the axis of revolution y = 0 is

The volume given by disks is

∫c
π [ f (y)] dy
2
V=

409
 ∫2 [ 7 ]
5 2
3
V= π y+2 dy

5
9 12
∫2 49
V=π y+ y + 4 dy
7

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

( 98 )
5
9 2 8 3
V=π y + y 2 + 4y
7 2

( 98 ) ( 98 )
9 8 3 9 8 3
V=π (5)2 + (5) 2 + 4(5) − π (2)2 + (2) 2 + 4(2)
7 7

( 98 )
225 8 125 36 8 8
V=π + + 20 − − −8
7 98 7

( 14 )
27 8 125 − 8 8
V=π + + 12
7

( 14 14 )
27 16 125 − 16 8 168
V=π + +
14

16 125 − 16 8 + 195
V= π
14

80 5 − 32 2 + 195
V= π
14

410
 3. Use disks to find the volume of the solid that’s formed by rotating the
region enclosed by the curves about the y-axis.

x = y 2 + 1 and x = 0

y = − 2 and y = 2

Solution:

A sketch of the region and the axis of revolution x = 0 is

The volume given by disks is

∫c
π [ f (y)] dy
2
V=

411
 2

∫−2
π [y 2 + 1] dy
2
V=

∫−2
V=π y 4 + 2y 2 + 1 dy

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

(5 )
2
1 5 2 3
V=π y + y +y
3 −2

(5 ) (5 )
1 5 2 3 1 2
V=π (2) + (2) + 2 − π (−2)5 + (−2)3 − 2
3 3

(5 ) ( 5 )
32 16 32 16
V=π + +2 −π − − −2
3 3

(5 )
32 16 32 16
V=π + +2+ + +2
3 5 3

(5 )
64 32
V=π + +4
3

( 15 15 )
192 160 60
V=π + +
15

412π
V=
15

412
 4. Use disks to find the volume of the solid that’s formed by rotating the
region enclosed by the curves about the y-axis. Set up the integral, but do
not evaluate it.

x = sin y

y = 0 and y = π

Solution:

A sketch of the region and the axis of revolution x = 0 is

The volume given by disks is

413
 d

∫c
π [ f (y)] dy
2
V=

∫0
π [sin y] dy
2
V=

∫0
V=π sin2 y dy

414
DISKS, VOLUME OF THE FRUSTUM

1. Use disks to find the volume of the frustum of a right circular cone with
height h = 18 inches, a lower base radius R = 9 inches, and an upper radius
of r = 6 inches.

Solution:

A sketch of the frustum is

We could create this frustum by rotating this green region about the y
-axis.

415
The slope of the line contains (9,0) and (6,18). The slope that connects the
points is

18 − 0 18
m= =− =−6
6−9 3

Then the line that gives the slant height is

y = − 6x + 54

y − 54 = − 6x

y − 54
x=
−6

1
x =9− y
6

Then the volume of the frustum, using disks, is given by

∫c
π [ f (y)] dy
2
V=

416
 [ 6 ]
18 2
1
∫0
V= π 9 − y dy

18
1 2
∫0
V=π 81 − 3y + y dy
36

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

( 108 )
18
3 1 3
V = π 81y − y 2 + y
2 0

( ) ( )
3 2 1 3 3 2 1
V = π 81(18) − (18) + (18) − π 81(0) − (0) + (0)3
2 108 2 108

V = π(1,458 − 486 + 54)

V = 1,026π

2. Use disks to find the volume of the frustum of a right circular cone
with height h = 16 inches, a lower base radius R = 12 inches, and an upper
radius of r = 9 inches.

Solution:

A sketch of the frustum is

417
We could create this frustum by rotating this green region about the y
-axis.

The slope of the line contains (12,0) and (9,16). The slope that connects the
points is

16 − 0 16
m= =−
9 − 12 3

Then the line that gives the slant height is

418
 16
y=− x + 64
3

16
y − 64 = − x
3

3y − 192 = − 16x

3
x=− y + 12
16

Then the volume of the frustum, using disks, is given by

∫c
π [ f (y)] dy
2
V=

[ 16 ]
16 2
3
∫0
V= π − y + 12 dy

16
9 2 9
∫0
V=π y − y + 144 dy
256 2

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

( 256 )
16
3 3 9 2
V=π y − y + 144y
4 0

( 256 ) ( 256 )
3 9 3 9
V=π (16)3 − (16)2 + 144(16) − π (0)3 − (0)2 + 144(0)
4 4

V = π(48 − 576 + 2,304)

V = 1,776π

419
 3. Use disks to find the volume of the frustum of a right circular cone
with height h = 7 inches, a lower base radius R = 8 3 inches, and an upper
radius of r = 3 inches.

Solution:

A sketch of the frustum is

We could create this frustum by rotating this green region about the y
-axis.

420
The slope of the line contains (8 3,0) and ( 3,7). The slope that connects

the points is

7−0 7 1
m= =− =−
3−8 3 7 3 3

Then the line that gives the slant height is

1
y=− x+8
3

1
y−8=− x
3

1
8−y = x
3

x=8 3− 3y

Then the volume of the frustum, using disks, is given by

421
 d

∫c
π [ f (y)] dy
2
V=

∫0 [
3y] dy
2
V= π 8 3−

∫0
V=π 192 − 48y + 3y 2 dy

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

7
V = π(192y − 24y 2 + y 3)
0

V = π(192(7) − 24(7)2 + 73) − π(192(0) − 24(0)2 + 03)

V = π(1,344 − 1,176 + 343)

V = π(1,344 − 1,176 + 343)

V = 511π

422
WASHERS, HORIZONTAL AXIS

1. Use washers to find the volume of the solid that’s formed by rotating
the region enclosed by the curves about the x-axis.
2
y = x 3 and y = 4

x = 0 and x = 8

Solution:

A sketch of the region is

The volume given by washers is

423
 b

∫a [
π f (x)] − π [g(x)] d x
2 2

8
π 4 − π [x ] d x
2

∫0 [ ]
2 2
3

∫0
4
π 16 − x 3 d x

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

( 7 )
8
3 7
π 16x − x 3
0

( ) ( )
3 7 3 7
π 16(8) − (8) 3 − π 16(0) − (0) 3
7 7

( )
3 7
π 128 − (2)
7

896π 384π
−
7 7

512π
7

2. Use washers to find the volume of the solid that’s formed by rotating
the region enclosed by the curves about the x-axis.

y = x 2 and y = x

424
Solution:

A sketch of the region is

The volume given by washers is

∫a [
π f (x)] − π [g(x)] d x
2 2

1
π [ x ] − π [x 2] d x
2

∫0
2

∫0
π x − x4 d x

425
Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

(2 5 )
1
1 2 1 5
π x − x
0

(2 ) (2 )
1 2 1 5 1 2 1 5
π (1) − (1) − π (0) − (0)
5 5

(2 5)
1 1
π −

( 10 10 )
5 2
π −

3π
10

3. Use washers to find the volume of the solid that’s formed by rotating
the region enclosed by the curves about the x-axis.

y = x 2 and y = x 3

Solution:

A sketch of the region is

426
The volume given by washers is

∫a
π [ f (x)] − π [g(x)] d x
2 2

∫0
π [x 2] − π [x 3] d x
2 2

∫0
π x4 − x6 d x

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

(5 7 )
1
1 5 1 7
π x − x
0

427
 (5 ) (5 )
1 5 1 7 1 5 1 7
π (1) − (1) − π (0) − (0)
7 7

(5 7)
1 1
π −

( 35 35 )
7 5
π −

2π
35

428
WASHERS, VERTICAL AXIS

1. Use washers to find the volume of the solid that’s formed by rotating
the region enclosed by the curves about the y-axis.

x = y 2 − 4y + 6 and x = 6

y = 2 and y = 4

Solution:

A sketch of the region is

The volume given by washers is

429
 d

∫c [
π f (y)] − π [g(y)] dy
2 2

∫2
π [6] − π [y 2 − 4y + 6] dy
2 2

∫2
36π − π(y 4 − 4y 3 + 6y 2 − 4y 3 + 16y 2 − 24y + 6y 2 − 24y + 36) dy

∫2
π 36 − y 4 + 8y 3 − 28y 2 + 48y − 36 dy

∫2
−π y 4 − 8y 3 + 28y 2 − 48y dy

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

(5 )
4
1 5 28 3
−π y − 2y 4 + y − 24y 2
3 2

(5 ) (5 )
1 5 28 1 5 28
−π (4) − 2(4)4 + (4)3 − 24(4)2 + π (2) − 2(2)4 + (2)3 − 24(2)2
3 3

(5 ) (5 )
1 28 1 28
−π (1,024) − 2(256) + (64) − 24(16) + π (32) − 2(16) + (8) − 24(4)
3 3

( 5 ) ( )
1,024 1,792 32 224
−π − 512 + − 384 + π − 32 + − 96
3 5 3

1,024π 1,792π 32π 224π

− − + 896π + + − 128π
5 3 5 3

430
 992π 1,568π
− − + 768π
5 3

2,976π 7,840π 11,520π

− − +
15 15 15

704π
15

2. Use washers to find the volume of the solid that’s formed by rotating
the region enclosed by the curves about the y-axis.

x = 12(y 2 − y 3) + 2 and x = 2

y = 0 and y = 1

Solution:

A sketch of the region is

431
The volume given by washers is

∫c [
π f (y)] − π [g(y)] dy
2 2

∫0
π [12(y 2 − y 3) + 2] − π [2] dy
2 2

∫0
π [12y 2 − 12y 3 + 2] − 4π dy
2

∫0
π(144y 4 − 144y 5 + 24y 2 − 144y 5 + 144y 6 − 24y 3 + 24y 2 − 24y 3 + 4) − 4π dy

∫0
48π 3y 6 − 6y 5 + 3y 4 − y 3 + y 2 dy

432
Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

(7 3 )
1
3 7 3 1 1
48π y − y6 + y5 − y4 + y3
5 4 0

(7 )
3 7 6 3 5 1 4 1 3
48π (1) − (1) + (1) − (1) + (1)
5 4 3

(7 )
3 7 3 1 1
−48π (0) − (0)6 + (0)5 − (0)4 + (0)3
5 4 3

(7 5 4 3)
3 3 1 1
48π −1+ − +

( 420 420 420 420 420 )

180 420 252 105 140
48π − + − +

( 35 )
47
4π

188π
35

3. Use washers to find the volume of the solid that’s formed by rotating
the region enclosed by the curves about the y-axis.

y4 y2 y2
x= − + 2 and x = +2
4 2 2

y = − 2 and y = 2

433
Solution:

A sketch of the region is

The volume given by washers is

∫c [
π f (y)] − π [g(y)] dy
2 2

2 2
2

[2 ] [4 ]
2 4 2
y y y
∫−2
π +2 −π − +2 dy
2

( 16 )
y4 y 8
y 6
y 4
y 6
y 4
y 4

∫−2
π + 2y 2 + 4 − − + − + − y2 + − y 2 + 4 dy
4 8 2 8 4 2

434
 2
y4 y8 y6 y4 y6 y4 y4
∫−2
2 2
π + 2y + 4 − + − + − +y − + y 2 − 4 dy
4 16 8 2 8 4 2

2
y8 y6
∫−2 16
π − + − y 4 + 4y 2 dy
4

2
y8 y6
∫−2
−π − + y 4 − 4y 2 dy
16 4

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

( 144 28 3 )
y9 y 7 y 5 4y 3
−π − + −
5 −2

( 144 3 ) ( 144 3 )
(2)9 (2)7 (2)5 4(2)3 (−2)9 (−2)7 (−2)5 4(−2)3
−π − + − +π − + −
28 5 28 5

( 144 3 )
512 128 32 32 512 128 32 32
π − + − + − + − +
28 5 3 144 28 5

( 9 3)
64 64 64 64
π − + − +
7 5

( 945 945 )
6,720 8,640 12,096 20,160
π − + − +
945 945

9,984π
945

3,328π
315

435
CYLINDRICAL SHELLS, HORIZONTAL AXIS

1. Use cylindrical shells to find the volume of the solid that’s formed by
rotating the region enclosed by the curves about the x-axis.

(2)
2
y
x= and x = 4

y=0

Solution:

A sketch of the region is

The volume given by cylindrical shells is

436
 d

∫c
2π y [ f (y) − g(y)] dy

( )
4 2

[ ]
y
∫0
2π y 4 − dy
2

∫0 ( 4)
y2
2π y 4 − dy

4
y3
∫0
2π 4y − dy
4

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

( 16 )
2 y4
2π 2y −
0

( ) ( 16 )
442 2 04
2π 2(4) − − 2π 2(0) −
16

2π(32 − 16)

32π

2. Use cylindrical shells to find the volume of the solid that’s formed by
rotating the region enclosed by the curves about the x-axis.
y
x= and x = y
3

437
Solution:

A sketch of the region is

The volume given by cylindrical shells is

∫c
2π y [ f (y) − g(y)] dy

[ 3]
9
y
∫0
2π y y− dy

9
y2
∫0
3
2π y − dy2
3

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

438
 9

(5 9)
2 5 y3
2π y2 −
0

(5 9) (5 9)
2 5 93 2 5 03
2π (9) 2 − − 2π (0) 2 −

( 5 )
486
2π − 81

( 5 5 )
486 405
2π −

162π
5

3. Use cylindrical shells to find the volume of the solid that’s formed by
rotating the region enclosed by the curves about the x-axis.

y y
x= 3
and x =
3 6

y=3

Solution:

A sketch of the region is

439
The volume given by cylindrical shells is

∫c
2π y [ f (y) − g(y)] dy

( 6)
y y
∫0
2π y 3
− dy
3

3
9
3
6
∫0 3
4 3
2π y − 3 y 2 dy
6

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

( 7 )
9
3
7 6 5
2π y −
3 y 2
15 0

440
 ( 7 ) ( 7 )
9 9
3 3
7 6 5 7 6 5
2π (3) −
3 (3) 2 − 2π (0) −
3 (0) 2
15 15

( 7 )
9
3
7 6 5
2π (3) −
3 (3) 2
15

2π(1.3115584)

8.241

4. Use cylindrical shells to find the volume of the solid that’s formed by
rotating the region enclosed by the curves about the x-axis.

y
x =4− y and x = 2 −
6

y = 0 and y = 3

Solution:

A sketch of the region is

441
The volume given by cylindrical shells is

∫c
2π y [ f (y) − g(y)] dy

[ ( 6 )]
y
2π y (4 − y) −
∫0
2− dy

∫0 ( 6)
y
2π y 2− y+ dy

3 y
∫0
3
2π 2y − y + y
2 dy
6

3
6
∫0
3 3
2π 2y − y +
2 y 2 dy
6

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

442
 3

( 15 )
22 5 6 5
2π y − y +
2 y2
5 0

( ) ( )
22 5 6 5 2 2 5 6 5
2π 3 − (3) +
2 (3) − 2π 0 − (0) +
2 2 (0) 2
5 15 5 15

( 15 )
18 3 27 2
2π 9 − +
5

( 15 )
2 3 3 2
18π 1 − +
5

2π(5.31020)

33.365

443
WORK DONE TO LIFT A WEIGHT OR MASS

1. Find the work required to lift a 50-pound load from ground level up into
a tree house that’s 60 feet above the ground, if the chain being used to lift
the weight itself weighs 1 pound per foot.

Solution:

The work required to lift the load is

50 lbs ⋅ 60 ft = 3,000 ft-lbs

The work required to lift the chain is

60 60
x2 602 02
∫0
x dx = = − = 1,800 ft-lbs
2 0 2 2

So the total work required to lift the load is

3,000 + 1,800 = 4,800 ft-lbs

2. Find the work required to lift a 40-pound box of roofing nails from
ground level up onto a roof that’s 35 feet above the ground, if the rope
being used to lift the weight itself weighs 2 ounces per foot.

444
Solution:

The work required to lift the box is

40 lbs ⋅ 35 ft = 1,400 ft-lbs

2 ounces is equivalent to 1/8 pounds, which means the work required to lift
the rope is

35 35
1 x2 352 02
∫0
x dx = = − = 76.5625 ft-lbs
8 16 0 16 16

So the total work required to lift the load is

1,400 + 76.5625 = 1,476.5625 ≈ 1,477 ft-lbs

3. Find the work required to lift a 5,500-pound load of concrete from

ground level up onto a construction platform that’s 75 feet above the
ground, if the cable being used to lift the weight itself weighs 8 pounds per
foot.

Solution:

The work required to lift the box is

5,500 lbs ⋅ 75 ft = 412,500 ft-lbs

The work required to lift the cable is

445
 75 75

∫0
8x d x = 4x 2 = 4(75)2 − 4(0)2 = 22,500 ft-lbs
0

So the total work required to lift the load is

412,500 + 22,500 = 435,000 ft-lbs

4. Find the work required to lift a 5-gallon bucket of water, with each
gallon of water weighing 6.75 pounds and the bucket weighing 2 pounds,
from ground level up onto a scaffold that’s 14 feet above the ground, if the
rope being used to lift the weight itself weighs 8 ounces per foot.

Solution:

The weight of the bucket of water is

2 + 5 ⋅ 6.75 = 35.75 lbs

The work required to lift the box is

35.75 lbs ⋅ 14 ft = 500.5 ft-lbs

8 ounces is 8/16, or 1/2 pounds, which means the work required to lift the
rope is

14 14
1 x2 142 02
∫0
x dx = = − = 49 ft-lbs
2 4 0 4 4

So the total work required to lift the load is

446
 500.5 + 49 = 549.5 ft-lbs

5. Find the work required to lift a 7,200-pound load of rocks from ground
level up into a dump truck that’s 13 feet above the ground, if the chain
being used to lift the weight itself weighs 12 pounds per foot.

Solution:

The work required to lift the load of concrete is

7,200 lbs ⋅ 13 ft = 93,600 ft-lbs

The work required to lift the chain is

13 13

∫0
2
12x d x = 6x = 6(13)2 − 6(0)2 = 1,014 ft-lbs
0

So the total work required to lift the load is

93,600 + 1,014 = 94,614 ft-lbs

447
WORK DONE ON ELASTIC SPRINGS

1. Find the work required to stretch a spring 3 feet beyond its normal
length, if a force of 5s lbs is required to stretch the spring s feet beyond its
normal length.

Solution:

The work needed to stretch a spring a feet is

a

∫0
W= F(s) ds

Using Hooke’s Law, F(s) = ks where k is a constant, and s is the distance, we

have ks = 5s, so k = 5 and F(s) = 5s. So the work to stretch the spring 3 feet
beyond its normal length is

3 3
5s 2 5(3)2 5(0)2 45
∫0
W = 5s ds = = − = = 22.5 ft-lbs
2 0 2 2 2

2. Find the work required to stretch a spring 7 inches beyond its normal
length, if a force of 9s lbs is required to stretch the spring s inches beyond
its normal length.

Solution:

448
The work needed to stretch a spring a inches is
a

∫0
W= F(s) ds

Using Hooke’s Law, F(s) = ks where k is a constant, and s is the distance, we

have ks = 9s, so k = 9 and F(s) = 9s. So the work to stretch the spring 7
inches beyond its normal length is

7 7
9s 2 9(7)2 9(0)2 441
∫0
W = 9s ds = = − = = 220.5 in-lbs
2 0 2 2 2

3. Find the work required to stretch a spring 6 feet beyond its normal
length, if a force of 15s lbs is required to stretch the spring s feet beyond
its normal length.

Solution:

The work needed to stretch a spring a feet is

a

∫0
W= F(s) ds

Using Hooke’s Law, F(s) = ks where k is a constant, and s is the distance, we

have ks = 15s, so k = 15 and F(s) = 15s. So the work to stretch the spring 6
feet beyond its normal length is

449
 6 6
15s 2 15(6)2 15(0)2 540
∫0
W = 15s ds = = − = = 270 ft-lbs
2 0 2 2 2

4. Find the work required to stretch a spring 1 foot beyond its normal
length, if a force of 3.5s lbs is required to stretch the spring s feet beyond
its normal length.

Solution:

The work needed to stretch a spring a feet is

a

∫0
W= F(s) ds

Using Hooke’s Law, F(s) = ks where k is a constant, and s is the distance, we

have ks = 0.5s, so k = 3.5 and F(s) = 3.5s. So the work to stretch the spring 1
foot beyond its normal length is

1 1
3.5s 2 3.5(1)2 3.5(0)2 3.5
∫0
W = 3.5s ds = = − = = 1.75 ft-lbs
2 0 2 2 2

5. Find the work required, in foot pounds, to stretch a spring 58 inches

beyond its normal length, if a force of 4s lbs is required to stretch the
spring s feet beyond its normal length.

450
Solution:

The work needed to stretch a spring a feet is

a

∫0
W= F(s) ds

Using Hooke’s Law, F(s) = ks where k is a constant, and s is the distance, we

have ks = 4s, so k = 4 and F(s) = 4s. But 58 inches is equivalent to 58/12, or
29/6 feet. So the work to stretch the spring 58 inches beyond its normal
length is

( 6 )
29
2
29 29 2
4s 29 841
∫0
6 6 6
W= 4s ds = = 2s 2 =2 − 2(0)2 = ft-lbs
2 0 0 18

451
WORK DONE TO EMPTY A TANK

1. Find the work required to empty a tank that is 6 feet wide, 8 feet tall,
12 feet long, and completely full. The tank will be emptied by pumping the
liquid in the tank through a hose to a height of 2 feet above the top of the
tank. The liquid in the tank has a density of 58.9 lbs/ft3.

Solution:

The volume of a slice of the liquid is

6 ⋅ 12 ⋅ dy ft3

72 dy ft3

The force needed to pump a slice of the liquid, which is weight times
volume, is

58.9 ⋅ 72 dy ft3

The distance the liquid will be pumped is 10 − y feet. The liquid will be
pumped from an original height of 0 to 8 feet. So the work required is
8

∫0
W= (10 − y)(58.9 ⋅ 72) dy

∫0
W = 4,240.8 10 − y dy

452
 8

( 2)
y2
W = 4,240.8 10y −
0

[( 2) ( 2 )]
82 02
W = 4,240.8 10(8) − − 10(0) −

W = 4,240.8(48 − 0)

W = 203,558.4 ft-lbs

2. Find the work required to empty an in-ground swimming pool that is

20 feet wide, 4 feet deep, 18 feet long, and completely full. The pool will be
emptied by pumping the water in the pool through a hose over the top of
the pool. The water in the pool has a density of 62.43 lbs/ft3.

Solution:

The volume of a slice of the water is

20 ⋅ 18 ⋅ dy ft3

360 dy ft3

The force needed to pump a slice of the water, which is weight times
volume, is

62.43 ⋅ 360 dy ft3

453
The distance the water will be pumped is 4 − y feet. The water will be
pumped from an original height of 0 to 4 feet. So the work required is
4

∫0
W= (4 − y)(62.43 ⋅ 360) dy

∫0
W = 22,474.8 4 − y dy

( 2)
y2
W = 22,474.8 4y −
0

[( 2) ( 2 )]
42 02
W = 22,474.8 4(4) − − 4(0) −

W = 22,474.8(8 − 0)

W = 179,798.4 ft-lbs

3. Find the work required to empty a cylindrical tank that is 12 feet tall,
has a radius of 6 feet, and is half full of diesel fuel. The tank will be emptied
by pumping the fuel in the tank through a hose to a height of 6 feet above
the top of the tank. The diesel fuel in the tank has a density of 53.5 lbs/ft3.

Solution:

The volume of a slice of the fuel is

454
 π ⋅ 62 ⋅ dy ft3

36π dy ft3

The force needed to pump a slice of the fuel, which is weight times
volume, is

53.5 ⋅ 36π dy ft3

The distance the fuel will be pumped is 18 − y feet. The fuel will be pumped
from an original height of 0 to 6 feet. So the work required is

∫0
W= (18 − y)(53.5 ⋅ 36π) dy

∫0
W = 1,926π 18 − y dy

( 2)
y2
W = 1,926π 18y −
0

[( ) ( 2 )]
62 02
W = 1,926π 18(6) − − 18(0) −
2

W = 1,926π(90 − 0)

W = 173,340π ft-lbs

4. Find the work required to empty an above-ground child’s pool that is 2

feet tall, has a diameter of 8 feet, and is three-fourths full. The pool will be

455
emptied by pumping the water in the pool through a hose over the top of
the pool. The water in the pool has a density of 62.4 lbs/ft3.

Solution:

The volume of a slice of the water is

π ⋅ 42 ⋅ dy ft3

16π dy ft3

The force needed to pump a slice of the water, which is weight times
volume, is

62.4 ⋅ 16π dy ft3

The distance the water will be pumped is 2 − y feet. The water will be
pumped from an original height of 0 to 1.5 feet. So the work required is

1.5

∫0
W= (2 − y)(62.4 ⋅ 16π) dy

1.5

∫0
W = 998.4π 2 − y dy

1.5

( 2)
y2
W = 998.4π 2y −
0

[( 2 ) ( 2 )]
1.52 02
W = 998.4π 2(1.5) − − 2(0) −

456
 W = 998.4π(1.875 − 0)

W = 5,881.061448 ft-lbs

5. Find the work required to empty a cylindrical tank that is 8 feet tall,
has a radius of 9 feet, and is three-fourths full of gasoline. The tank will be
emptied by pumping the gas in the tank through a hose into a truck that’s
8 feet above the top of the tank. The gasoline in the tank has a density of
54.5 lbs/ft3.

Solution:

The volume of a slice of the water is

π ⋅ 92 ⋅ dy ft3

81π dy ft3

The force needed to pump a slice of the gasoline, which is weight times
volume, is

54.5 ⋅ 81π dy ft3

The distance the gas will be pumped is 16 − y feet. The gas will be pumped
from an original height of 0 to 6 feet. So the work required is

∫0
W= (16 − y)(54.5 ⋅ 81π) dy

457
 6

∫0
W = 4,414.5π 16 − y dy

( 2)
y2
W = 4,414.5π 16y −
0

[( ) ( 2 )]
62 02
W = 4,414.5π 16(6) − − 16(0) −
2

W = 4,414.5π(78 − 0)

W = 344,331π ft-lbs

458
WORK DONE BY A VARIABLE FORCE

1. Calculate the variable force on the interval [0,2].

F(x) = 3x 2 + 2x

Solution:

Plugging the force equation and the interval into the integral formula for
work done by a variable force, we get

∫a
W= F(x) d x

∫0
W= 3x 2 + 2x d x

2
3 2
W=x +x
0

W = 23 + 22 − (03 + 02)

W=8+4

W = 12

2. Calculate the variable force on the interval [0,π /2].

459
 F(x) = 3 sin(2x) + x

Solution:

Plugging the force equation and the interval into the integral formula for
work done by a variable force, we get

∫a
W= F(x) d x

∫0
2
W= 3 sin(2x) + x d x

π
3 cos(2x) x 2 2
W=− +
2 2 0

3 cos (2 ⋅ 2) (2)
2
π π

( 2 )
3 cos(2(0)) (0)2
W=− + − − +
2 2 2

π2
3 cos π 43 cos 0
W=− + +
2 2 2

3(−1) π 2 3(1)
W=− + +
2 8 2

π2
W=3+
8

460
 3. Calculate the variable force on the interval [1,6].

F(x) = x 2 + x + 1

Solution:

Plugging the force equation and the interval into the integral formula for
work done by a variable force, we get

∫a
W= F(x) d x

∫1
W= x2 + x + 1 d x

6
x3 x2
W= + +x
3 2 1

( )
63 62 13 12
W= + +6− + +1
3 2 3 2

216 36 1 1
W= + +6− − −1
3 2 3 2

432 108 36 2 3 6
W= + + − − −
6 6 6 6 6 6

565
W=
6

461
 4. Calculate the variable force on the interval [0,π /3].

F(x) = 2 tan2 x

Solution:

Plugging the force equation and the interval into the integral formula for
work done by a variable force, we get

∫a
W= F(x) d x

∫0
3
W= 2 tan2 x d x

∫0
3
W=2 sec2 x − 1 d x

π
3
W = 2(tan x − x)
0

( 3 3)
π π
W = 2 tan − − 2(tan 0 − 0)

( )
π
W=2 3− − 2(0 − 0)
3

2π
W=2 3−
3

462
 5. Calculate the variable force on the interval [1.2,3.5].

F(x) = 4(x − 2)3 − 2(x − 2) + 1

Solution:

Plugging the force equation and the interval into the integral formula for
work done by a variable force, we get

∫a
W= F(x) d x

3.5

∫1.2
W= 4(x − 2)3 − 2(x − 2) + 1 d x

3.5
4 2
W = (x − 2) − (x − 2) + x
1.2

W = (3.5 − 2)4 − (3.5 − 2)2 + 3.5 − ((1.2 − 2)4 − (1.2 − 2)2 + 1.2)

W = 1.54 − 1.52 + 3.5 − 0.84 + 0.82 − 1.2

W = 5.0625 − 2.25 + 3.5 − 0.4096 + 0.64 − 1.2

W = 5.0625 − 2.25 + 3.5 − 0.4096 + 0.64 − 1.2

W = 5.3429

463
MOMENTS OF THE SYSTEM

1. Calculate the moments of the system.

m1 = 3; P1(2,5)

m2 = 4; P2(−2,6)

m3 = 6; P3(4, − 5)

Solution:

If we plug the given points and masses into the formulas for the moments
of a system, we get

My = m1(x1) + m2(x2) + m3(x3)

My = 3(2) + 4(−2) + 6(4) = 22

and

Mx = m1(y1) + m2(y2) + m3(y3)

Mx = 3(5) + 4(6) + 6(−5) = 9

2. Calculate the moments of the system.

m1 = 7; P1(5,2)

464
 m2 = 3; P2(−4,3)

m3 = 5; P3(−3,4)

Solution:

If we plug the given points and masses into the formulas for the moments
of a system, we get

My = m1(x1) + m2(x2) + m3(x3)

My = 7(5) + 3(−4) + 5(−3) = 8

and

Mx = m1(y1) + m2(y2) + m3(y3)

Mx = 7(2) + 3(3) + 5(4) = 43

3. Calculate the moments of the system.

m1 = 9; P1(7,5)

m2 = − 5; P2(3,8)

m3 = 4; P3(5,4)

Solution:

465
If we plug the given points and masses into the formulas for the moments
of a system, we get

My = m1(x1) + m2(x2) + m3(x3)

My = 9(7) + (−5)(3) + 4(5) = 68

and

Mx = m1(y1) + m2(y2) + m3(y3)

Mx = 9(5) + (−5)(8) + 4(4) = 21

466
MOMENTS OF THE SYSTEM, X-AXIS

1. Calculate the moments of the system.

Solution:

The moments of the system are

My = m1(x1) + m2(x2) + m3(x3)

My = 6(1) + 3(8) + 9(4) = 66

and

Mx = m1(y1) + m2(y2) + m3(y3)

Mx = 6(0) + 3(0) + 9(0) = 0

2. Calculate the moments of the system.

467
Solution:

The moments of the system are

My = m1(x1) + m2(x2) + m3(x3)

My = 4(12) + 7(−2) + 2(4) = 42

and

Mx = m1(y1) + m2(y2) + m3(y3)

Mx = 4(0) + 7(0) + 2(0) = 0

3. Calculate the moments of the system.

Solution:

The moments of the system are

My = m1(x1) + m2(x2) + m3(x3)

My = 2(25) + 5(10) + 8(−5) = 60

and

468
Mx = m1(y1) + m2(y2) + m3(y3)

Mx = 2(0) + 5(0) + 8(0) = 0

469
CENTER OF MASS OF THE SYSTEM

1. Find the center of mass of the system if My = 16 and Mx = 22 and the

total mass is mT = 14.

Solution:

The center of mass is the point

( mT mT ) ( 14 14 ) ( 7 7 )
My Mx 16 22 8 11
(x̄, ȳ) = , = , = ,

2. Find the center of mass of the system if My = 32.5 and Mx = 28.5 and the
total mass is mT = 7.5.

Solution:

The center of mass is the point

( mT mT ) ( 7.5 7.5 ) ( 3 5 )
My Mx 32.5 28.5 13 19
(x̄, ȳ) = , = , = ,

470
CENTER OF MASS OF THE SYSTEM, X-AXIS

1. Find the center of mass of the system.

Solution:

The moments of the system are

My = m1(x1) + m2(x2) + m3(x3)

My = 8(1) + 6(5) + 2(−4) = 30

and

Mx = m1(y1) + m2(y2) + m3(y3)

Mx = 8(0) + 6(0) + 2(0) = 0

The total mass in the system is

mT = m1 + m2 + m3

mT = 8 + 6 + 2 = 16

So the center of mass of the system is

471
 ( ) ( 8 )
My Mx
( mT mT )
30 0 15
(x̄, ȳ) = , = , = ,0
16 16

2. Find the center of mass of the system.

Solution:

The moments of the system are

My = m1(x1) + m2(x2) + m3(x3)

My = 3(6) + 8(−6) + 5(10) = 20

and

Mx = m1(y1) + m2(y2) + m3(y3)

Mx = 3(0) + 8(0) + 5(0) = 0

The total mass in the system is

mT = m1 + m2 + m3

mT = 3 + 8 + 5 = 16

So the center of mass of the system is

472
 ( ) ( 4 )
My Mx
( mT mT )
20 0 5
(x̄, ȳ) = , = , = ,0
16 16

3. Find the center of mass of the system.

Solution:

The moments of the system are

My = m1(x1) + m2(x2) + m3(x3)

My = 6(−4) + 5(1) + 7(4) = 9

and

Mx = m1(y1) + m2(y2) + m3(y3)

Mx = 6(0) + 5(0) + 7(0) = 0

The total mass in the system is

mT = m1 + m2 + m3

mT = 6 + 5 + 7 = 18

So the center of mass of the system is

473
 ( ) ( 2 )
My Mx
( mT mT )
9 0 1
(x̄, ȳ) = , = , = ,0
18 18

474
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE

1. Find the hydrostatic pressure per square foot on the bottom of the
tank, which is filled to the top with gasoline. Assume the weight of a gallon
of gasoline is 6.073 pounds per gallon.

Solution:

A gallon of gasoline weighs approximately 6.073 pounds. A cubic foot of

the tank holds approximately 7.4805 gallons. So the density of a cubic foot
of gasoline is

δ = 6.073 × 7.4805 = 45.4291

The depth of the gasoline in the tank is 4 feet, and pressure is the product
of density and depth, so

P = δd

475
 P = 45.4291 × 4

P = 181.7164 lbs/ft2

2. Find the hydrostatic pressure per square foot on the bottom of the
tank, which is filled to the top with water. Assume the weight of a gallon of
water is 8.3454 pounds per gallon.

Solution:

A gallon of water weighs approximately 8.3454 pounds. A cubic foot of the

tank holds approximately 7.4805 gallons. So the density of a cubic foot of
water is

δ = 8.3454 × 7.4805 = 62.4278

476
The depth of the water in the tank is 8 feet, and pressure is the product of
density and depth, so

P = δd

P = 62.4278 × 8

P = 499.4224 lbs/ft2

3. Find the hydrostatic pressure per square foot on the bottom of the
tank, which is filled to the top with diesel fuel. Assume the weight of a
gallon of diesel is 7.1089 pounds per gallon.

Solution:

477
A gallon of diesel fuel weighs approximately 7.1089 pounds. A cubic foot of
the tank holds approximately 7.4805 gallons. So the density of a cubic foot
of diesel is

δ = 7.1089 × 7.4805 = 53.1781

The depth of the fuel in the tank is 6 feet, and pressure is the product of
density and depth, so

P = δd

P = 53.1781 × 6

P = 319.0686 lbs/ft2

478
HYDROSTATIC FORCE

1. Find the hydrostatic force on the bottom of the tank, which is filled to
the top with gasoline. Assume the weight of a gallon of gasoline is 6.073
pounds per gallon.

Solution:

A gallon of gasoline weighs approximately 6.073 pounds. A cubic foot of

the tank holds approximately 7.4805 gallons. So the density of a cubic foot
of gasoline is

δ = 6.073 × 7.4805 = 45.4291

The depth of the gasoline in the tank is 5 feet, and pressure is the product
of density and depth, so

P = δd

479
 P = 45.4291 × 5

P = 227.1455 lbs/ft2

The area of the bottom of the tank is

A = L ⋅ W = 6 ⋅ 10 = 60

So the force on the bottom of the tank is

F = PA

F = 227.1455 ⋅ 60

F = 13,628.73 pounds

2. Find the hydrostatic force on the bottom of the tank, which is filled to
the top with water. Assume the weight of a gallon of water is 8.3454
pounds per gallon.

480
Solution:

A gallon of water weighs approximately 8.3454 pounds. A cubic foot of the

tank holds approximately 7.4805 gallons. So the density of a cubic foot of
water is

8.3454 × 7.4805 = 62.4278

The depth of the water in the tank is 7 feet, and pressure is the product of
density and depth, so

P = δd

P = 62.4278 × 7

P = 436.9946 lbs/ft2

481
The area of the bottom of the tank is

A = L ⋅ W = 4 ⋅ 4 = 16

So the force on the bottom of the tank is

F = PA

F = 436.9946 ⋅ 16

F = 6,991.9136 pounds

3. Find the hydrostatic force on the bottom of the tank, which is filled to
the top with diesel fuel. Assume the weight of a gallon of diesel is 7.1089
pounds per gallon.

Solution:

482
A gallon of diesel weighs approximately 7.1089 pounds. A cubic foot of the
tank holds approximately 7.4805 gallons. So the density of a cubic foot of
water is

7.1089 × 7.4805 = 53.1781

The depth of the diesel in the tank is 8 feet, and pressure is the product of
density and depth, so

P = δd

P = 53.1781 × 8

P = 425.4250 lbs/ft2

The area of the bottom of the tank is

A = L ⋅ W = 12 ⋅ 3 = 36

So the force on the bottom of the tank is

F = PA

F = 425.4250 ⋅ 36

F = 15,315.3 pounds

483
VERTICAL MOTION

1. What is the maximum height of a baseball that’s thrown straight up

from a position 6 feet above the ground with an initial velocity of
v(t) = − 32t + 88 ft/sec?

Solution:

The baseball will reach its maximum height when the velocity is 0, so we’ll
need to find t when v(t) = 0.

−32t + 88 = 0

−32t = − 88

−88
t=
−32

t = 2.75

The baseball will reach its maximum height at t = 2.75 seconds. To find a
function for height, integrate velocity.

∫ ∫
h(t) = v(t) dt = − 32t + 88 dt

h(t) = − 16t 2 + 88t + C

484
The fact that the baseball was thrown from an initial height of 6 feet means
we have the initial condition h(0) = 6. Substitute the initial condition into the
height function.

6 = − 16(0)2 + 88(0) + C

C=6

So the height function is

h(t) = − 16t 2 + 88t + 6

Then at t = 2.75 seconds, the height of the baseball is

h(2.75) = − 16(2.75)2 + 88(2.75) + 6 = 127 feet

2. What is the maximum height of a football that’s thrown straight up

from 1.67 yards above the ground with an initial velocity of
v(t) = − 10.67t + 40 yards/sec?

Solution:

The football will reach its maximum height when the velocity is 0, so we’ll
need to find t when v(t) = 0.

−10.67t + 40 = 0

−10.67t = − 40

485
 −40
t=
−10.67

t = 3.75

The football will reach its maximum height at t = 3.75 seconds. To find a
function for height, integrate velocity.

∫ ∫
h(t) = v(t) dt = − 10.67t + 40 dt

10.67t 2
h(t) = − + 40t + C
2

The fact that the football was thrown from an initial height of 1.67 yards
means we have the initial condition h(0) = 1.67. Substitute the initial
condition into the height function.

10.67(0)2
1.67 = − + 40(0) + C
2

C = 1.67

So the height function is

10.67t 2
h(t) = − + 40t + 1.67
2

Then at t = 3.75 seconds, the height of the football is

h(3.75) = − 5.33(3.75)2 + 40(3.75) + 1.67 = 76.716875 ≈ 77 yards

486
 3. What is the maximum height of a model rocket that’s launched
straight up from the ground with an initial velocity of v(t) = − 32t + 200 ft/
sec?

Solution:

The rocket will reach its maximum height when the velocity is 0, so we’ll
need to find t when v(t) = 0.

−32t + 200 = 0

−32t = − 200

−200
t=
−32

t = 6.25

The rocket will reach its maximum height at t = 6.25 seconds. To find a
function for height, integrate velocity.

∫ ∫
h(t) = v(t) dt = − 32t + 200 dt

h(t) = − 16t 2 + 200t + C

The fact that the rocket was launched from ground level means we have
the initial condition h(0) = 0. Substitute the initial condition into the height
function.

0 = − 16(0)2 + 200(0) + C

487
 C=0

So the height function is

h(t) = − 16t 2 + 200t

Then at t = 6.25 seconds, the height of the rocket is

h(6.25) = − 16(6.25)2 + 200(6.25) = 625 feet

4. What is the maximum height of a bottle rocket that’s launched

straight up from the ground with an initial velocity of v(t) = − 19.6t + 29.4 m/
sec?

Solution:

The rocket will reach its maximum height when the velocity is 0, so we’ll
need to find t when v(t) = 0.

−19.6t + 29.4 = 0

−19.6t = − 29.4

−29.4
t=
−19.6

t = 1.5

The rocket will reach its maximum height at t = 1.5 seconds. To find a
function for height, integrate velocity.

488
 ∫ ∫
h(t) = v(t) dt = − 19.6t + 29.4 dt

19.6t 2
h(t) = − + 29.4t + C
2

The fact that the rocket was launched from ground level means we have
the initial condition h(0) = 0. Substitute the initial condition into the height
function.

19.6(0)2
0=− + 29.4(0) + C
2

C=0

So the height function is

19.6t 2
h(t) = − + 29.4t
2

Then at t = 1.5 seconds, the height of the rocket is

h(1.5) = − 9.8(1.5)2 + 29.4(1.5) = 22.05 ≈ 22 meters

5. What is the maximum height of a golf ball that’s hit straight up from
the ground with an initial velocity of v(t) = − 19.6t + 68.208 m/sec?

Solution:

489
The golf ball will reach its maximum height when the velocity is 0, so we’ll
need to find t when v(t) = 0.

−19.6t + 68.208 = 0

−19.6t = − 68.208

−68.208
t=
−19.6

t = 3.48

The golf ball will reach its maximum height at t = 3.48 seconds. To find a
function for height, integrate velocity.

∫ ∫
h(t) = v(t) dt = − 19.6t + 68.208 dt

19.6t 2
h(t) = − + 68.208t + C
2

The fact that the golf ball was hit from ground level means we have the
initial condition h(0) = 0. Substitute the initial condition into the height
function.

19.6(0)2
0=− + 68.208(0) + C
2

C=0

So the height function is

19.6t 2
h(t) = − + 68.208t
2

490
Then at t = 3.48 seconds, the height of the golf ball is

h(3.48) = − 9.8(3.48)2 + 68.208(3.48) = 118.68192 ≈ 119 meters

491
RECTILINEAR MOTION

1. Find the position function x(t) that models the rectilinear motion of a
particle moving along the x-axis.

a(t) = 10 − t

v(0) = − 1

x(0) = 6

Solution:

Integrate the acceleration function to find the velocity function.

∫ ∫
v(t) = a(t) dt = 10 − t dt

t2
v(t) = 10t − + C
2

Substitute the initial condition v(0) = − 1 to find C.

02
−1 = 10(0) − +C
2

C =−1

So the velocity function is

492
 t2
v(t) = − + 10t − 1
2

Then the position function is the integral of the velocity function.

t2
∫ ∫ 2
x(t) = v(t) dt = − + 10t − 1 dt

t 3 10t 2
x(t) = − + −t+C
6 2

t3
x(t) = − + 5t 2 − t + C
6

Substitute the initial condition x(0) = 6 to find C.

03
6=− + 5(0)2 − 0 + C
6

C=6

So the position function is

t3
x(t) = − + 5t 2 − t + 6
6

2. Find the position function x(t) that models the rectilinear motion of a
particle moving along the x-axis.

a(t) = 9t 2 − 4t + 6

v(−1) = 0

493
 x(0) = 2

Solution:

Integrate the acceleration function to find the velocity function.

∫ ∫
v(t) = a(t) dt = 9t 2 − 4t + 6 dt

v(t) = 3t 3 − 2t 2 + 6t + C

Substitute the initial condition v(−1) = 0 to find C.

0 = 3(−1)3 − 2(−1)2 + 6(−1) + C

0=−3−2−6+C

C = 11

So the velocity function is

v(t) = 3t 3 − 2t 2 + 6t + 11

Then the position function is the integral of the velocity function.

∫ ∫
x(t) = v(t) dt = 3t 3 − 2t 2 + 6t + 11 dt

3t 4 2t 3
x(t) = − + 3t 2 + 11t + C
4 3

Substitute the initial condition x(0) = 2 to find C.

494
 3(0)4 2(0)3
2= − + 3(0)2 + 11(0) + C
4 3

C=2

So the position function is

3t 4 2t 3
x(t) = − + 3t 2 + 11t + 2
4 3

3. Find the position function x(t) that models the rectilinear motion of a
particle moving along the x-axis.

a(t) = 2 − 6t

v(0) = 4

x(0) = 3

Solution:

Integrate the acceleration function to find the velocity function.

∫ ∫
v(t) = a(t) dt = 2 − 6t dt

v(t) = 2t − 3t 2 + C

Substitute the initial condition v(0) = 4 to find C.

495
 4 = − 3(0)2 + 2(0) + C

C=4

So the velocity function is

v(t) = 2t − 3t 2 + 4

Then the position function is the integral of the velocity function.

∫ ∫
x(t) = v(t) dt = 2t − 3t 2 + 4 dt

x(t) = − t 3 + t 2 + 4t + C

Substitute the initial condition x(0) = 3 to find C.

3 = − (0)3 + (0)2 + 4(0) + C

C=3

So the position function is

x(t) = − t 3 + t 2 + 4t + 3

496
AREA OF A TRIANGLE WITH GIVEN VERTICES

1. Find the area of the triangle with vertices A(−4,4), B(2,5), and C(4, − 1).

Solution:

A sketch of the region, separated by a vertical line from B is

The slope of the line connecting A(−4,4) and B(2,5) is

y2 − y1 5−4 1
m= = =
x2 − x1 2 − (−4) 6

Then using B(2,5) and the slope m = 1/6, the equation of that line is

497
 1
y= (x − 2) + 5
6

1 2
y= x− +5
6 6

1 14
y= x+
6 3

The slope of the line connecting A(−4,4) and C(4, − 1) is

y2 − y1 −1 − 4 5
m= = =−
x2 − x1 4 − (−4) 8

Then using A(−4,4) and the slope m = − 5/8, the equation of that line is

5
y = − (x + 4) + 4
8

5 5
y=− x− +4
8 2

5 3
y=− x+
8 2

The slope of the line connecting B(2,5) and C(4, − 1) is

y2 − y1 −1 − 5
m= = =−3
x2 − x1 4−2

Then using B(2,5) and the slope m = − 3, the equation of that line is

y = − 3(x − 2) + 5

y = − 3x + 6 + 5

498
 y = − 3x + 11

Then the area to the left of the vertical line AL is

∫−4 ( 6 ) ( )
2
1 14 5 3
AL = x+ − − x+ dx
3 8 2

2
1 14 5 3
∫−4
AL = x+ + x − dx
6 3 8 2

2
4 15 28 9
∫−4
AL = x+ x+ − dx
24 24 6 6

2
19 19
∫−4
AL = x+ dx
24 6

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

2
19 2 19
AL = x + x
48 6 −4

( 48 )
19 2 19 19 2 19
AL = (2) + (2) − (−4) + (−4)
48 6 6

76 38 304 76
AL = + − +
48 6 48 6

228 114
AL = − +
48 6

57 228
AL = − +
12 12

499
 171
AL =
12

57
AL =
4

The area to the right of the vertical line AR is

( 8 )
4
5 3
∫2
AR = (−3x + 11) − − x + dx
2

4
5 3
∫2
AR = − 3x + 11 + x − dx
8 2

4
24 5 22 3
∫2
AR = − x+ x+ − dx
8 8 2 2

4
19 19
∫2
AR = − x+ dx
8 2

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

4
19 2 19
AR = − x + x
16 2 2

( 16 )
19 2 19 19 19
AR = − (4) + (4) − − (2)2 + (2)
16 2 2

19
AR = − 19 + 38 + − 19
4

19
AR =
4

500
The area of the triangle is

57 19 76
AL + AR = + = = 19
4 4 4

2. Find the area of the triangle with vertices D(−3,2), E(−1,6), and F(6,4).

Solution:

A sketch of the region, separated by a vertical line from E is

The slope of the line connecting D(−3,2) and E(−1,6) is

y2 − y1 6−2 4
m= = = =2
x2 − x1 −1 − (−3) 2

501
Then using D(−3,2) and the slope m = 2, the equation of that line is

y = 2(x + 3) + 2

y = 2x + 6 + 2

y = 2x + 8

The slope of the line connecting E(−1,6) and F(6,4) is

y2 − y1 4−6 2
m= = =−
x2 − x1 6 − (−1) 7

Then using E(−1,6) and the slope m = − 2/7, the equation of that line is

2
y = − (x + 1) + 6
7

2 2
y=− x− +6
7 7

2 40
y=− x+
7 7

The slope of the line connecting D(−3,2) and F(6,4) is

y2 − y1 4−2 2
m= = =
x2 − x1 6 − (−3) 9

Then using F(6,4) and the slope m = 2/9, the equation of that line is

2
y= (x − 6) + 4
9

502
 2 4
y= x− +4
9 3

2 8
y= x+
9 3

Then the area to the left of the vertical line AL is

(9 )
−1
2 8
∫−3
AL = (2x + 8) − x+ dx
3

−1
2 8
∫−3
AL = 2x + 8 − x − dx
9 3

−1
18 2 24 8
∫−3
AL = x− x+ − dx
9 9 3 3

−1
16 16
∫−3
AL = x+ dx
9 3

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

−1
16 2 16
AL = x + x
18 3 −3

( 18 )
16 16 16 16
AL = (−1)2 + (−1) − (−3)2 + (−3)
18 3 3

16 16
AL = − − (8 − 16)
18 3

8 48 72 144
AL = − − +
9 9 9 9

503
 32
AL =
9

The area to the right of the vertical line AR is

∫−1 ( 7 ) ( )
6
2 40 2 8
AR = − x+ − x+ dx
7 9 3

6
2 40 2 8
∫−1
AR = − x+ − x − dx
7 7 9 3

6
18 14 120 56
∫−1
AR = − x− x+ − dx
63 63 21 21

6
32 64
∫−1 63
AR = − x+ dx
21

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

6
16 2 64
AR = − x + x
63 21 −1

( 63 )
16 2 64 16 2 64
AR = − (6) + (6) − − (−1) + (−1)
63 21 21

576 384 16 64
AR = − + + +
63 21 63 21

560 448
AR = − +
63 21

80 64
AR = − +
9 3

504
 240 576
AR = − +
27 27

336
AR =
27

112
AR =
9

The area of the triangle is

32 112 144
AL + AR = + = = 16
9 9 9

3. Find the area of the triangle with vertices G(−3, − 2), H(1,2), and
I(4, − 3).

Solution:

A sketch of the region, separated by a vertical line from H is

505
The slope of the line connecting G(−3, − 2) and H(1,2) is

y2 − y1 2 − (−2) 4
m= = = =1
x2 − x1 1 − (−3) 4

Then using H(1,2) and the slope m = 1, the equation of that line is

y = 1(x − 1) + 2

y =x−1+2

y =x+1

The slope of the line connecting H(1,2) and I(4, − 3) is

y2 − y1 −3 − 2 5
m= = =−
x2 − x1 4−1 3

Then using I(4, − 3) and the slope m = − 5/3, the equation of that line is

506
 5
y = − (x − 4) − 3
3

5 20
y=− x+ −3
3 3

5 11
y=− x+
3 3

The slope of the line connecting G(−3, − 2) and I(4, − 3) is

y2 − y1 −3 − (−2) 1
m= = =−
x2 − x1 4 − (−3) 7

Then using G(−3, − 2) and the slope m = − 1/7, the equation of that line is

1
y = − (x + 3) − 2
7

1 3
y=− x− −2
7 7

1 17
y =− x−
7 7

Then the area to the left of the vertical line AL is

( 7 )
1
1 17
∫−3
AL = (x + 1) − − x − dx
7

1
7 1 7 17
∫−3 7
AL = x+ x+ + dx
7 7 7

1
8 24
∫−3 7
AL = x+ dx
7

507
Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.
1
4 24
AL = x 2 + x
7 7 −3

(7 )
4 2 24 4 2 24
AL = (1) + (1) − (−3) + (−3)
7 7 7

4 24 36 72
AL = + − +
7 7 7 7

64
AL =
7

The area to the right of the vertical line AR is

∫1 ( 3 3 ) ( 7 7 )
4
5 11 1 17
AR = − x+ − − x− dx

4
5 11 1 17
∫1 3
AR = − x + + x+ dx
3 7 7

4
3 35 77 51
∫1 21
AR = x− x+ + dx
21 21 21

4
32 128
∫1
AR = − x+ dx
21 21

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

4
16 2 128
AR = − x + x
21 21 1

508
 ( 21 )
16 2 128 16 2 128
AR = − (4) + (4) − − (1) + (1)
21 21 21

256 512 16 128

AR = − + + −
21 21 21 21

144
AR =
21

48
AR =
7

The area of the triangle is

64 48 112
AL + AR = + = = 16
7 7 7

509
SINGLE DEPOSIT, COMPOUNDED N TIMES, FUTURE VALUE

1. Find the future value of $9,500 after 7 years, at an annual interest rate
of 2.25 % , compounded quarterly.

Solution:

Using the future value formula, the future value is

( n)
nt
r
FV = PV 1 +

( 4 )
4×7
0.0225
FV = 9,500 1 +

FV = 9,500(1.005625)28

FV = $11,115.61

2. Find the future value of $14,550 after 3 years, at an annual interest rate
of 1.95 % , compounded monthly.

Solution:

Using the future value formula, the future value is

510
 ( n)
nt
r
FV = PV 1 +

( 12 )
12×3
0.0195
FV = 14,550 1 +

FV = 14,550(1.001625)36

FV = $15,425.83

3. Find the future value of $7,595 after 5 years, at an annual interest rate
of 3.25 % , compounded weekly.

Solution:

Using the future value formula, the future value is

( n)
nt
r
FV = PV 1 +

( 52 )
52×5
0.0325
FV = 7,595 1 +

FV = 7,595(1.000625)260

FV = $8,934.67

511
SINGLE DEPOSIT, COMPOUNDED N TIMES, PRESENT VALUE

1. Find the present value of a deposit that, after 9 years, at an annual

interest rate of 4.75 % , compounded monthly, will have a value of
$24,514.01.

Solution:

Use the future value formula, then solve for present value.

( n)
nt
r
FV = PV 1 +

( 12 )
12×9
0.0475
24514.01 = PV 1 +

24514.01 = PV(1.003958333)108

24514.01
PV =
1.003958333108

PV = $16,000.00

2. Find the present value of a deposit that, after 3 years, at an annual

interest rate of 7.85 % , compounded weekly, will have a value of $948.99.

512
Solution:

Use the future value formula, then solve for present value.

( n)
nt
r
FV = PV 1 +

( 52 )
52×3
0.0785
948.99 = PV 1 +

948.99 = PV(1.001509615)156

948.99
PV =
1.001509615156

PV = $750.00

3. Find the present value of a deposit that, after 6 years, at an annual

interest rate of 3.95 % , compounded quarterly, will have a value of $1,582,46.

Solution:

Use the future value formula, then solve for present value.

( n)
nt
r
FV = PV 1 +

( 4 )
4×6
0.0395
1,582.46 = PV 1 +

513
1,582.46 = PV(1.009875)24

1,582.46
PV =
1.00987524

PV = $1,250.00

514
SINGLE DEPOSIT, COMPOUNDED CONTINUOUSLY, FUTURE VALUE

1. Find the future value of $2,850, after 8 years, at an annual interest rate
of 1.55 % , compounded continuously.

Solution:

Use the future value formula for continuously compounded interest.

FV = PVe rt

FV = 2,850e 0.0155×8

FV = 2,850e 0.124

FV = $3,226.25

2. Find the future value of $9,875, after 15 years, at an annual interest rate
of 4.15 % , compounded continuously.

Solution:

Use the future value formula for continuously compounded interest.

FV = PVe rt

515
 FV = 9,875e 0.0415×15

FV = 9,875e 0.6225

FV = $18,402.86

3. Find the future value of $15,000, after 18 years, at an annual interest

rate of 8.5 % , compounded continuously.

Solution:

Use the future value formula for continuously compounded interest.

FV = PVe rt

FV = 15,000e 0.085×18

FV = 15,000e 1.53

FV = $69,272.65

516
SINGLE DEPOSIT, COMPOUNDED CONTINUOUSLY, PRESENT VALUE

1. Find the present value of a deposit that, after 11 years, at an annual

interest rate of 2.75 % , compounded continuously, will have a value of
$11,631.08.

Solution:

Use the future value formula for continuously compounded interest, then
solve for present value.

FV = PVe rt

11,631.08 = PVe 0.0275×11

11,631.08 = PVe 0.3025

11,631.08
PV =
e 0.3025

PV = $8,595.00

2. Find the present value of a deposit that, after 7 years, at an annual

interest rate of 6.17 % , compounded continuously, will have a value of
$3,850.45.

517
Solution:

Use the future value formula for continuously compounded interest, then
solve for present value.

FV = PVe rt

3,850.45 = PVe 0.0617×7

3,850.45 = PVe 0.4319

3,850.45
PV =
e 0.4319

PV = $2,500.00

3. Find the present value of a deposit that, after 4 years, at an annual

interest rate of 5.95 % , compounded continuously, will have a value of
$6,343.55.

Solution:

Use the future value formula for continuously compounded interest, then
solve for present value.

FV = PVe rt

6,343.55 = PVe 0.0595×4

6,343.55 = PVe 0.238

518
 6,343.55
PV =
e 0.238

PV = $5,000.00

519
INCOME STREAM, COMPOUNDED CONTINUOUSLY, FUTURE VALUE

1. Money is invested at a rate of $10,000 annually and the bank pays

8.85 % interest, compounded continuously. How many years will it take for
the investment to grow to a balance of $300,000?

Solution:

Use the future value formula for an income stream.

N

∫0
FV = S(t)e r(N−t) dt

∫0
300,000 = 10,000e 0.0885(N−t) dt

∫0
300,000 = 10,000 e 0.0885(N−t) dt

∫0
30 = e 0.0885(N−t) dt

∫0
30 = e 0.0885N−0.0885t dt

∫0
30 = e 0.0885N e −0.0885t dt

520
 N

∫0
0.0885N
30 = e e −0.0885t dt

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

( −0.0885 )
N
1
30 = e 0.0885N e −0.0885t
0

( −0.0885 ) ( −0.0885 )
1 1
30 = e 0.0885N e −0.0885N − e 0.0885N e −0.0885(0)

( 0.0885 ) 0.0885
−0.0885N 0.0885N
e e
30 = − e 0.0885N +

30(0.0885) = − e 0.0885N e −0.0885N + e 0.0885N

30(0.0885) = − 1 + e 0.0885N

30(0.0885) + 1 = e 0.0885N

3.655 = e 0.0885N

Solve using the natural logarithm.

ln 3.655 = ln e 0.0885N

ln 3.655 = 0.0885N ln e

ln 3.655 = 0.0885N

ln 3.655
=N
0.0885

521
 N = 14.645

It will take the investment approximately 14.645 years to grow to a balance

of $300,000.

2. Money is invested at a rate of $5,000 annually and the bank pays 6.75 %
interest, compounded continuously. How many years will it take for the
investment to grow to a balance of $100,000?

Solution:

Use the future value formula for an income stream.

N

∫0
FV = S(t)e r(N−t) dt

∫0
100,000 = 5,000e 0.0675(N−t) dt

∫0
100,000 = 5,000 e 0.0675(N−t) dt

∫0
20 = e 0.0675(N−t) dt

∫0
20 = e 0.0675N−0.0675t dt

522
 N

∫0
20 = e 0.0675N e −0.0675t dt

∫0
20 = e 0.0675N e −0.0675t dt

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

( −0.0675 )
N
0.0675N 1
20 = e e −0.0675t
0

( −0.0675 ) ( −0.0675 )
1 1
20 = e 0.0675N e −0.0675N − e 0.0675N e −0.0675(0)

( 0.0675 ) 0.0675
0.0675N e −0.0675N e 0.0675N
20 = − e +

20(0.0675) = − e 0.0675N e −0.0675N + e 0.0675N

20(0.0675) = − 1 + e 0.0675N

20(0.0675) + 1 = e 0.0675N

2.35 = e 0.0675N

Solve using the natural logarithm.

ln 2.35 = ln e 0.0675N

ln 2.35 = 0.0675N ln e

ln 2.35 = 0.0675N

523
 ln 2.35
=N
0.0675

N = 12.658

It will take the investment approximately 12.658 years to grow to a balance

of $100,000.

3. Money is invested at a rate of $2,500 annually and the bank pays 5.25 %
interest, compounded continuously. How many years will it take for the
investment to grow to a balance of $25,000?

Solution:

Use the future value formula for an income stream.

N

∫0
FV = S(t)e r(N−t) dt

∫0
25,000 = 2,500e 0.0525(N−t) dt

∫0
25,000 = 2,500 e 0.0525(N−t) dt

∫0
10 = e 0.0525(N−t) dt

524
 N

∫0
10 = e 0.0525N−0.0525t dt

∫0
10 = e 0.0525N e −0.0525t dt

∫0
10 = e 0.0525N e −0.0525t dt

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

( −0.0525 ) ( −0.0525 )
N
1 1
10 = e 0.0525N e −0.0525t − e 0.0525N e −0.0525t
0

( −0.0525 ) ( −0.0525 )
0.0525N 1 −0.0525N 0.0525N 1
10 = e e −e e −0.0525(0)

( 0.0525 ) 0.0525
0.0525N e −0.0525N e 0.0525N
10 = − e +

10(0.0525) = − e 0.0525N e −0.0525N + e 0.0525N

10(0.0525) = − 1 + e 0.0525N

10(0.0525) + 1 = e 0.0525N

1.525 = e 0.0525N

Solve using the natural logarithm.

ln 1.525 = ln e 0.0525N

ln 1.525 = 0.0525N ln e

525
 ln 1.525 = 0.0525N

ln 1.525
=N
0.0525

N = 8.038

It will take the investment approximately 8.038 years to grow to a balance

of $25,000.

526
INCOME STREAM, COMPOUNDED CONTINUOUSLY, PRESENT VALUE

1. Suppose that money is deposited steadily into an account at a

constant rate of $15,000 per year for 13 years. Find the present value of this
income stream if the account pays 7.35 % , compounded continuously.

Solution:

Use the present value formula for an income stream.

T

∫0
PV = S(t)e −rt dt

13

∫0
PV = 15,000e −0.0735t dt

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

13

( −0.0735 )
e −0.0735t
PV = 15,000
0

( −0.0735 −0.0735 )
e −0.0735(13) e −0.0735(0)
PV = 15,000 −

PV = 15,000(8.372519911)

PV = $125,587.80

527
 2. Suppose that money is deposited steadily into a college fund at a
constant rate of $3,000 per year for 18 years. Find the present value of this
income stream if the account pays 5.15 % , compounded continuously.

Solution:

Use the present value formula for an income stream.

T

∫0
PV = S(t)e −rt dt

18

∫0
PV = 3,000e −0.0515t dt

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

18

( −0.0515 )
e −0.0515t
PV = 3,000
0

( −0.0515 −0.0515 )
e −0.0515(18) e −0.0515(0)
PV = 3,000 −

PV = 3,000(11.73322041)

PV = $35,199.66

528
 3. Suppose that money is deposited steadily into a new car account at a
constant rate of $2,500 per year for 8 years. Find the present value of this
income stream if the account pays 7.5 % , compounded continuously.

Solution:

Use the present value formula for an income stream.

T

∫0
PV = S(t)e −rt dt

∫0
PV = 2,500e −0.075t dt

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

( −0.075 )
e −0.075t
PV = 2,500
0

( −0.075 −0.075 )
e −0.075(8) e −0.075(0)
PV = 2,500 −

PV = 2,500(6.015844852)

PV = $15,039.61

529
CONSUMER AND PRODUCER SURPLUS

1. Find the equilibrium quantity qe and the equilibrium price pe.

S(q) = 0.06q 2 + 5

D(q) = 0.1q + 17

Solution:

The equilibrium point is where the supply curve S(q) and the demand curve
D(q) intersect. The equilibrium quantity is the x-value of the intersection
point and the equilibrium price is the y-value of the intersection point. Set
the supply equation equal to the demand equation and find their
intersection point.

0.06q 2 + 5 = 0.1q + 17

0.06q 2 + 5 − 0.1q − 17 = 0

0.06q 2 − 0.1q − 12 = 0

6q 2 + 10q − 1,200 = 0

(6q + 80)(q − 15) = 0

Then the solutions for q are

6q + 80 = 0

530
 6q = − 80

40
q=−
3

and

q − 15 = 0

q = 15

Since q is a quantity, the answer must be positive, so discard q = − 40/3 as a

possible solution, and accept the equilibrium quantity of q = 15. Use the
equilibrium quantity to find the equilibrium price.

D(q) = 0.1q + 17

D(15) = 0.1(15) + 17

D(15) = 18.50

p = 18.50

Then the equilibrium quantity and equilibrium price are

qe = 15

pe = 18.50

2. Find the consumer surplus.

S(q) = 0.05q 2 + 7

531
 D(q) = − 0.2q + 11.8

Solution:

Find equilibrium quantity by setting the curves equal to one another.

0.05q 2 + 7 = − 0.2q + 11.8

0.05q 2 + 7 + 0.2q − 11.8 = 0

0.05q 2 + 0.2q − 4.8 = 0

5q 2 + 20q − 480 = 0

(5q − 40)(q + 12) = 0

Then the solutions for q are

5q − 40 = 0

5q = 40

q=8

and

q + 12 = 0

q = − 12

532
Since q is a quantity, the answer must be positive, so discard q = − 12 as a
possible solution, and accept the equilibrium quantity of q = 8. Use the
equilibrium quantity to find the equilibrium price.

D(q) = − 0.2q + 11.8

D(8) = − 0.2(8) + 11.8

D(8) = 10.20

p = 10.20

Then the equilibrium quantity and equilibrium price are

qe = 8

pe = 10.20

Then the consumer surplus will be

qe

∫0
CS = D(q) dq − peqe

∫0
CS = − 0.2q + 11.8 dq − (10.20)(8)

8
CS = − 0.1q 2 + 11.8q − 81.6
0

CS = − 0.1(8)2 + 11.8(8) − (−0.1(0)2 + 11.8(0)) − 81.6

CS = − 6.4 + 94.4 − 81.6

533
 CS = − 6.4 + 94.4 − 81.6

CS = 6.4

3. Find the equilibrium quantity qe and the equilibrium price pe.

S(q) = 0.09q 2 + 8

D(q) = 1.55q + 25.5

Solution:

The equilibrium point is where the supply curve S(q) and the demand curve
D(q) intersect. The equilibrium quantity is the x-value of the intersection
point and the equilibrium price is the y-value of the intersection point. Set
the supply equation equal to the demand equation and find their
intersection point.

0.09q 2 + 8 = 1.55q + 25.5

0.09q 2 + 8 − 1.55q − 25.5 = 0

0.09q 2 − 1.55q − 17.5 = 0

9q 2 − 155q − 1,750 = 0

(9q + 70)(q − 25) = 0

Then the solutions for q are

534
 9q + 70 = 0

9q = − 70

70
q=−
9

and

q − 25 = 0

q = 25

Since q is a quantity, the answer must be positive, so discard q = − 70/9 as a

possible solution, and accept the equilibrium quantity of q = 25. Use the
equilibrium quantity to find the equilibrium price.

D(q) = 1.55q + 25.5

D(25) = 1.55(25) + 25.5

D(25) = 64.25

p = 64.25

Then the equilibrium quantity and equilibrium price are

qe = 25

pe = 64.25

535
PROBABILITY DENSITY FUNCTIONS

1. Given f (x), find P(0 ≤ x ≤ 2).

{0
0 ≤ x ≤ 32
f (x) = 32
x < 0 or x > 32

Solution:

First ensure that the function meets the criteria to be a probability density
function, in that f (x) ≥ 0 on −∞ ≤ x ≤ ∞, and the integral of f (x) on
−∞ ≤ x ≤ ∞ equals 1.

The given function f (x) is a piecewise constant function, and based on the
function’s definition, f (x) ≥ 0 for all x.

The integral of f (x) on −∞ ≤ x ≤ ∞ is

∞

∫−∞
f (x) d x

0 32 ∞

∫−∞ ∫0 ∫32
f (x) d x + f (x) d x + f (x) d x

32
1
∫0
0+ dx + 0
32

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

536
 32
1
x
32 0

1 1
(32) − (0)
32 32

Then P(0 ≤ x ≤ 2) is

2 2 2
1 1 1 1 2 1
∫0 ∫0 32
f (x) d x = dx = x = (2) − (0) = =
32 0 32 32 32 16

2. Given g(x), find P(1 ≤ x ≤ 5).

{0
e −x x≥0
g(x) =
x<0

Solution:

First ensure that the function meets the criteria to be a probability density
function, in that g(x) ≥ 0 on −∞ ≤ x ≤ ∞, and the integral of g(x) on
−∞ ≤ x ≤ ∞ equals 1.

The given function g(x) is a piecewise exponential function. So based on

the function’s definition, g(x) ≥ 0 for all x.

The integral of g(x) on −∞ ≤ x ≤ ∞ is

537
 ∞

∫−∞
g(x) d x

0 ∞

∫−∞ ∫0
g(x) d x + g(x) d x

0 ∞

∫−∞ ∫0
0 dx + e −x d x

0 b

a→−∞ ∫a b→∞ ∫0
lim 0 d x + lim e −x d x

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

b
lim 0 + lim (−e −x)
a→−∞ b→∞ 0

lim − e −b − (−e −0)

b→∞

0+1

Then P(1 ≤ x ≤ 5) is

5 5
1 1 1 1
∫1
e −x d x = − e −x = − e −5 − (−e −1) = − + = −
1 e5 e e e5

3. Given h(x), find P(−1 ≤ x ≤ 1).

538
 1

{0
−2 ≤ x ≤ 4
h(x) = 6
x < − 2 or x > 4

Solution:

First ensure that the function meets the criteria to be a probability density
function, in that h(x) ≥ 0 on −∞ ≤ x ≤ ∞, and the integral of h(x) on
−∞ ≤ x ≤ ∞ equals 1.

The given function f (x) is a piecewise constant function, and based on the
function’s definition, f (x) ≥ 0 for all x.

The integral of h(x) on −∞ ≤ x ≤ ∞ is

∞

∫−∞
h(x) d x

−2 4 ∞

∫−∞ ∫−2 ∫4
h(x) d x + h(x) d x + h(x) d x

−2 4 b

a→−∞ ∫a ∫−2 b→∞ ∫4

lim h(x) d x + h(x) d x + lim h(x) d x

−2 4 b
1
a→−∞ ∫a ∫−2 b→∞ ∫4
lim 0 dx + d x + lim 0 d x
6

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

4
1
0+ x +0
6 −2

539
 1 1
(4) − (−2)
6 6

4 2
+
6 6

6
6

Then P(−1 ≤ x ≤ 1) is
1 1
1
∫−1 ∫−1 6
h(x) d x = dx

1
1
x
6 −1

1 1
(1) − (−1)
6 6

1 1
+
6 6

2
6

1
3

540
CARDIAC OUTPUT

1. Find the cardiac output, in liters/second, if 8 mg of dye is injected into

the heart and the amount of dye remaining in the heart t seconds after the
injection is modeled by C(t) = 14te −0.6t. Assume 0 ≤ t ≤ 20.

Solution:

From the problem, we know A = 8, C(t) = 14te −0.6t, and T = 20. Substitute
these values into the formula for blood flow.

A
F= T
∫0 C(t) dt

8
F= 20
∫0 14te −0.6t dt

Work specifically on the integral.

20

∫0
te −0.6t dt

Use integration by parts to solve it.

u=t

du = dt

541
 dv = e −0.6t dt

1 −0.6t
v= e
−0.6

Find the antiderivative by integrating without the limits.

∫
te −0.6t dt

e −0.6t e −0.6t
∫
t − dt
−0.6 −0.6

10t −0.6t 10 −0.6t

∫
− e + e dt
6 6

3 ( −0.6 )
5t −0.6t 5 e −0.6t
− e +
3

5t −0.6t 25 −0.6t
− e − (e )
3 9

Evaluating this over the interval gives

20
5t 25
− e −0.6t − (e −0.6t )
3 9 0

[ ] [ ]
5(20) −0.6(20) 25 −0.6(20) 5(0) −0.6(0) 25 −0.6(0)
− e − (e ) − − e − (e )
3 9 3 9

25
−0.000221874 +
9

2.777555

542
Then blood flow is

8
F= = 0.2057307853 = 0.206 liters/second
14(2.777555)

2. Find the cardiac output, in liters/second, if 4 mg of dye is injected into

the heart and the amount of dye remaining in the heart t seconds after the
injection is modeled by C(t) = 6te −0.2t. Assume 0 ≤ t ≤ 5.

Solution:

From the problem, we know A = 4, C(t) = 6te −0.2t, and T = 5. Substitute these
values into the formula for blood flow.

A
F= T
∫0 C(t) dt

4
F= 5
∫0 6te −0.2t dt

Work specifically on the integral.

∫0
te −0.2t dt

Use integration by parts to solve it.

u=t

543
 du = dt

dv = e −0.2t dt

1 −0.2t
v= e
−0.2

Find the antiderivative by integrating without the limits.

∫
te −0.2t dt

e −0.2t e −0.2t
∫
t − dt
−0.2 −0.2

∫
−5te −0.2t + 5 e −0.2t dt

( −0.2 )
−0.2t
e
−5te −0.2t + 5

−5te −0.2t − 25(e −0.2t )

Evaluating this over the interval gives

5
−5te −0.2t − 25(e −0.2t )
0

[−5(5)e − 25(e −0.2(5))] − [−5(0)e −0.2(0) − 25(e −0.2(0))]

−0.2(5)

−18.39397206 + 25

6.6060279

544
Then blood flow is

4
F= = 0.1009179302 = 0.101 liters/second
6(6.6060279)

3. Find the cardiac output, in liters/second, if 9 mg of dye is injected into

the heart and the amount of dye remaining in the heart t seconds after the
injection is modeled by C(t) = 28te −0.85t. Assume 0 ≤ t ≤ 10.

Solution:

From the problem, we know A = 9, C(t) = 28te −0.85t, and T = 10. Substitute
these values into the formula for blood flow.

A
F= T
∫0 C(t) dt

9
F= 10
∫0 28te −0.85t dt

Work specifically on the integral.

10

∫0
te −0.85t dt

Use integration by parts to solve it.

u=t

545
 du = dt

dv = e −0.85t dt

1
v= e −0.85t
−0.85

Find the antiderivative by integrating without the limits.

∫
te −0.85t dt

e −0.85t e −0.85t
∫
t − dt
−0.85 −0.85

20t −0.85t 20 −0.85t

∫
− e + e dt
17 17

17 ( −0.85 )
20t −0.85t 20 e −0.85t
− e +
17

20t −0.85t 400 −0.85t

− e − (e )
17 289

Evaluating this over the interval gives

10
20t −0.85t 400 −0.85t
− e − (e )
17 289 0

[ ] [ ]
20(10) −0.85(10) 400 −0.85(10) 20(0) −0.85(10) 400 −0.85(0)
− e − (e ) − − e − (e )
17 289 17 289

400
−0.0026753626 +
289

546
 1.3814077

Then blood flow is

9
F= = 0.2326819023 = 0.233 liters/second
28(1.3814077)

547
POISEUILLE’S LAW

1. Use Poiseuille’s law to find the flow of blood in the human artery in
which n = 0.031, R = 0.008 cm, L = 6 cm, and P = 3,900 dynes/cm2. Express
the answer using scientific notation.

Solution:

The blood flow is

πPR 4
F=
8nL

π(3,900)(0.008)4
F=
8(0.031)(6)

F = 3.37 × 10−5 cm3/sec

2. Use Poiseuille’s law to find the flow of blood in the human artery in
which n = 0.028, R = 0.007 cm, L = 3.5 cm, and P = 3,600 dynes/cm2. Express
the answer using scientific notation.

Solution:

The blood flow is

548
 πPR 4
F=
8nL

π(3,600)(0.007)4
F=
8(0.028)(3.5)

F = 3.46 × 10−5 cm3/sec

3. Use Poiseuille’s law to find the flow of blood in the human artery in
which n = 0.027, R = 0.006 cm, L = 2.5 cm, and P = 3,800 dynes/cm2. Express
the answer using scientific notation.

Solution:

The blood flow is

πPR 4
F=
8nL

π(3,800)(0.006)4
F=
8(0.027)(2.5)

F = 2.87 × 10−5 cm3/sec

549
THEOREM OF PAPPUS

1. Use the Theorem of Pappus to find the exact volume of a right circular
cone with radius 6 feet and height 18 feet.

Solution:

The right circular cone drawn with the center of the base at the origin is

The cross section that the Theorem of Pappus uses is the area of a triangle
drawn from the vertex of the cone to the center of the base, and then to
the edge of the cone. The area of this cross section is

1
A = bh
2

550
 1
A= (6)(18)
2

A = 54

Two points on the cone are (0,18) and (6,0). Use these points to calculate
the slope of the slant height.

y2 − y1 0 − 18 −18
m= = = =−3
x2 − x1 6−0 6

Use (0,18) and the slope m = − 3 to write the equation.

y = mx + b

y = − 3x + 18

f (x) = − 3x + 18

Find the x-value of the centroid of the cross section, x̄.

1 b
A ∫a
x̄ = xf (x) d x

1 6
∫
x̄ = x(−3x + 18) d x
54 0

1 6
18 ∫0
x̄ = − x 2 + 6x d x

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

551
 18 ( 3 )
6
1 1
x̄ = − x 3 + 3x 2
0

18 ( 3 ) 18 ( 3 )
1 1 3 2 1 1 3
x̄ = − (6) + 3(6) − − (0) + 3(0)2

1
x̄ = (−72 + 108)
18

x̄ = 2

Find the distance traveled by the x-value of the centroid.

d = 2π x̄

d = 2π(2)

d = 4π

Then the volume is

V = Ad

V = 54(4π)

V = 216π ft3

2. Use the Theorem of Pappus to find the exact volume of a right circular
cone with radius 8 inches and height 9 inches.

552
Solution:

The right circular cone drawn with the center of the base at the origin is

The cross section that the Theorem of Pappus uses is the area of a triangle
drawn from the vertex of the cone to the center of the base, and then to
the edge of the cone. The area of this cross section is

1
A= bh
2

1
A = (8)(9)
2

A = 36

Two points on the cone are (0,9) and (8,0). Use these points to calculate the
slope of the slant height.

y2 − y1 0−9 9
m= = =−
x2 − x1 8 − 0 8

553
Use (0,9) and the slope m = − 9/8 to write the equation.

y = mx + b

9
y=− x+9
8

9
f (x) = − x+9
8

Find the x-value of the centroid of the cross section, x̄.

1 b
∫
x̄ = xf (x) d x
A a

36 ∫0 ( 8 )
1 8 9
x̄ = x − x + 9 dx

1 8 1 2
4 ∫0 8
x̄ = − x + x dx

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

4 ( 24 2 )
8
1 1 1
x̄ = − x3 + x2
0

4 ( 24 ) 4 ( 24 )
1 1 3 1 2 1 1 3 1 2
x̄ = − (8) + (8) − − (0) + (0)
2 2

( )
1 64
x̄ = − + 32
4 3

16
x̄ = − +8
3

554
 8
x̄ =
3

Find the distance traveled by the x-value of the centroid.

d = 2π x̄

(3)
8
d = 2π

16
d= π
3

Then the volume is

V = Ad

( 3 )
16
V = 36 π

V = 192π in3

3. Use the Theorem of Pappus to find the exact volume of a right circular
cone with radius 12 centimeters and height 7 centimeters.

Solution:

The right circular cone drawn with the center of the base at the origin is

555
The cross section that the Theorem of Pappus uses is the area of a triangle
drawn from the vertex of the cone to the center of the base, and then to
the edge of the cone. The area of this cross section is

1
A= bh
2

1
A= (12)(7)
2

A = 42

Two points on the cone are (0,7) and (12,0). Use these points to calculate
the slope of the slant height.

y2 − y1 0−7 7
m= = =−
x2 − x1 12 − 0 12

Use (0,7) and the slope m = − 7/12 to write the equation.

y = mx + b

556
 7
y=− x+7
12

7
f (x) = − x+7
12

Find the x-value of the centroid of the cross section, x̄.

1 b
A ∫a
x̄ = xf (x) d x

42 ∫0 ( 12 )
1 12 7
x̄ = x − x + 7 dx

1 12 1 2
∫
x̄ = − x + x dx
6 0 12

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

6 ( 36 2 )
12
1 1 1
x̄ = − x3 + x2
0

6 ( 36 ) 6 ( 36 )
1 1 1 1 1 1
x̄ = − (12)3 + (12)2 − − (0)3 + (0)2
2 2

1
x̄ = (−48 + 72)
6

x̄ = 4

Find the distance traveled by the x-value of the centroid.

d = 2π x̄

557
 d = 2π(4)

d = 8π

Then the volume is

V = Ad

V = 42(8π)

V = 336π cm3

558
ELIMINATING THE PARAMETER

1. Eliminate the parameter.

x = t2 − 2

y = 8 − 3t

t≥0

Solution:

Solve x = t 2 − 2 for t and substitute the value of t into y = 8 − 3t.

x = t2 − 2

x + 2 = t2

t= x+2

Then for t ≥ 0,

y = 8 − 3t

y =8−3 x+2

559
DERIVATIVES OF PARAMETRIC CURVES

1. Find the derivative of the parametric curve.

x =3+ t

y = t 2 − 5t

Solution:

Find the derivatives of x and y with respect to t.

dy d
= (t 2 − 5t) = 2t − 5
dt dt

dx d 1
dt
=
dt ( 3+ t) =
2 t

So the derivative of the parametric curve is

dy
dy dt 2t − 5
= = = 2 t(2t − 5)
dx dx 1
dt 2 t

2. Find the derivative of the parametric curve.

x = 4 cos t

560
 y = t − 5 sin t

Solution:

Find the derivatives of x and y with respect to t.

dy d
= (t − 5 sin t) = 1 − 5 cos t
dt dt

dx d
= (4 cos t) = − 4 sin t
dt dt

So the derivative of the parametric curve is

dy
dy dt 1 − 5 cos t 5 cos t − 1
= = =
dx dx −4 sin t 4 sin t
dt

You could leave the answer this way, or rewrite it.

dy 5 cos t 1
= −
dx 4 sin t 4 sin t

dy 5 1
= cot t − csc t
dx 4 4

dy 1
= (5 cot t − csc t)
dx 4

3. Find the derivative of the parametric curve.

561
 x = 7 cos t

y = 3t 2 − t

Solution:

Find the derivatives of x and y with respect to t.

dy d
= (3t 2 − t) = 6t − 1
dt dt

dx d
= (7 cos t) = − 7 sin t
dt dt

So the derivative of the parametric curve is

dy
dy dt 6t − 1 1 − 6t
= = =
dx dx −7 sin t 7 sin t
dt

4. Find the derivative of the parametric curve.

x = e t − 3t

y = e −t + 2t

Solution:

Find the derivatives of x and y with respect to t.

562
 dy d
= (e −t + 2t) = − e −t + 2
dt dt

dx d
= (e t − 3t) = e t − 3
dt dt

So the derivative of the parametric curve is

dy
dy dt −e −t + 2 2 − e −t
= = t = t
dx dx e −3 e −3
dt

5. Find the derivative of the parametric curve.

x = 7t − 4

y = 5t 2 + 9t

Solution:

Find the derivatives of x and y with respect to t.

dy d
= (5t 2 + 9t) = 10t + 9
dt dt

dx d
= (7t − 4) = 7
dt dt

So the derivative of the parametric curve is

563
 dy
dy dt 10t + 9
= =
dx dx 7
dt

564
SECOND DERIVATIVES OF PARAMETRIC CURVES

1. Find the second derivative of the parametric curve.

x = 1 − cos2t

y = sin t

Solution:

Find the derivatives of x and y with respect to t.

dy d
= (sin t) = cos t
dt dt

dx d
= (1 − cos2 t) = − 2 cos t ⋅ (−sin t) = 2 cos t sin t
dt dt

So the derivative of the parametric curve is

dy
dy dt cos t 1 1
= = = = csc t
dx dx 2 cos t ⋅ sin t 2 sin t 2
dt

Take the derivative of dy/d x.

dt ( d x ) dt ( 2 )
d dy d 1 1
= csc t = − csc t cot t
2

Then the second derivative of the parametric curve is

565
 ( dx )
d dy
2
d y dt − 12 csc t cot t
= =
d x2 dx 2 cos t sin t
dt

1 cos t
2
d y sin t
⋅ sin t
=−
dx 2 4 cos t sin t

d 2y cos t 1
= − ⋅
d x2 sin2t 4 cos t sin t

d 2y 1
=−
d x2 4sin3t

d 2y 1 3
= − csc t
dx 2 4

2. Find the second derivative of the parametric curve.

x = e −3t
2
y = e 2t

Solution:

Find the derivatives of x and y with respect to t.

dy d 2 2
= (e 2t ) = 4te 2t
dt dt

dx d −3t
= (e ) = − 3e −3t
dt dt

566
So the derivative of the parametric curve is

dy 2 2
dy dt 4te 2t 4te 2t
= = = − −3t
dx dx −3e −3t 3e
dt

Take the derivative of dy/d x.

( )
2

dt ( 3e )
d dy d 4te 2t
= − −3t
dt d x

3e −3t (16t 2e 2t + 4e 2t ) − 4te 2t ⋅ −9e −3t

2 2 2

dt ( d x )
d dy
=−
9e −6t

3e −3t (16t 2e 2t + 4e 2t ) + 36te 2t e −3t

2 2 2

dt ( d x )
d dy
=−
9e −6t

( )
2 2 2
d dy 16t 2e 2t + 4e 2t + 12te 2t
=−
dt d x 3e −3t

Then the second derivative of the parametric curve is

( dx )
d dy 2 2
16t 2e 2t + 4e 2t + 12te 2t
2

d 2y dt −
3e −3t
= =
dx 2 dx −3e −3t
dt

2 2 2
d 2y 16t 2e 2t + 4e 2t + 12te 2t
=−
dx 2 −9e −6t

4e 2t (4t 2 + 3t + 1)
2
2
d y
=−
d x2 −9e −6t

567
 3. Find the second derivative of the parametric curve.

x = t 2 + 2t + 1

y = 3t + 4

Solution:

Find the derivatives of x and y with respect to t.

dy d
= (3t + 4) = 3
dt dt

dx d 2
= (t + 2t + 1) = 2t + 2
dt dt

So the derivative of the parametric curve is

dy
dy dt 3
= =
dx dx 2t + 2
dt

Take the derivative of dy/d x.

dt ( d x ) dt ( 2t + 2 )
d dy d 3 (2t + 2)(0) − 3(2) 6
= = = −
(2t + 2)2 (2t + 2)2

Then the second derivative of the parametric curve is

568
 ( dx )
d dy 6
2 −
d y dt (2t + 2)2 6
= = =−
d x2 dx 2t + 2 (2t + 2)3
dt

569
SKETCHING PARAMETRIC CURVES BY PLOTTING POINTS

1. The graph of the parametric equation on the interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 2 is a

segment. What is the Cartesian equation in x and y? Find the left and right
endpoints of the segment.

x = 2t + 3

y = 4t + 5

Solution:

To find the equation in cartesian coordinates, eliminate the parameter.

First, solve one of the equations for t.

x = 2t + 3

x − 3 = 2t

x−3
t=
2

Then,

y = 4t + 5

( 2 )
x−3
y=4 +5

y = 2(x − 3) + 5

570
 y = 2x − 6 + 5

y = 2x − 1

The equation in x and y is y = 2x − 1.

To find the endpoints, substitute the endpoints of the domain of t into the
parametric equation. Plugging in t = 0 gives

x = 2(0) + 3 = 3

y = 4(0) + 5 = 5

Then the left endpoint is (x, y) = (3,5). Plugging in t = 2 gives

x = 2(2) + 3 = 7

y = 4(2) + 5 = 13

Then the right endpoint is (x, y) = (7,13).

2. What are the points on the curve for the parameter values
t = 1, 2, 3, and 4?

x = t2 + t

y = t2 − t

Solution:

571
To find the points, substitute the values of t into the parametric equation.

For t = 1:

x(1) = 12 + 1 = 2

y(1) = 12 − 1 = 0

(x, y) = (2,0)

For t = 2:

x(2) = 22 + 2 = 6

y(2) = 22 − 2 = 2

(x, y) = (6,2)

For t = 3:

x(3) = 32 + 3 = 12

y(3) = 32 − 3 = 6

(x, y) = (12,6)

For t = 4:

x(4) = 42 + 4 = 20

y(2) = 42 − 4 = 12

(x, y) = (20,12)

572
 3. What are the points on the curve for the parameter values
t = 0, 1, 2, and 3?

x = 3t 2 − 5

y = 2t 3 + 1

Solution:

To find the points, substitute the values of t into the parametric equation.

For t = 0:

x(0) = 3(0)2 − 5 = − 5

y(0) = 2(0)3 + 1 = 1

(x, y) = (−5,1)

For t = 1:

x(1) = 3(1)2 − 5 = − 2

y(1) = 2(1)3 + 1 = 3

(x, y) = (−2,3)

For t = 2:

x(2) = 3(2)2 − 5 = 7

y(2) = 2(2)3 + 1 = 17

573
 (x, y) = (7,17)

For t = 3:

x(3) = 3(3)2 − 5 = 22

y(3) = 2(3)3 + 1 = 55

(x, y) = (22,55)

574
TANGENT LINES OF PARAMETRIC CURVES

1. Find the equation of the tangent line to the parametric curve at t = 3.

x = 3t + 5

y = 7t − 2

Solution:

Use the formula of the tangent line as y − y1 = m(x − x1) and transform the
equation into the form y = m x + b.

At t = 3, the slope of the parametric equation is

d
dy dt
(7t − 2) 7
m= = =
dx d
(3t + 5) 3
dt

At t = 3, the parametric equation has the values

x(3) = 3(3) + 5 = 14

y(3) = 7(3) − 2 = 19

Putting these values together gives the coordinate point (x, y) = (14,19).
Plug everything into the equation of the tangent line.

y − y1 = m(x − x1)

575
 7
y − 19 = (x − 14)
3

7 98 57
y= x− +
3 3 3

7 41
y= x−
3 3

2. Find the equation of the tangent line to the parametric curve at t = 4.

x = 3t 2 − 12

y = 2t 3 + 6

Solution:

Use the formula of the tangent line as y − y1 = m(x − x1) and transform the
equation into the form y = m x + b.

At t = 4, the slope of the parametric equation is

dy d 3
dy dt dt
(2t + 6) 6t 2
m= = = = =t=4
dx dx d
(3t 2 − 12) 6t
dt dt

At t = 4, the parametric equation has the values

x(4) = 3(4)2 − 12 = 36

y(4) = 2(4)3 + 6 = 134

576
Putting these values together gives the coordinate point (x, y) = (36,134).
Plug everything into the equation of the tangent line.

y − y1 = m(x − x1)

y − 134 = 4(x − 36)

y = 4x − 144 + 134

y = 4x − 10

3. Find the equation of the tangent line to the parametric curve at t = π /3.

x = cos2t

y = sin2t

Solution:

Use the formula of the tangent line as y − y1 = m(x − x1) and transform the
equation into the form y = m x + b.

At t = 4, the slope of the parametric equation is

dy d 2
dy dt dt
(sin t) 2 sin t cos t
m= = = = =−1
dx dx d
(cos2t) −2 cos t sin t
dt dt

At t = 4, the parametric equation has the values

577
 (3) (3) (2)
2
π 2 π 1 1
x = cos = =
4

(3) (3) ( 2 )
π π 3 3
y = sin2 = =
4

Putting these values together gives the coordinate point (x, y) = (1/4,3/4).
Plug everything into the equation of the tangent line.

y − y1 = m(x − x1)

( 4)
3 1
y− =−1 x−
4

1 3
y =−x+ +
4 4

y =−x+1

4. Find the equation of the tangent line to the parametric curve at t = 4.

x = t2 + t + 3

y = t 2 − 3t + 2

Solution:

Use the formula of the tangent line as y − y1 = m(x − x1) and transform the
equation into the form y = m x + b.

578
At t = 4, the slope of the parametric equation is

dy d 2
dy dt dt
(t − 3t + 2) 2t − 3 2(4) − 3 5
m= = = = = =
dx dx d 2
(t + t + 3) 2t + 1 2(4) + 1 9
dt dt

At t = 4, the parametric equation has the values

x(4) = 42 + 4 + 3 = 23

y(4) = 42 − 3(4) + 2 = 6

Putting these values together gives the coordinate point (x, y) = (23,6). Plug
everything into the equation of the tangent line.

y − y1 = m(x − x1)

5
y−6= (x − 23)
9

5 115 54
y= x− +
9 9 9

5 61
y= x−
9 9

5. Find the equation of the tangent line to the parametric curve at t = 9.

x=3 t

y = 5t t

579
Solution:

Use the formula of the tangent line as y − y1 = m(x − x1) and transform the
equation into the form y = m x + b.

At t = 9, the slope of the parametric equation is

(5t t )
dy d 15
dy dt dt 2
t 15 2 t
m= = = = = t⋅ = 5t = 5(9) = 45
(3 t )
dx dx d 3 2 3
dt dt 2 t

At t = 9, the parametric equation has the values

x(9) = 3 9 = 3 ⋅ 3 = 9

y(9) = 5 ⋅ 9 9 = 45 ⋅ 3 = 135

Putting these values together gives the coordinate point (x, y) = (9,135).
Plug everything into the equation of the tangent line.

y − y1 = m(x − x1)

y − 135 = 45(x − 9)

y = 45x − 405 + 135

y = 45x − 270

580
AREA UNDER A PARAMETRIC CURVE

1. Find the area under the parametric curve.

x(t) = 3t 2

y(t) = t + 2

0≤t≤3

Solution:

Find the area under the curve on a ≤ t ≤ b using the integral formula.

∫a
A= y(t)x′(t) dt

∫0
A= (t + 2)(6t) dt

∫0
A= 6t 2 + 12t dt

Integrate and evaluate over the interval.

3
6t 3 12t 2
A= +
3 2 0

581

 3
A = 2t 3 + 6t 2
0

A = (2(3)3 + 6(3)2) − (2(0)3 + 6(0)2)

A = 54 + 54

A = 108

2. Find the area under the parametric curve.

x(t) = 5t 2 − 3t + 4

y(t) = 6t − 1

0≤t≤5

Solution:

Find the area under the curve on a ≤ t ≤ b using the integral formula.

∫a
A= y(t)x′(t) dt

∫0
A= (6t − 1)(10t − 3) dt

∫0
A= 60t 2 − 28t + 3 dt

582

Integrate and evaluate over the interval.

5
60t 3 28t 2
A= − + 3t
3 2 0

5
A = 20t 3 − 14t 2 + 3t
0

A = (20(5)3 − 14(5)2 + 3(5)) − (20(0)3 − 14(0)2 + 3(0))

A = 2,500 − 350 + 15

A = 2,165

3. Find the area under the parametric curve.

x(t) = t + sin t

y(t) = 4 + cos t

0 ≤ t ≤ 2π

Solution:

Find the area under the curve on a ≤ t ≤ b using the integral formula.

∫a
A= y(t)x′(t) dt

583

 2π

∫0
A= (4 + cos t)(1 + cos t) dt

2π

∫0
A= 4 + 5 cos t + cos2 t dt

Use the trig identity to make a substitution.

2 1 1
cos t = + cos(2t)
2 2

Substitute.
2π
1 1
∫0
A= 4 + 5 cos t + + cos(2t) dt
2 2

2π
9 1
∫0
A= + 5 cos t + cos(2t) dt
2 2

Integrate and evaluate over the interval.

2π
9 1
A = t + 5 sin t + sin(2t)
2 4 0

(2 )
9 1 9 1
A = (2π) + 5 sin(2π) + sin(2(2π)) − (0) + 5 sin(0) + sin(2(0))
2 4 4

1
A = 9π + 5(0) + (0)
4

A = 9π

584
 4. Find the area under the parametric curve.

x(t) = t 2 + 5t − 8

y(t) = t 2 + 4t + 2

0≤t≤2

Solution:

Find the area under the curve on a ≤ t ≤ b using the integral formula.

∫a
A= y(t)x′(t) dt

∫0
A= (t 2 + 4t + 2)(2t + 5) dt

∫0
A= 2t 3 + 13t 2 + 24t + 10 dt

Integrate and evaluate over the interval.

2
2t 4 13t 3 24t 2
A= + + − 10t
4 3 2 0

2
t 4 13t 3
A= + + 12t 2 + 10t
2 3 0

24 13(2)3 04 13(0)3
(2 ) (2 )
2
A= + + 12(2) + 10(2) − + + 12(0)2 + 10(0)
3 3

585

 104
A=8+ + 48 + 20
3

104
A= + 76
3

104 228
A= +
3 3

332
A=
3

586
AREA UNDER ONE ARC OR LOOP

1. Find the area in one loop of the parametric curve.

x(θ) = 2 cos(2θ)

y(θ) = 4 + sin(2θ)

0≤θ≤π

Solution:

Plug the parametric equation and the given interval into the integral
formula for the area under one arc or in one loop of the parametric curve.

∫a
A= y(θ) ⋅ x′(t) dθ

∫0
A= (4 + sin(2θ))(−4 sin(2θ)) dθ

∫0
A= − 16 sin(2θ) − 4 sin2(2θ) dθ

Use the reduction formula

1 1 1
sin2(2θ) = (1 − cos(4θ)) = − cos(4θ)
2 2 2

Substitute that into the integral.

587

 (2 2 )
π
1 1
∫0
A = − 16 sin(2θ) − 4 − cos(4θ) dθ

∫0
A= − 16 sin(2θ) − 2 + 2 cos(4θ) dθ

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

( 2 ) ( 4 )
π
cos(2θ) sin(4θ)
A = − 16 − − 2θ + 2
0

π
1
A = 8 cos(2θ) − 2θ + sin(4θ)
2 0

( )
1 1
A = 8 cos(2π) − 2π + sin(4π) − 8 cos(2(0)) − 2(0) + sin(4(0))
2 2

1 1
A = 8(1) − 2π + (0) − 8(1) + 0 − (0)
2 2

A = 8 − 2π − 8

A = − 2π

A = −2π

A = 2π

2. Find the area in one loop of the parametric curve.

x(θ) = 2 sin θ

588
 y(θ) = 5 + cos θ

0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π

Solution:

Plug the parametric equation and the given interval into the integral
formula for the area under one arc or in one loop of the parametric curve.

∫a
A= y(θ) ⋅ x′(t) dθ

2π

∫0
A= (5 + cos θ)(2 cos θ) dθ

2π

∫0
A= 10 cos θ + 2 cos2 θ dθ

Use the reduction formula

1 2 1 1
cos θ = (1 + cos(2θ)) = + cos(2θ)
2 2 2

Substitute that into the integral.

(2 2 )
2π
1 1
∫0
A= 10 cos θ + 2 + cos(2θ) dθ

2π

∫0
A= 10 cos θ + 1 + cos(2θ) dθ

589

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.
2π
sin(2θ)
A = 10 sin θ + θ +
2 0

( )
sin(2(2π)) sin(2(0))
A = 10 sin(2π) + 2π + − 10 sin(0) + 0 +
2 2

0 0
A = 10(0) + 2π + − 10(0) − 0 −
2 2

A = 2π

3. Find the area in one loop of the parametric curve.

x(θ) = 8 + 3 cos θ

y(θ) = 9 − 2 sin θ

0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π

Solution:

Plug the parametric equation and the given interval into the integral
formula for the area under one arc or in one loop of the parametric curve.

∫a
A= y(θ) ⋅ x′(t) dθ

590

 2π

∫0
A= (9 − 2 sin θ)(−3 sin θ) dθ

2π

∫0
A= − 27 sin θ + 6 sin2 θ dθ

Use the reduction formula

2 1 1 1
sin (2θ) = (1 − cos(4θ)) = − cos(4θ)
2 2 2

Substitute that into the integral.

(2 2 )
2π
1 1
∫0
A= − 27 sin θ + 6 − cos(2θ) dθ

2π

∫0
A= − 27 sin θ + 3 − 3 cos(2θ) dθ

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

2π
3
A = 27 cos θ + 3θ − sin(2θ)
2 0

( )
3 3
A = 27 cos(2π) + 3(2π) − sin(2(2π)) − 27 cos(0) + 3(0) − sin(2(0))
2 2

3 3
A = 27(1) + 6π − (0) − 27(1) − 0 + (0)
2 2

A = 27 + 6π − 27

A = 6π

591
 4. Find the area in one loop of the parametric curve.

x(θ) = 12 + 6 sin θ

y(θ) = 12 − 6 cos θ

0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π

Solution:

Plug the parametric equation and the given interval into the integral
formula for the area under one arc or in one loop of the parametric curve.

∫a
A= y(θ) ⋅ x′(t) dθ

2π

∫0
A= (12 − 6 cos θ)(6 cos θ) dθ

2π

∫0
A= 72 cos θ − 36 cos2 θ dθ

Use the reduction formula

1 2 1 1
cos θ = (1 + cos(2θ)) = + cos(2θ)
2 2 2

Substitute that into the integral.

592

 (2 2 )
2π
1 1
∫0
A= 72 cos θ − 36 + cos(2θ) dθ

2π

∫0
A= 72 cos θ − 18 − 18 cos(2θ) dθ

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

2π
A = 72 sin θ − 18θ − 9 sin(2θ)
0

A = 72 sin(2π) − 18(2π) − 9 sin(2(2π)) − (72 sin(0) − 18(0) − 9 sin(2(0)))

A = 72(0) − 36π − 9(0) − 72(0) + 0 + 9(0)

A = − 36π

A = −36π

A = 36π

5. Find the area in one loop of the parametric curve.

x(θ) = 15 − 5 cos θ

y(θ) = 5 + 15 sin θ

0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π

593
Solution:

Plug the parametric equation and the given interval into the integral
formula for the area under one arc or in one loop of the parametric curve.

∫a
A= y(θ) ⋅ x′(t) dθ

2π

∫0
A= (5 + 15 sin θ)(5 sin θ) dθ

2π

∫0
A= 25 sin θ + 75 sin2 θ dθ

Use the reduction formula

1 1 1
sin2(2θ) = (1 − cos(4θ)) = − cos(4θ)
2 2 2

Substitute that into the integral.

(2 2 )
2π
1 1
∫0
A= 25 sin θ + 75 − cos(2θ) dθ

2π
75 75
∫0
A= 25 sin θ + − cos(2θ) dθ
2 2

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

2π
75 75
A = − 25 cos θ + θ− sin(2θ)
2 4 0

594

 ( )
75 75 75 75
A = − 25 cos(2π) + (2π) − sin(2(2π)) − −25 cos(0) + (0) − sin(2(0))
2 4 2 4

75 75
A = − 25(1) + 75π − (0) + 25(1) − 0 + (0)
4 4

A = − 25 + 75π + 25

A = 75π

595
ARC LENGTH OF PARAMETRIC CURVES

1. Find the length of the parametric curve on the given interval.

x(t) = 7 − 3t

y(t) = 5 + 8t

−1 ≤ t ≤ 4

Solution:

Plug the derivatives of x(t) and y(t) and the given interval into the integral
formula for arc length.

( dt ) ( dt )
b 2 2
dx dy
∫a
L= + dt

∫−1
L= (−3)2 + (8)2 dt

∫−1
L= 9 + 64 dt

∫−1
L= 73 dt

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

596
 4
L= 73t
−1

L= 73(4) − 73(−1)

L = 4 73 + 73

L = 5 73

2. Find the length of the parametric curve on the given interval.

x(t) = cos3t

y(t) = sin3t

3π
0≤t≤
4

Solution:

Plug the derivatives of x(t) and y(t) and the given interval into the integral
formula for arc length.

( dt ) ( dt )
b 2 2
dx dy
∫a
L= + dt

3π

∫0
4

(3 cos t(−sin t)) + (3 sin t cos t) dt

2 2 2 2
L=

597
 3π

∫0
4
L= 9 cos4 t sin2 t + 9 sin4 t cos2 t dt

3π

∫0
4
L= 9 sin2 t cos2 t(cos2 t + sin2 t) dt

3π

∫0
4
L= 9 sin2 t cos2 t(1) dt

3π

∫0
4
L= 9 sin2 t cos2 t dt

3π

∫0
4
L= 3 sin t cos t dt

Use u-substitution.

u = sin t

du
du = cos t dt, so dt =
cos t

Substitute.

( cos t )
t= 3π
du
∫t=0
4
L= 3u cos t

t= 3π

∫t=0
4
L= 3u du

Integrate, back-substitute, then evaluate over the interval.

598
 t= 3π
3 2 4
L= u
2 t=0

3π
3 2 4
L = sin t
2 0

3 2 3π 3 2
L= sin − sin (0)
2 4 2
2

2( 2 )
3 2 3
L= − (0)2
2

2 (4)
3 2
L=

3
L=
4

3. Find the length of the parametric curve on the given interval.

x(t) = 5t − 5 sin t

y(t) = − 5 cos t

0 ≤ t ≤ 2π

Solution:

599
Plug the derivatives of x(t) and y(t) and the given interval into the integral
formula for arc length.

( dt ) ( dt )
b 2 2
dx dy
∫a
L= + dt

2π

∫0
L= (5 − 5 cos t)2 + (5 sin t)2 dt

2π

∫0
L= 25 − 50 cos t + 25 cos2 t + 25 sin2 t dt

2π

∫0
L= 25 − 50 cos t + 25(cos2 t + sin2 t) dt

2π

∫0
L= 25 − 50 cos t + 25(1) dt

2π

∫0
L= 50 − 50 cos t dt

2π

∫0
L= 50(1 − cos t) dt

2π
1
∫0
L= 100 ⋅ (1 − cos t) dt
2

Use the reduction formula

1 1 1
sin2 θ = (1 − cos(2θ)) = − cos(2θ)
2 2 2

600
Substitute.
2π
t
∫0
L= 100 sin2 dt
2

2π
t
∫0
L= 10 sin dt
2

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

2π
t
L = − 20 cos
2 0

( 2)
2π 0
L = − 20 cos − −20 cos
2

L = − 20 cos π − (−20 cos 0)

L = − 20(−1) + 20(1)

L = 20 + 20

L = 40

4. Find the length of the parametric curve on the given interval.

x(t) = cos t

y(t) = t + sin t

0≤t≤π

601
Solution:

Plug the derivatives of x(t) and y(t) and the given interval into the integral
formula for arc length.

( dt ) ( dt )
b 2 2
dx dy
∫a
L= + dt

∫0
L= (−sin t)2 + (1 + cos t)2 dt

∫0
L= sin2 t + 1 + 2 cos t + cos2 t dt

∫0
L= 1 + 2 cos t + (sin2 t + cos2 t) dt

∫0
L= 1 + 2 cos t + (1) dt

∫0
L= 2 + 2 cos t dt

∫0
L= 2(1 + cos t) dt

π
1
∫0
L= 4 ⋅ (1 + cos t) dt
2

Use the reduction formula

602
 1 1 1
cos2 θ = (1 + cos(2θ)) = + cos(2θ)
2 2 2

Substitute.
π
t
∫0
2
L= 4 cos dt
2

π
t
∫0
L = 2 cos dt
2

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

π
t
L = 4 sin
2 0

π 0
L = 4 sin − 4 sin
2 2

L = 4(1) − 4(0)

L=4

603
SURFACE AREA OF REVOLUTION, HORIZONTAL AXIS

1. Find the surface area of revolution of the parametric curve on the

interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 3, rotated about the x-axis.

5
x= t
3

y = 4t + 6

Solution:

Plug the derivatives and the interval into the integral formula formula for
the surface area of revolution for a parametric curve about the x-axis.

( dt ) ( dt )
b 2 2
dx dy
∫a
S= 2π y + dt

(3)
3 2
5
∫0
S= 2π(4t + 6) + (4)2 dt

3
25
∫0
S = 4π (2t + 3) + 16 dt
9

3
25 144
∫0
S = 4π (2t + 3) + dt
9 9

604
 3
169
∫0
S = 4π (2t + 3) dt
9

3
13
∫0
S = 4π (2t + 3) dt
3

52π 3
3 ∫0
S= 2t + 3 dt

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

3
52π 2
S= (t + 3t)
3 0

52π 2 52π 2
S= (3 + 3(3)) − (0 + 3(0))
3 3

52π 52π
S= (18) − (0)
3 3

S = 312π

2. Find the surface area of revolution of the parametric curve on the

interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π, rotated about the x-axis.

x = 3 + cos t

y = 4 + sin t

605
Solution:

Plug the derivatives and the interval into the integral formula formula for
the surface area of revolution for a parametric curve about the x-axis.

( dt ) ( dt )
b 2 2
dx dy
∫a
S= 2π y + dt

2π

∫0
S= 2π(4 + sin t) (−sin t)2 + (cos t)2 dt

2π

∫0
S= 2π(4 + sin t) sin2 t + cos2 t dt

2π

∫0
S = 2π (4 + sin t) 1 dt

2π

∫0
S = 2π 4 + sin t dt

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

2π
S = 2π(4t − cos t)
0

S = 2π(4(2π) − cos(2π)) − 2π(4(0) − cos(0))

S = 2π(8π − 1) − 2π(0 − 1)

S = 16π 2 − 2π + 2π

S = 16π 2

606
 3. Find the surface area of revolution of the parametric curve on the
interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π, rotated about the x-axis.

x = 7 − 3 sin t

y = 6 + 3 cos t

Solution:

Plug the derivatives and the interval into the integral formula formula for
the surface area of revolution for a parametric curve about the x-axis.

( dt ) ( dt )
b 2 2
dx dy
∫a
S= 2π y + dt

2π

∫0
S= 2π(6 + 3 cos t) (−3 cos t)2 + (−3 sin t)2 dt

2π

∫0
S = 6π (2 + cos t) 9 cos2 t + 9 sin2 t dt

2π

∫0
S = 6π (2 + cos t) 9(cos2 t + sin2 t) dt

2π

∫0
S = 6π (2 + cos t) 9(1) dt

607
 2π

∫0
S = 6π (2 + cos t)(3) dt

2π

∫0
S = 18π 2 + cos t dt

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

2π
S = 18π(2t + sin t)
0

S = 18π(2(2π) + sin(2π)) − 18π(2(0) + sin(0))

S = 18π(4π + 0) − 18π(0 + 0)

S = 18π(4π)

S = 72π 2

4. Find the surface area of revolution of the parametric curve on the

interval 0 ≤ t ≤ π, rotated about the x-axis.

x = 5 − cos(2t)

y = 3 + sin(2t)

Solution:

608
Plug the derivatives and the interval into the integral formula formula for
the surface area of revolution for a parametric curve about the x-axis.

( dt ) ( dt )
b 2 2
dx dy
∫a
S= 2π y + dt

∫0
S= 2π(3 + sin(2t)) (2 sin(2t))2 + (2 cos(2t))2 dt

∫0
S = 2π (3 + sin(2t)) 4 sin2(2t) + 4 cos2(2t) dt

∫0
S = 2π (3 + sin(2t)) 4(sin2(2t) + cos2(2t)) dt

∫0
S = 2π (3 + sin(2t)) 4(1) dt

∫0
S = 4π 3 + sin(2t) dt

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

( )
π
1
S = 4π 3t − cos(2t)
2 0

( ) ( )
1 1
S = 4π 3π − cos(2π) − 4π 3(0) − cos(2(0))
2 2

( 2 ) ( 2 )
1 1
S = 4π 3π − (1) − 4π 0 − (1)

609
S = 12π 2 − 2π + 2π

S = 12π 2

610
SURFACE AREA OF REVOLUTION, VERTICAL AXIS

1. Find the surface area of revolution of the parametric curve on the

interval 0 ≤ t ≤ π /3, rotated about the y-axis.

x = 8 + sin(6t)

y = 7 − cos(6t)

Solution:

Plug the derivatives and the interval into the integral formula formula for
the surface area of revolution for a parametric curve about the y-axis.

( dt ) ( dt )
b 2 2
dx dy
∫a
S= 2πx + dt

∫0
3
S= 2π(8 + sin(6t)) (6 cos(6t))2 + (6 sin(6t))2 dt

∫0
3
S = 2π (8 + sin(6t)) 36 cos2(6t) + 36 sin2(6t) dt

∫0
3
S = 2π (8 + sin(6t)) 36(cos2(6t) + sin2(6t)) dt

∫0
3
S = 2π (8 + sin(6t)) 36(1) dt

611
 π

∫0
3
S = 12π 8 + sin(6t) dt

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

( )
π
1 3
S = 12π 8t − cos(6t)
6 0

( 3 6 ( 3 )) ( )
π 1 π 1
S = 12π 8 ⋅ − cos 6 ⋅ − 12π 8(0) − cos(6(0))
6

( 3 ) ( )
8π 1 1
S = 12π − cos(2π) − 12π 0 − cos(0)
6 6

( 3 6 ) ( 6 )
8π 1 1
S = 12π − (1) − 12π 0 − (1)

S = 32π 2 − 2π + 2π

S = 32π 2

2. Find the surface area of revolution of the parametric curve on the

interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π, rotated about the y-axis.

x = 5 + 4 sin(t)

y = 5 + 4 cos(t)

Solution:

612
Plug the derivatives and the interval into the integral formula formula for
the surface area of revolution for a parametric curve about the y-axis.

( dt ) ( dt )
b 2 2
dx dy
∫a
S= 2πx + dt

2π

∫0
S= 2π(5 + 4 sin t) (4 cos t)2 + (−4 sin t)2 dt

2π

∫0
S = 2π (5 + 4 sin t) 16 cos2 t + 16 sin2 t dt

2π

∫0
S = 2π (5 + 4 sin t) 16(cos2 t + 16 sin2 t) dt

2π

∫0
S = 2π (5 + 4 sin t) 16(1) dt

2π

∫0
S = 8π 5 + 4 sin t dt

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

2π
S = 8π(5t − 4 cos t)
0

S = 8π(5(2π) − 4 cos(2π)) − 8π(5(0) − 4 cos(0))

S = 8π(10π − 4(1)) − 8π(0 − 4(1))

S = 80π 2 − 32π + 32π

613
 S = 80π 2

3. Find the surface area of revolution of the parametric curve on the

interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π, rotated about the y-axis.

x = 12 − sin t

y = 2 + cos t

Solution:

Plug the derivatives and the interval into the integral formula formula for
the surface area of revolution for a parametric curve about the y-axis.

( dt ) ( dt )
b 2 2
dx dy
∫a
S= 2πx + dt

2π

∫0
S= 2π(12 − sin t) (−cos t)2 + (−sin t)2 dt

2π

∫0
S= 2π(12 − sin t) cos2 t + sin2 t dt

2π

∫0
S = 2π (12 − sin t) 1 dt

2π

∫0
S = 2π 12 − sin t dt

614
Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.
2π
S = 2π(12t + cos t)
0

S = 2π(12(2π) + cos(2π)) − 2π(12(0) + cos(0))

S = 2π(24π + 1) − 2π(0 + 1)

S = 48π 2 + 2π − 2π

S = 48π 2

4. Find the surface area of revolution of the parametric curve on the

interval 0 ≤ t ≤ π, rotated about the y-axis.

x = 4 − 3 sin(2t)

y = 4 − 3 cos(2t)

Solution:

Plug the derivatives and the interval into the integral formula formula for
the surface area of revolution for a parametric curve about the y-axis.

( dt ) ( dt )
b 2 2
dx dy
∫a
S= 2πx + dt

615
 π

∫0
2π(4 − 3 sin(2t)) (−6 cos(2t)) + (6 sin(2t)) dt
2 2
S=

∫0
S = 2π (4 − 3 sin(2t)) 36 cos2(2t) + 36 sin2(2t) dt

∫0
S = 2π (4 − 3 sin(2t)) 36(cos2(2t) + sin2(2t)) dt

∫0
S = 2π (4 − 3 sin(2t)) 36(1) dt

∫0
S = 12π 4 − 3 sin(2t) dt

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

( )
π
3
S = 12π 4t + cos(2t)
2 0

( ) ( )
3 3
S = 12π 4π + cos(2π) − 12π 4(0) + cos(2(0))
2 2

( 2 ) ( 2 )
3 3
S = 12π 4π + (1) − 12π 0 + (1)

( 2) (2)
3 3
S = 12π 4π + − 12π

S = 48π 2 + 18π − 18π

S = 48π 2

616
 5. Find the surface area of revolution of the parametric curve on the
interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 4, rotated about the y-axis.

x = 6t + 5

y = 8t + 7

Solution:

Plug the derivatives and the interval into the integral formula formula for
the surface area of revolution for a parametric curve about the y-axis.

( dt ) ( dt )
b 2 2
dx dy
∫a
S= 2πx + dt

∫0
S= 2π(6t + 5) (6)2 + (8)2 dt

∫0
S = 2π (6t + 5) 36 + 64 dt

∫0
S = 2π (6t + 5) 100 dt

∫0
S = 20π 6t + 5 dt

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

617
 4
S = 20π(3t 2 + 5t)
0

S = 20π(3(4)2 + 5(4)) − 20π(3(0)2 + 5(0))

S = 20π(3(16) + 20) − 20π(0 + 0)

S = 20π(68)

S = 1,360π

618
VOLUME OF REVOLUTION, PARAMETRIC CURVES

1. Find the volume of revolution of the parametric curve, rotated about

the x-axis, over the interval 1 ≤ t ≤ 2.

x(t) = 2t 2

y(t) = 4t 2

Solution:

Plug the interval and the parametric equation into the integral formula for
volume of revolution for a parametric equation around the x-axis.

b
2 dx
∫a
Vx = πy dt
dt

∫1
Vx = π(4t 2)2(4t) dt

∫1
Vx = 64π t 5 dt

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

(6 )
2
1 6
Vx = 64π t
1

619
 2
32π 6
Vx = t
3 1

32π 6 32π 6
Vx = (2) − (1)
3 3

32π 32π
Vx = (64) −
3 3

32π
Vx = (64 − 1)
3

32π
Vx = (63)
3

Vx = 32π(21)

Vx = 672π

2. Find the volume of revolution of the parametric curve, rotated about

the y-axis, over the interval 1 ≤ t ≤ 3.

x(t) = 3t

y(t) = 4t 2

Solution:

Plug the interval and the parametric equation into the integral formula for
volume of revolution for a parametric equation around the y-axis.

620
 b
dy
∫a
Vy = πx 2 dt
dt

∫1
Vy = π(3t)2(8t) dt

∫1
Vy = 72π t 3 dt

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

(4 )
3
1 4
Vy = 72π t
1

3
72π 4
Vy = t
4 1

72π 4 72π 4
Vy = (3) − (1)
4 4

72π
Vy = (81 − 1)
4

72π
Vy = (80)
4

Vy = 72π(20)

Vy = 1,440π

621
 3. Find the volume of revolution of the parametric curve, rotated about
the x-axis, over the interval 1 ≤ t ≤ 3.

x(t) = 2e 2t − 4t
5t
y(t) = 6e 2

Solution:

Plug the interval and the parametric equation into the integral formula for
volume of revolution for a parametric equation around the x-axis.

b
2 dx
∫a
Vx = πy dt
dt

∫1
5t
Vx = π(6e 2 )2(4e 2t − 4) dt

∫1
Vx = 4π (36e 5t )(e 2t − 1) dt

∫1
Vx = 144π e 5t e 2t − e 5t dt

∫1
Vx = 144π e 7t − e 5t dt

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

622
 (7 5 )
3
1 7t 1 5t
Vx = 144π e − e
1

(7 ) ( )
1 7(3) 1 5(3) 1 7(1) 1 5(1)
Vx = 144π e − e − 144π e − e
5 7 5

(7 ) ( 5 )
1 21 1 15 1 7 1 5
Vx = 144π e − e − 144π e − e
5 7

(7 5 )
1 21 1 15 1 7 1 5
Vx = 144π e − e − e + e
5 7

( 7 5 )
e 21 − e 7 e 15 − e 5
Vx = 144π −

4. Find the volume of revolution of the parametric curve, rotated about

the y-axis, over the interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 1.

x(t) = 3e t

y(t) = e t

Solution:

Plug the interval and the parametric equation into the integral formula for
volume of revolution for a parametric equation around the y-axis.

b
dy
∫a
Vy = πx 2 dt
dt

623
 1

∫0
Vy = π(3e t )2(e t ) dt

∫0
Vy = 9π (e 2t )(e t ) dt

∫0
Vy = 9π e 3t dt

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

(3 )
1
1 3t
Vy = 9π e
0

1
Vy = 3π (e 3t)
0

Vy = 3π (e 3(1)) − 3π (e 3(0))

Vy = 3π(e 3) − 3π(1)

Vy = 3π(e 3 − 1)

624
POLAR COORDINATES

1. Convert the rectangular point (2, − 2) to a polar point.

Solution:

Use x 2 + y 2 = r 2 to find r.

22 + (−2)2 = r 2

4 + 4 = r2

8 = r2

r= 8

r=2 2

Use θ = tan−1(y/x) to find θ.

( 2 )
−2
θ = tan−1

θ = tan−1 (−1)

3π 7π
θ= ,
4 4

Since the point (2, − 2) is in quadrant IV, θ = 7π /4. Therefore, the polar point
is

625
 ( 4 )
7π
2 2,

2. Convert the polar point (3,π /4) to a rectangular point.

Solution:

Use x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ to find the rectangular point.

x = r cos θ

(4)
π
x = 3 cos

( 2 )
2
x=3

3 2
x=
2

and

y = r sin θ

(4)
π
y = 3 sin

( 2 )
2
y=3

626
 3 2
y=
2

Therefore, the rectangular point is

( 2 2 )
3 2 3 2
,

3. Convert the rectangular point (−5 3,5) to a polar point.

Solution:

Use x 2 + y 2 = r 2 to find r.

( )
2
2 2
−5 3 + (5) = r

75 + 25 = r 2

100 = r 2

r= 100

r = 10

Use θ = tan−1(y/x) to find θ.

( −5 3 )
5
θ = tan−1

627
 ( 3)
1
θ = tan−1 −

5π 11π
θ= ,
6 6

Since the point (−5 3,5) is in quadrant II, θ = 5π /6. Therefore, the polar

point is

( 6 )
5π
10,

4. Convert the polar point (8,11π /6) to a rectangular point.

Solution:

Use x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ to find the rectangular point.

x = r cos θ

( 6 )
11π
x = 8 cos

( 2 )
3
x=8

x=4 3

628
 and

y = r sin θ

( 6 )
11π
y = 8 sin

( 2)
1
y=8 −

y =−4

Therefore, the rectangular point is

(4 3, − 4)

629
CONVERTING RECTANGULAR EQUATIONS

1. Convert the rectangular equation to an equivalent polar equation.

4x 2 + 4y 2 = 64

Solution:

When converting from rectangular to polar, use x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ.

Simplify the given equation and then substitute.

4x 2 + 4y 2 = 64

x 2 + y 2 = 16

(r cos θ)2 + (r sin θ)2 = 16

r 2cos2θ + r 2sin2θ = 16

r 2 (cos2θ + sin2θ) = 16

r 2(1) = 16

r 2 = 16

r=4

This is the equivalent polar equation.

630
 2. Convert the rectangular equation to an equivalent polar equation.

x2 y2
+ =1
9 4

Solution:

When converting from rectangular to polar, use x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ.

Eliminate the denominators and then substitute.

x2 y2
+ =1
9 4

4x 2 + 9y 2 = 36

4(r cos θ)2 + 9(r sin θ)2 = 36

4r 2 cos2 θ + 9r 2 sin2 θ = 36

r 2 (4cos2θ + 9sin2θ) = 36

r 2 [4cos2θ + 4sin2θ + 5sin2θ] = 36

r 2 [4 (cos2θ + sin2θ) + 5sin2θ] = 36

r 2(4 (1) + 5sin2θ) = 36

r 2(4 + 5sin2θ) = 36

2 36
r =
4 + 5sin2θ

631
 6
r=
4 + 5sin2θ

This is the equivalent polar equation.

3. Convert the rectangular equation to an equivalent polar equation.

(x − 2)2 + (y + 2)2 = 8

Solution:

When converting from rectangular to polar, use x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ.

Square the binomials and then substitute.

(x − 2)2 + (y + 2)2 = 8

x 2 − 4x + 4 + y 2 + 4y + 4 = 8

x 2 + y 2 − 4x + 4y = 0

r 2 − 4r cos x + 4r sin x = 0

r 2 = 4r cos x − 4r sin x

r = 4 cos x − 4 sin x

This is the equivalent polar equation.

632
 4. Convert the rectangular equation to an equivalent polar equation.

x2 y2
− =1
9 8

Solution:

When converting from rectangular to polar, use x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ.

Eliminate the denominators and then substitute.

x2 y2
− =1
9 8

8x 2 − 9y 2 = 72

8(r cos θ)2 − 9(r sin θ)2 = 72

8r 2cos2θ − 9r 2sin2θ = 72

r 2 (8cos2θ − 9sin2θ) = 72

r 2 (8cos2θ − 8sin2θ − sin2θ) = 72

8r 2 (cos2θ − sin2θ) − r 2sin2θ = 72

Use the identity cos(2θ) = cos2θ − sin2θ to make a substitution.

8r 2 cos(2θ) − r 2sin2θ = 72

r 2 (8 cos(2θ) − sin2θ) = 72

633
 72
r2 =
8 cos(2θ) − sin2θ

6 2
r=
8 cos(2θ) − sin2θ

This is the equivalent polar equation.

634
CONVERTING POLAR EQUATIONS

1. Convert the polar equation to an equivalent rectangular equation.

r = 4 cos θ + 4 sin θ

Solution:

When converting from polar to rectangular, use x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ.

For this problem, rewrite those as
x
cos θ =
r
y
sin θ =
r

Substitute these values.

r = 4 cos θ + 4 sin θ

4x 4y
r= +
r r

r 2 = 4x + 4y

Replace r 2 with x 2 + y 2.

x 2 + y 2 = 4x + 4y

x 2 − 4x + y 2 − 4y = 0

635
 x 2 − 4x + 4 + y 2 − 4y + 4 = 4 + 4

(x − 4x + 4) + (y − 4y + 4) = 8
2 2

(x − 2)2 + (y − 2)2 = 8

This is the equivalent rectangular equation.

2. Convert the polar equation to an equivalent rectangular equation.

r = 12 cos θ − 12 sin θ

Solution:

When converting from polar to rectangular, use x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ.

For this problem, rewrite those as
x
cos θ =
r
y
sin θ =
r

Substitute these values.

r = 12 cos θ − 12 sin θ

12x 12y
r= −
r r

r 2 = 12x − 12y

636
 x 2 + y 2 = 12x − 12y

x 2 − 12x + y 2 + 12y = 0

x 2 − 12x + 36 + y 2 + 12y + 36 = 36 + 36

(x − 12x + 36) + (y + 12y + 36) = 72

2 2

(x − 6)2 + (y + 6)2 = 72

This is the equivalent rectangular equation.

3. Convert the polar equation to an equivalent rectangular equation.

( 4)
π
r = 3 sin θ +

Solution:

Use the identity sin(a + b) = sin a cos b + cos a sin b to rewrite the polar
equation.

( 4)
π
r = 3 sin θ +

( (4) ( 4 ))
π π
r = 3 sin θ cos + cos θ sin

637
 ( 2 )
2 2
r=3 sin θ + cos θ
2

3 2 3 2
r= sin θ + cos θ
2 2

When converting from polar to rectangular, use x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ.

For this problem, rewrite those as
x
cos θ =
r
y
sin θ =
r

Substitute these values.

3 2 y 3 2 x
r= +
2 r 2 r

3 2 3 2
r2 = y+ x
2 2

2 2
3 2 3 2
x +y = y+ x
2 2

2
3 2 2
3 2
x − x+y − y=0
2 2

Complete the square with respect to both variables.

3 2 9 3 2 9 9 9
x2 − x+ + y2 − y+ = +
2 8 2 8 8 8

638
 ( 8) ( 8) 4
2
3 2 9 2
3 2 9 9
x − x+ + y − y+ =
2 2

2 2

( 4 ) ( 4 )
3 2 3 2 9
x− + y− =
4

This is the equivalent rectangular equation.

4. Convert the polar equation to an equivalent rectangular equation.

r = 6 cos θ − 10 sin θ

Solution:

When converting from polar to rectangular, use x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ.

For this problem, rewrite those as
x
cos θ =
r
y
sin θ =
r

Substitute these values.

r = 6 cos θ − 10 sin θ

6x 10y
r= −
r r

639
 r 2 = 6x − 10y

x 2 + y 2 = 6x − 10y

x 2 − 6x + y 2 + 10y = 0

x 2 − 6x + 9 + y 2 + 10y + 25 = 9 + 25

(x − 6x + 9) + (y + 10y + 25) = 34
2 2

(x − 3)2 + (y + 5)2 = 34

This is the equivalent rectangular equation.

5. Convert the polar equation to an equivalent rectangular equation.

r = 12 sin θ

Solution:

When converting from polar to rectangular, use x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ.

For this problem, rewrite those as
x
cos θ =
r
y
sin θ =
r

Substitute these values.

640
 r = 12 sin θ

12y
r=
r

r 2 = 12y

x 2 + y 2 = 12y

x 2 + y 2 − 12y = 0

x 2 + y 2 − 12y + 36 = 36

x 2 + (y 2 − 12y + 36) = 36

x 2 + (y − 6)2 = 36

This is the equivalent rectangular equation.

641
DISTANCE BETWEEN POLAR POINTS

1. Calculate the distance between the polar coordinate points.

( 3) ( 6 )
π 11π
2, and 2,

Solution:

Find the distance between two polar coordinate points with the formula

D= r12 + r22 − 2r1r2 cos (θ1 − θ2)

Plugging the points into this distance formula, we get

( 6 3)
2 2 11π π
D= 2 + 2 − 2(2)(2)cos −

( 2 )
3π
D= 4 + 4 − 8 cos

D= 8 − 8(0)

D= 8

D=2 2

This is the distance between the polar points.

642
 2. Calculate the distance between the polar coordinate points.

( 12 ) ( 12 )
7π π
4, and 2,

Solution:

Find the distance between two polar coordinate points with the formula

D= r12 + r22 − 2r1r2 cos (θ1 − θ2)

Plugging the points into this distance formula, we get

( 12 12 )
2 2 7π π
D= 4 + 2 − 2(4)(2)cos −

(2)
π
D= 16 + 4 − 16 cos

D= 20 − 16(0)

D= 20

D=2 5

This is the distance between the polar points.

643
 3. Calculate the distance between the polar coordinate points.

( 4) ( 4 )
π 3π
4, and 9,

Solution:

Find the distance between two polar coordinate points with the formula

D= r12 + r22 − 2r1r2 cos (θ1 − θ2)

Plugging the points into this distance formula, we get

( 4 4)
2 2 3π π
D= 4 + 9 − 2(4)(9)cos −

(2)
π
D= 16 + 81 − 72 cos

D= 97 − 72(0)

D= 97

This is the distance between the polar points.

644
SKETCHING POLAR CURVES

1. Graph the polar curve. How many petals does the curve have, and
what is the length of each petal?

r = 5 sin(4θ)

Solution:

The polar equation represents a rose. The length of the petals of a curve in
the form r = a sin(bθ) is a units. The number of petals depends on the value
of b. If b is an odd number, then the graph has b petals. If b is an even
number, then the graph has 2b petals. In this question, a = 5, b = 4.
Therefore, the graph has 8 petals and the length of each petal is 5 units.
The graph of the given polar equation is

645
TANGENT LINE TO THE POLAR CURVE

1. Find the tangent line to the polar curve at θ = 2π /3.

r = 3 cos θ

Solution:

The slope of the tangent line m is given by

dr
dy dθ
sin θ + r cos θ
m= =
dx dr
cos θ − r sin θ
dθ

Calculate dr/dθ.

dr d
= (3 cos θ) = − 3 sin θ
dθ dθ

Then m is

−3 sin θ sin θ + 3 cos θ cos θ

m=
−3 sin θ cos θ − 3 cos θ sin θ

−sin2θ + cos2θ
m=
−2 sin θ cos θ

−sin2 ( 2π
3 )
+ cos (3)
2 2π

m=
−2 sin ( 2π
3 ) (3)
2π
cos

646
 ( )
2

( 2)
3 2
1
− 2
+ −
m=

( )( 2)
3 1
−2 2
−

− 34 + 1
4
− 12 1 3
m= = =− =−
3 3 3 3
2 2

Use θ = 2π /3 and the conversion equations x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ to find a

point on the tangent line.

x = r cos θ

x = 3 cos θ cos θ

( 2 )
3π
x1 = 3cos2

( 2)
2
1
x1 = 3 −

3
x1 =
4

and

y = r sin θ

y = 3 cos θ sin θ

( 2 ) ( 2 )
3π 3π
y1 = 3 cos sin

647
 ( 2)( 2 )
1 3
y1 = 3 −

3 3
y1 = −
4

Therefore, the equation of the tangent line is

y − y1 = m(x − x1)

3 ( 4)
3 3 3 3
y+ =− x−
4

3 ( 4)
3 3 3 3
y=− x− −
4

3 3 3 3
y=− x+ −
3 4 4

3 3
y=− x−
3 2

The graph shows the polar curve and the tangent line.

648
 2. Find the tangent line to the polar curve at θ = π /3.

r = 5 sin θ

Solution:

The slope of the tangent line m is given by

dr
dy dθ
sin θ + r cos θ
m= =
dx dr
cos θ − r sin θ
dθ

Calculate dr/dθ.

dr d
= (5 sin θ) = 5 cos θ
dθ dθ

649
Then m is

5 cos θ sin θ + 5 sin θ cos θ

m=
5 cos θ cos θ − 5 sin θ sin θ

cos θ sin θ + sin θ cos θ

m=
cos2θ − sin2θ

2 cos θ sin θ
m=
cos2θ − sin2θ

2 cos ( π3 ) sin ( π3 )
m=
cos2 ( π3 ) − sin2 ( π3 )

( )
2 ( 12 )
3
2
m=

( )
2

(2)
2 3
1
− 2

3 3
2 2 3
m= =− =− =− 3
1
− 3 1 1
4 4 2

Use θ = π /3 and the conversion equations x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ to find a

point on the tangent line.

x = r cos θ

x = 5 sin θ cos θ

(3) (3)
π π
x1 = 5 sin cos

650
 ( 2 )(2)
1 3
x1 = 5

5 3
x1 =
4

and

y = r sin θ

y = 5 sin θ sin θ

(3)
π
y1 = 5sin2

( 2 )( 2 )
3 3
y1 = 5

15
y1 =
4

Therefore, the equation of the tangent line is

y − y1 = m(x − x1)

( 4 )
15 5 3
y− =− 3 x−
4

( 4 ) 4
5 3 15
y=− 3 x− +

651
 15 15
y=− 3x + +
4 4

15
y=− 3x +
2

The graph shows the polar curve and the tangent line.

3. Find the tangent line to the polar curve at θ = π /4.

r = 4 − 2 cos θ

Solution:

The slope of the tangent line m is given by

652
 dr
dy dθ
sin θ + r cos θ
m= =
dx dr
cos θ − r sin θ
dθ

Calculate dr/dθ.

dr d
= (4 − 2 cos θ) = 2 sin θ
dθ dθ

Then m is

2 sin θ sin θ + (4 − 2 cos θ)cos θ

m=
2 sin θ cos θ − (4 − 2 cos θ)sin θ

2 sin θ sin θ + 4 cos θ − 2cos2θ

m=
2 sin θ cos θ − 4 sin θ + 2 cos θ sin θ

sin θ sin θ + 2 cos θ − cos2θ

m=
sin θ cos θ − 2 sin θ + cos θ sin θ

sin ( π4 ) sin ( π4 ) + 2 cos ( π4 ) − cos2 ( π4 )

m=
sin ( π4 ) cos ( π4 ) − 2 sin ( π4 ) + cos ( π4 ) sin ( π4 )

( )( ) ( ) ( )
2
2 2 2 2
2 2
+2 2
− 2
m=

( )( ) ( ) ( )( )
2 2 2 2 2
2 2
−2 2
+ 2 2

1
+ 2− 1
2 2 (1 + 2) 2+ 2
2 2
m= = = = =−2− 2
(1 − 2 ) (1 + 2)
1
− 2+ 1
1− 2 1−2
2 2

653
Use θ = π /4 and the conversion equations x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ to find a
point on the tangent line.

x = r cos θ

x = (4 − 2 cos θ)cos θ

(4) (4)
π π
x1 = 4 cos − 2cos2

( 2 ) ( 2 )
2 2
x1 = 4 −2

x1 = 2 2 − 1

and

y = r sin θ

y = (4 − 2 cos θ)sin θ

(4) (4) (4)

π π π
y1 = 4 sin − 2 cos sin

( 2 ) ( 2 )( 2 )
2 2 2
y1 = 4 −2

y1 = 2 2 − 1

Therefore, the equation of the tangent line is

y − y1 = m(x − x1)

654
 y − (2 2 − 1) = (−2 − 2 ) (x − (2 2 − 1))

y = (−2 − 2 ) (x − (2 2 − 1)) + (2 2 − 1)

y = − (2 + 2 ) (x − 2 2 + 1) + 2 2 − 1

y = − (2x − 4 2 + 2 + 2x − 4 + 2) + 2 2 − 1

y = − 2x + 4 2 − 2 − 2x + 4 − 2+2 2−1

y = − 2x − 2x + 5 2 + 1

y = (−2 − 2) x + 5 2 + 1

The graph shows the polar curve and the tangent line.

655
 4. Find the tangent line to the polar curve at θ = π.

r = 8 − 5 sin θ

Solution:

The slope of the tangent line m is given by

dr
dy dθ
sin θ + r cos θ
m= =
dx dr
cos θ − r sin θ
dθ

Calculate dr/dθ.

dr d
= (8 − 5 sin θ) = − 5 cos θ
dθ dθ

Then m is

−5 cos θ sin θ + (8 − 5 sin θ)cos θ

m=
−5 cos θ cos θ − (8 − 5 sin θ)sin θ

−5 cos θ sin θ + 8 cos θ − 5 sin θ cos θ

m=
−5 cos θ cos θ − 8 sin θ + 5sin2θ

−5 cos π sin π + 8 cos π − 5 sin π cos π

m=
−5 cos π cos π − 8 sin π + 5sin2π

−5(−1)(0) + 8(−1) − 5(0)(−1)

m=
−5(−1)(−1) − 8(0) + 5(0)2

0−8+0 −8 8
m= = =
−5 − 0 + 0 −5 5

656
Use θ = π and the conversion equations x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ to find a
point on the tangent line.

x = r cos θ

x = (8 − 5 sin θ)cos θ

x1 = (8 − 5 sin π)cos π

x1 = (8 − 5(0))(−1)

x1 = 8(−1)

x1 = − 8

and

y = r sin θ

y = (8 − 5 sin θ)sin θ

y1 = (8 − 5 sin π)sin π

y1 = (8 − 5(0))(0)

y1 = 0

Therefore, the equation of the tangent line is

y − y1 = m(x − x1)

8
y−0= (x + 8)
5

657
 8 64
y= x+
5 5

The graph shows the polar curve and the tangent line.

5. Find the tangent line to the polar curve at θ = π /2.

r = 7 − 6 cos θ

Solution:

The slope of the tangent line m is given by

dr
dy dθ
sin θ + r cos θ
m= =
dx dr
cos θ − r sin θ
dθ

658
Calculate dr/dθ.

dr d
= (7 − 6 cos θ) = 6 sin θ
dθ dθ

Then m is

6 sin θ sin θ + (7 − 6 cos θ) cos θ

m=
6 sin θ cos θ − (7 − 6 cos θ) sin θ

6 sin θ sin θ + 7 cos θ − 6cos2θ

m=
6 sin θ cos θ − 7 sin θ + 6 cos θ sin θ

6 sin ( π2 ) sin ( π2 ) + 7 cos ( π2 ) − 6cos2 ( π2 )

m=
6 sin ( π2 ) cos ( π2 ) − 7 sin ( π2 ) + 6 cos ( π2 ) sin ( π2 )

6(1)(1) + 7(0) − 6(0)2 6+0−0 6

m= = =−
6(1)(0) − 7(1) + 6(0)(1) 0 − 7 + 0 7

Use θ = π /2 and the conversion equations x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ to find a

point on the tangent line.

x = r cos θ

x = (7 − 6 cos θ)cos θ

( ( 2 )) (2)
π π
x1 = 7 − 6 cos cos

x1 = (7 − 6(0))(0)

x1 = 0

659
 and

y = r sin θ

y = (7 − 6 cos θ) sin θ

( ( 2 )) (2)
π π
y1 = 7 − 6 cos sin

y1 = (7 − 6(0))(1)

y1 = 7

Therefore, the equation of the tangent line is

y − y1 = m(x − x1)

6
y − 7 = − (x − 0)
7

6
y =− x+7
7

The graph shows the polar curve and the tangent line.

660
661
VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL TANGENT LINES TO THE POLAR CURVE

1. At which points does the polar curve have horizontal tangent lines?

r = 4 − 4 sin θ

Solution:

Use the conversion equations x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ and the polar
equation into each of them.

x = r cos θ

x = (4 − 4 sin θ)cos θ

x = 4 cos θ − 4 sin θ cos θ

and

y = r sin θ

y = (4 − 4 sin θ)sin θ

y = 4 sin θ − 4sin2θ

Take the derivative of each equation.

dx d
= (4 cos θ − 4 sin θ cos θ)
dθ dθ

662
 dx
= − 4 sin θ − 4(cos θ cos θ − sin θ sin θ)
dθ

dx
= 4 sin2 θ − 4 cos2 θ − 4 sin θ
dθ

and

dy d
= (4 sin θ − 4 sin2 θ)
dθ dθ

dy
= 4 cos θ − 8 sin θ cos θ
dθ

Put these together to get dy/d x.

dy 4 cos θ − 8 sin θ cos θ

=
d x 4 sin2 θ − 4 cos2 θ − 4 sin θ

dy cos θ − 2 sin θ cos θ

=
d x sin2 θ − cos2 θ − sin θ

Horizontal tangent lines exist where the numerator is 0.

cos θ − 2 sin θ cos θ = 0

cos θ(1 − 2 sin θ) = 0

The solutions are

π 3π
cos θ = 0 gives θ = ,
2 2

π 5π
1 − 2 sin θ = 0 gives ,
6 6

663
Plug each of these angles into the equations for x and y. For θ = π /2, we
get

( ( 2 )) (2) ( ( 2 )) (2)
π π π π
x= 4 − 4 sin cos y= 4 − 4 sin sin

x = (4 − 4(1))(0) y = (4 − 4(1))(1)

x=0 y=0

Plug θ = 3π /2 into the equations for x and y.

( ( 2 )) ( 2 ) ( ( 2 )) ( 2 )
3π 3π 3π 3π
x= 4 − 4 sin cos y= 4 − 4 sin sin

x = (4 − 4(−1))(0) y = (4 − 4(−1))(−1)

x=0 y =−8

Plug θ = π /6 into the equations for x and y.

( ( 6 )) (6) ( ( 6 )) (6)
π π π π
x = 4 − 4 sin cos y = 4 − 4 sin sin

( ( 2 )) ( 2 ) ( ( 2 )) ( 2 )
1 3 1 1
x = 4−4 y = 4−4

x= 3 y=1

Plug θ = 5π /6 into the equations for x and y.

664
 ( ( 6 )) ( 6 ) ( ( 6 )) ( 6 )
5π 5π 5π 5π
x= 4 − 4 sin cos y= 4 − 4 sin sin

( ( )
2 )( 2 ) ( ( 2 )) ( 2 )
1 3 1 1
x = 4−4 − y= 4−4

x=− 3 y=1

Therefore, the curve has horizontal tangent lines at

(0,0), (0, − 8), ( 3,1), (− 3,1)

2. At which points does the polar curve have vertical tangent lines?

r = 6 − 6 cos θ

Solution:

Use the conversion equations x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ and the polar
equation into each of them.

x = r cos θ

x = (6 − 6 cos θ)cos θ

x = 6 cos θ − 6cos2θ

and

665
 y = r sin θ

y = (6 − 6 cos θ)sin θ

y = 6 sin θ − 6 cos θ sin θ

Take the derivative of each equation.

dx d
= (6 cos θ − 6 cos2 θ)
dθ dθ

dx
= − 6 sin θ + 12 cos θ sin θ
dθ

and

dy d
= (6 sin θ − 6 cos θ sin θ)
dθ dθ

dy
= 6 cos θ − 6(cos2 θ − sin2 θ)
dθ

dy
= 6 cos θ − 6 cos(2θ)
dθ

Put these together to get dy/d x.

dy 6 cos θ − 6 cos(2θ)
=
d x −6 sin θ + 12 cos θ sin θ

dy cos θ − cos(2θ)
=
d x 2 cos θ sin θ − sin θ

Vertical tangent lines exist where the denominator is 0.

2 cos θ sin θ − sin θ = 0

666
 sin θ (2 cos θ − 1) = 0

The solutions are

sin θ = 0 gives θ = 0, π

π 5π
2 cos θ − 1 = 0 gives θ = ,
3 3

Plug θ = 0 into the equations for x and y.

x = (6 − 6 cos(0))cos(0) y = (6 − 6 sin(0))sin(0)

x = (6 − 6(1))(1) y = (6 − 6(1))(0)

x=0 y=0

Plug θ = π into the equations for x and y.

x = (6 − 6 cos(π))cos(π) y = (6 − 6 sin(π))sin(π)

x = (6 − 6(−1))(−1) y = (6 − 6(0))(0)

x = − 12 y=0

Plug θ = π /3 into the equations for x and y.

( ( 3 )) (3) ( ( 3 )) (3)
π π π π
x= 6 − 6 cos cos y= 6 − 6 cos sin

( ( 2 )) ( 2 ) ( ( 2 )) ( 2 )
1 1 1 3
x= 6−6 y= 6−6

667
 3 3 3
x= y=
2 2

Plug θ = 5π /3 into the equations for x and y.

( ( 3 )) ( 3 ) ( ( 3 )) ( 3 )
5π 5π 5π 5π
x = 6 − 6 cos cos x = 6 − 6 cos sin

( ( 2 )) ( 2 ) ( ( 2 )) ( 2 )
1 1 1 3
x = 6−6 y = 6−6 −

3 3 3
x= y=−
2 2

Therefore, the curve has vertical tangent lines at

(2 2 ) (2 2 )
3 3 3 3 3 3
(0,0), (−12,0), , , ,−

3. At which points does the polar curve have horizontal tangent lines?

r = 8 − 2 sin θ

Solution:

Use the conversion equations x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ and the polar
equation into each of them.

668
 x = r cos θ

x = (8 − 2 sin θ)cos θ

x = 8 cos θ − 2 sin θ cos θ

and

y = r sin θ

y = (8 − 2 sin θ)sin θ

y = 8 sin θ − 2sin2θ

Take the derivative of each equation.

dx d
= (8 cos θ − 2 sin θ cos θ)
dθ dθ

dx
= − 8 sin θ − 2(cos2θ − sin2θ)
dθ

dx
= − 8 sin θ − 2 cos(2θ)
dθ

and

dy d
= (8 sin θ − 2sin2θ)
dθ dθ

dy
= 8 cos θ − 4 sin θ cos θ
dθ

Put these together to get dy/d x.

669
 dy 8 cos θ − 4 sin θ cos θ
=
dx −8 sin θ − 2 cos(2θ)

dy 4 cos θ − 2 sin θ cos θ

=
dx −4 sin θ − cos(2θ)

Horizontal tangent lines exist where the numerator is 0.

4 cos θ − 2 sin θ cos θ = 0

2 cos θ(2 − sin θ) = 0

π 3π
θ= ,
2 2

Plug θ = π /2 into the equations for x and y.

( ( 2 )) (2) ( ( 2 )) (2)
π π π π
x= 8 − 2 sin cos y= 8 − 2 sin sin

x = (8 − 2(1))(0) y = (8 − 2(1))(1)

x=0 y=6

Plug θ = 3π /2 into the equations for x and y.

( ( 2 )) ( 2 ) ( ( 2 )) ( 2 )
3π 3π 3π 3π
x= 8 − 2 sin cos y= 8 − 2 sin sin

x = (8 − 2(−1))(0) y = (8 − 2(−1))(−1)

x=0 y = − 10

670
Therefore, when θ = π /2, the curve has a horizontal tangent line at (0,6).
And when θ = 3π /2, the curve has a horizontal tangent at (0, − 10).

671
INTERSECTION OF THE POLAR CURVES

1. Find the rectangular points of intersection of the polar curves.

r = 3 cos θ

r = 3 sin θ

Solution:

A sketch of the polar curves is

Set the two equations equal to each other and solve for θ.

3 cos θ = 3 sin θ

cos θ = sin θ

672
 π 5π
θ= ,
4 4

Plugging these values of θ back into r = 3 cos θ gives the polar points of
intersection as

( 2 )
π 2 3 2
r = 3 cos θ = 3 cos =3 =
4 2

( 2 )
5π 2 3 2
r = 3 cos θ = 3 cos =3 − =−
4 2

The polar points of intersection are therefore

( 2 4) ( 4 )
3 2 π 3 2 5π
, and − ,
2

If we convert these to rectangular points, we get

x = r cos θ y = r sin θ

3 2 π 3 2 π
x= cos y= sin
2 4 2 4

( 2 ) ( 2 )
3 2 2 3(2) 3 3 2 2 3(2) 3
x= = = y= = =
2 4 2 2 4 2

and

x = r cos θ y = r sin θ

673
 3 2 5π 3 2 5π
x=− cos y=− sin
2 4 2 4

( 2 ) ( 2 )
3 2 2 3(2) 3 3 2 23(2) 3
x=− − = = y=− − = =
2 4 2 2 4 2

Both cases give the rectangular intersection point

(2 2)
3 3
,

Notice though that from the sketch the curves also intersect at the pole
(0,0). Which means the rectangular points of intersection are

(2 2)
3 3
(0,0) and ,

2. Find the polar points of intersection of the polar curves.

r=4

r = − 8 sin θ

Solution:

A sketch of the polar curves is

674
To find points of intersection, set the two equations equal to each other
and solve for θ.

4 = − 8 sin θ

1
− = sin θ
2

( 2)
−1 1
θ = sin −

7π 11π
θ= ,
6 6

Plugging these values of θ back into r = 4 gives the polar points of

intersection as

( 6 ) ( 6 )
7π 11π
4, and 4,

675
 3. Find the rectangular points of intersection of the polar curves.

r = 6 − 4 cos θ

r = 5 cos θ

Solution:

A sketch of the polar curves is

To find points of intersection, set the two equations equal to each other
and solve for θ.

6 − 4 cos θ = 5 cos θ

6 = 9 cos θ

676
 6
= cos θ
9

(3)
−1 2
θ = cos

θ = ± 0.841069

Plugging these values of θ back into r = 5 cos θ gives the polar points of
intersection as

r = 5 cos(0.841069)

(3)
2
r=5

10
r=
3

and

r = 5 cos(−0.841069)

(3)
2
r=5

10
r=
3

So the polar points of intersection are

(3 ) ( 3 )
10 10
,0.841069 and , − 0.841069

677
Convert these to rectangular points. For x we get

x = r cos θ x = r cos θ

10 10
x1 = cos(0.841069) x2 = cos(−0.841069)
3 3

3 (3) 3 (3)
10 2 10 2
x1 = x2 =

20 20
x1 = x2 =
9 9

And for y we get

y = r sin θ y = r sin θ

10 10
y1 = sin(0.841069) y2 = sin(−0.841069)
3 3

10 10
y1 = (0.7453562121) y2 = (−0.7453562121)
3 3

y1 = 2.48 y2 = − 2.48

So the rectangular points of intersection are

(9 ) (9 )
20 20
,2.48 and , − 2.48

(2.22,2.48) and (2.22, − 2.48)

678
AREA INSIDE A POLAR CURVE

1. Find the area bounded by the polar curve over the interval.

r = 2 + 2 cos θ

0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π

Solution:

A sketch of the polar curve is

The area bounded by the curve over the interval is

b
1
∫a 2 [ ] dθ
2
A= f (θ)

679
 2π
1
∫0
A= (2 + 2 cos θ)2 dθ
2

1 2π
2 ∫0
A= 4 + 8 cos θ + 4 cos2 θ dθ

Use the trig identity

2 1
cos θ = (1 + cos(2θ))
2

to substitute.

1 2π 1
2 ∫0
A= 4 + 8 cos θ + 4 ⋅ (1 + cos(2θ)) dθ
2

1 2π
∫
A= 4 + 8 cos θ + 2 + 2 cos(2θ) dθ
2 0

2π

∫0
A= 3 + 4 cos θ + cos(2θ) dθ

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

2π
1
A = 3θ + 4 sin θ + sin(2θ)
2 0

( )
1 1
A = 3(2π) + 4 sin(2π) + sin(2 ⋅ 2π) − 3(0) + 4 sin(0) + sin(2 ⋅ 0)
2 2

1
A = 6π + 4(0) + (0)
2

680
 A = 6π

2. Find the area bounded by the polar curve over the interval.

r = 2 sin 2θ

0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π

Solution:

A sketch of the polar curve is

The area bounded by the curve over the interval is

b
1
∫a 2 [ ] dθ
2
A= f (θ)

681
 2π
1
∫0
A= (2 sin(2θ))2 dθ
2

2π
1
∫0
A= (4 sin2(2θ)) dθ
2

2π

∫0
A=2 sin2(2θ) dθ

Use the trig identity

1
sin2 θ = (1 − cos(2θ))
2

1
sin2(2θ) = (1 − cos(4θ))
2

to substitute.
2π
1
∫0
A=2 (1 − cos(4θ)) dθ
2

2π

∫0
A= 1 − cos(4θ) dθ

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

2π
1
A = θ − sin(4θ)
4 0

( )
1 1
A = 2π − sin(4 ⋅ 2π) − 0 − sin(4 ⋅ 0)
4 4

682
 1
A = 2π − sin(8π)
4

1
A = 2π − (0)
4

A = 2π

3. Find the area bounded by the polar curve over the interval.

r = 4 + 2 sin θ

0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π

Solution:

A sketch of the polar curve is

683
The area bounded by the curve over the interval is

b
1
∫a 2 [ ] dθ
2
A= f (θ)

2π
1
∫0
A= (4 + 2 sin θ)2 dθ
2

1 2π
2 ∫0
A= 16 + 16 sin θ + 4 sin2 θ dθ

Use the trig identity

1
sin2 θ = (1 − cos(2θ))
2

to substitute.

1 2π 1
2 ∫0
A= 16 + 16 sin θ + 4 ⋅ (1 − cos(2θ)) dθ
2

1 2π
∫
A= 16 + 16 sin θ + 2 − 2 cos(2θ) dθ
2 0

2π

∫0
A= 9 + 8 sin θ − cos(2θ) dθ

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

2π
1
A = 9θ − 8 cos θ − sin(2θ)
2 0

684
 ( )
1 1
A = 9(2π) − 8 cos(2π) − sin(2 ⋅ 2π) − 9(0) − 8 cos(0) − sin(2 ⋅ 0)
2 2

1
A = 18π − 8(1) − (0) + 8(1)
2

A = 18π − 8 + 8

A = 18π

4. Find the area bounded by the polar curve over the interval.

r 2 = sin θ

0≤θ≤π

Solution:

A sketch of the polar curve is

685
Since

r 2 = sin θ

r=± sin θ

r= sin θ and r = − sin θ

The area bounded by the curve over the interval is

b
1
∫a 2 [ ] dθ
2
A= f (θ)

π π
1 1
∫0 2 (
sin θ ) dθ +
∫0 2 (
− sin θ ) dθ
2 2
A=

1 π 1 π
2 ∫0 2 ∫0
A= sin θ dθ + sin θ dθ

686
 π

∫0
A= sin θ dθ

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

π
A = − cos θ
0

A = − cos π − (−cos(0))

A = − (−1) + 1

A=1+1

A=2

5. Find the area bounded by the polar curve over the interval.

r = 2 cos θ
π π
− ≤θ≤
4 4

Solution:

The graph of the polar region is

687
The area bounded by the curve over the interval is

b
1
∫a 2 [ ] dθ
2
A= f (θ)

π
1
∫− π
4
A= (2 cos θ)2 dθ
2
4

π
1 4
2 ∫− π
A= 4 cos2 θ dθ
4

∫− π
4
A=2 cos2 θ dθ
4

Use the trig identity

1
cos2 θ = (1 + cos(2θ))
2

688
to substitute.
π
1
∫− π
4
A=2 (1 + cos(2θ)) dθ
2
4

∫− π
4
A= 1 + cos(2θ) dθ
4

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

π
1 4
A=θ+ sin(2θ)
2 − π4

( 4) ( 4 2 ( 4 ))
π 1 π π 1 π
A= + sin 2 ⋅ − − + sin 2 ⋅ −
4 2

( 2)
π 1 π π 1 π
A= + sin + − sin −
4 2 2 4 2

( 2)
π 1 π 1 π
A= + sin − sin −
2 2 2 2

π 1 1
A= + (1) − (−1)
2 2 2
π
A= +1
2

689
AREA BOUNDED BY ONE LOOP OF A POLAR CURVE

1. Find the area of one loop of the polar curve.

r = 6 cos(4θ)

Solution:

A sketch of the polar curve is

Setting 4θ = π /2 gives θ = π /8.

At θ = 0, r = 6 cos(4(0)) = 6

At θ = π /8, r = 6 cos(4(π /8)) = 0

690
So these angles define the top half of the loop that straddles the positive
side of the horizontal axis. We’ll use these limits of integration and then
double the integral to get the area of the full loop.

b
1 2
∫a 2
A=2 r dθ

∫a
A= r 2 dθ

∫0
8
A= (6 cos(4θ))2 dθ

∫0
8
A= 36 cos2(4θ) dθ

Use the trig identity

1
cos2 θ = (1 + cos(2θ))
2

1
cos2(4θ) = (1 + cos(8θ))
2

to substitute.
π
1
∫0
8
A= 36 ⋅ (1 + cos(8θ)) dθ
2

∫0
8
A = 18 1 + cos(8θ) dθ

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

691
 ( )
π
1 8
A = 18 θ + sin(8θ)
8 0

(8 8 ( 8 )) ( )
π 1 π 1
A = 18 + sin 8 ⋅ − 18 0 + sin(8 ⋅ 0)
8

(8 8 )
π 1
A = 18 + sin π

9
A = (π + 0)
4

9π
A=
4

2. Find the area of one loop of the polar curve.

r = 4 sin(5θ)

Solution:

A sketch of the polar curve is

692
Setting 5θ = π /2 gives θ = π /10.

At θ = 0, r = 4 sin(5(0)) = 0

At θ = π /10, r = 4 sin(5(π /10)) = 4

At θ = π /5, r = 4 sin(5(π /5)) = 0

So θ = 0 and θ = π /5 define the first loop in the first quadrant.

b
1 2
∫a 2
A= r dθ

π
1
∫0 2
5
A= (4 sin(5θ))2 dθ

π
1
∫0 2
5
A= (16 sin2(5θ)) dθ

693
 π

∫0
5
A=8 sin2(5θ) dθ

Use the trig identity

1
sin2 θ = (1 − cos(2θ))
2

2 1
sin (5θ) = (1 − cos(10θ))
2

to substitute.
π
1
∫0 2
5
A=8 (1 − cos(10θ)) dθ

∫0
5
A=4 1 − cos(10θ) dθ

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

( )
π
1 5
A=4 θ− sin(10θ)
10 0

( 5 10 ( 5 )) ( )
π 1 π 1
A=4 − sin 10 ⋅ −4 0− sin(10 ⋅ 0)
10

( 5 10 )
π 1
A=4 − sin(2π)

4π
A=
5

694
 3. Find the area of one loop of the polar curve.

r = 7 sin(6θ)

Solution:

A sketch of the polar curve is

Setting 6θ = π /2 gives θ = π /12.

At θ = 0, r = 7 sin(6(0)) = 0

At θ = π /12, r = 7 sin(6(π /12)) = 7

At θ = π /6, r = 7 sin(6(π /6)) = 0

So θ = 0 and θ = π /6 define the first loop in the first quadrant.

695
 b
1 2
∫a 2
A= r dθ

π
1
2 ∫0
6
A= (7 sin(6θ))2 dθ

π
1
2 ∫0
6
A= 49 sin2(6θ) dθ

π
49
2 ∫0
6
A= sin2(6θ) dθ

Use the trig identity

2 1
sin θ = (1 − cos(2θ))
2

1
sin2(6θ) = (1 − cos(12θ))
2

to substitute.
π
49 6 1
∫
A= (1 − cos(12θ)) dθ
2 0 2

π
49 6
∫
A= 1 − cos(12θ) dθ
4 0

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

( )
π
49 1 6
A= θ− sin(12θ)
4 12 0

696
 4 ( 6 12 ( 6 )) 4 ( )
49 π 1 π 49 1
A= − sin 12 ⋅ − 0− sin(12 ⋅ 0)
12

( )
49 π 1
A= − sin(2π)
4 6 12

4 (6)
49 π
A=

49π
A=
24

4. Find the area of one loop of the polar curve.

r = 5 sin(3θ)

Solution:

A sketch of the polar curve is

697
Setting 3θ = π /2 gives θ = π /6.

At θ = 0, r = 5 sin(3(0)) = 0

At θ = π /6, r = 5 sin(3(π /6)) = 5

At θ = π /3, r = 5 sin(3(π /3)) = 0

So θ = 0 and θ = π /3 define the first loop in the first quadrant.

b
1 2
∫a 2
A= r dθ

π
1 3
2 ∫0
A= (5 sin(3θ))2 dθ

π
25 3 2
∫
A= sin (3θ) dθ
2 0

Use the trig identity

698
 1
sin2 θ = (1 − cos(2θ))
2

1
sin2(3θ) = (1 − cos(6θ))
2

to substitute.
π
25 1
2 ∫0 2
3
A= (1 − cos(6θ)) dθ

π
25 3
4 ∫0
A= 1 − cos(6θ) dθ

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

4 ( )
π
25 1 3
A= θ − sin(6θ)
6 0

4 (3 6 ( 3 )) 4 ( )
25 π 1 π 25 1
A= − sin 6 ⋅ − 0 − sin(6 ⋅ 0)
6

4 (3 6 )
25 π 1
A= − sin(2π)

4 (3)
25 π
A=

25π
A=
12

699
AREA BETWEEN POLAR CURVES

1. Find the area of the region that inside both polar curves.

r = 4 cos θ

r=2

Solution:

A sketch of the curves is

Find the intersection points of the curves to get the bounds of integration.

2 = 4 cos θ

700
 1
= cos θ
2

(2)
1
θ = cos−1

π π
θ= and θ = −
3 3

Looking at the sketch, we can see that r = 2 is outside of r = 4 cos θ on

[−π /3,π /3].

1 b 2
2 ∫a
2
A= routside − rinside dθ

π
1 3
2 ∫− π
A= (4 cos θ)2 − (2)2 dθ
3

π
1
2 ∫− π
3
A= 16 cos2 θ − 4 dθ
3

∫− π
3
A=2 4 cos2 θ − 1 dθ
3

Use the trig identity

2 1
cos θ = (1 + cos(2θ))
2

to substitute.
π
1
∫− π
3
A=2 4 ⋅ (1 + cos(2θ)) − 1 dθ
2
3

701
 π

∫− π
3
A=2 2 + 2 cos(2θ) − 1 dθ
3

∫− π
3
A=2 1 + 2 cos(2θ) dθ
3

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

π
3
A = 2(θ + sin(2θ))
− π3

π
3
A = 2θ + 2 sin(2θ)
− π3

( 3) ( ( 3) ( ( 3 )))
π π π π
A = 2 ⋅ + 2 sin 2 ⋅ − 2 − + 2 sin 2 −
3

( 3 ( 3 ))
2π 2π 2π 2π
A= + 2 sin − − + 2 sin −
3 3

( 2 )
2π 3 2π 3
A= +2⋅ + −2 −
3 2 3

4π
A= + 3+ 3
3

4π
A= +2 3
3

702
 2. Find the area of the region inside r = 1 − cos θ but outside r = 1.

Solution:

A sketch of the curves is

Find the intersection points of the curves to get the bounds of integration.

1 − cos θ = 1

−cos θ = 0

cos θ = 0

θ = cos−1 (0)
π π
θ= and θ = −
2 2

703
Looking at the sketch, we can see that r = 1 − cos θ is outside of r = 1 on
[π /2,3π /2].

1 b 2
2 ∫a
2
A= routside − rinside dθ

3π
1
2 ∫π
2
A= (1 − cos θ)2 − (1)2 dθ
2

3π
1
2 ∫π
2
A= 1 − 2 cos θ + cos2 θ − 1 dθ
2

3π
1
2 ∫π
2
A= cos2 θ − 2 cos θ dθ
2

Use the trig identity

1
cos2 θ = (1 + cos(2θ))
2

to substitute.
3π
1 2 1
2 ∫π 2
A= (1 + cos(2θ)) − 2 cos θ dθ
2

3π
1 2 1 1
∫
A= + cos(2θ) − 2 cos θ dθ
2 π 2 2
2

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

704
 2 (2 )
3π
1 1 1 2
A= θ + sin(2θ) − 2 sin θ
4 π
2

2 (2 2 ( 2 ) 2 ) 2 (2 2 4 ( 2) 2)
1 1 3π 1 3π 3π 1 1 π 1 π π
A= ⋅ + sin 2 ⋅ − 2 sin − ⋅ + sin 2 ⋅ − 2 sin
4

2( 4 2 ) 2 (4 4 2)
1 3π 1 3π 1 π 1 π
A= + sin 3π − 2 sin − + sin π − 2 sin
4

( ) ( )
1 3π 1 1 π 1
A= + (0) − 2(−1) − + (0) − 2(1)
2 4 4 2 4 4

2( 4 )
1 3π π
A= +2− +2
4

π
A= +2
4

3. Find the area of the region inside r = 1 + cos θ but outside the circle
r = cos θ.

Solution:

A sketch of the curves is

705
Since r = 1 + cos θ is outside r = cos θ everywhere, we can find the area
between the curves by integrating the difference of the curves over [0,2π].

1 2π
2 ∫0
A= (1 + cos θ)2 − (cos θ)2 dθ

1 2π
2 ∫0
A= (1 + 2 cos θ + cos2 θ) − cos2 θ dθ

1 2π
2 ∫0
A= 1 + 2 cos θ dθ

Integrate, then evaluate over each interval.

2π
1
A = (θ + 2 sin θ)
2 0

2π
1
A = θ + sin θ
2 0

706
 (2 )
1 1
A = (2π) + sin(2π) − (0) + sin(0)
2

A = π + sin(2π)

A=π+0

A=π

4. Find the area of the region inside r = 2 + cos θ but outside the circle
r = 5 cos θ.

Solution:

A sketch of the curves is

707
Find the intersection points of the curves to get the bounds of integration.

5 cos θ = 2 + cos θ

4 cos θ = 2

1
cos θ =
2

(2)
1
θ = cos−1

π 5π
θ = and
3 3

Looking at the sketch, we can see that r = 2 + cos θ is outside of r = 5 cos θ

on [π /3,5π /3].

1 b 2
∫
2
A= routside − rinside dθ
2 a

5π
1 3
2 ∫π
A= (2 + cos θ)2 − (5 cos θ)2 dθ
3

5π
1 3
2 ∫π
A= 4 + 4 cos θ + cos2 θ − 25 cos2 θ dθ
3

5π
1 3
2 ∫π
A= 4 + 4 cos θ − 24 cos2 θ dθ
3

5π

∫π
3
A=2 1 + cos θ − 6 cos2 θ dθ
3

708
Use the trig identity

1
cos2 θ = (1 + cos(2θ))
2

to substitute.
5π
1
∫π
3
A=2 1 + cos θ − 6 ⋅ (1 + cos(2θ)) dθ
2
3

5π

∫π
3
A=2 1 + cos θ − 3 − 3 cos(2θ) dθ
3

5π

∫π
3
A=2 cos θ − 3 cos(2θ) − 2 dθ
3

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

( )
5π
3 3
A = 2 sin θ − sin(2θ) − 2θ
2 π
3

5π
3
A = 2 sin θ − 3 sin(2θ) − 4θ
π
3

( 3 ) ( ( 3) 3)
5π 5π 5π π π π
A = 2 sin − 3 sin 2 ⋅ −4⋅ − 2 sin − 3 sin 2 ⋅ −4⋅
3 3 3

3 10π 20π 3 2π 4π
A=−2 − 3 sin − −2 + 3 sin +
2 3 3 2 3 3

709
 3
16π 3
A=− 3+3 − − 3+3
2 3 2

16π
A=−2 3+3 3−
3

16π
A= 3−
3

710
AREA INSIDE BOTH POLAR CURVES

1. Find the area of the region that’s inside both polar curves.

r = 2 cos θ

r = 2 sin θ

Solution:

A sketch of the curves is

Find points of intersection by setting the curves equal to each other.

2 cos θ = 2 sin θ

cos θ = sin θ

711
 π
θ=
4

Integrating the r = 2 sin θ curve on [0,π /4] will give the lower half of the area
inside both curves, so we’ll integrate the sine curve on that interval, and
then double the result to get the total area inside both curves.
π

( 2 ∫0 )
1 4
A=2 (2 sin θ)2 dθ

∫0
4
A= 4 sin2 θ dθ

Use a double-angle identity to rewrite the integral.

∫0 ( 2 )
π
1 4
A= 4 (1 − cos(2θ)) dθ

∫0
4
A= 2 − 2 cos(2θ) dθ

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

π
4
A = 2θ − sin(2θ)
0

(4) ( 4)
π π
A=2 − sin 2 ⋅ − (2(0) − sin(2(0)))

π
A= −1
2

712
 2. Find the area of the region that’s inside both polar curves.

r = 2 sin θ

r=1

Solution:

A sketch of the curves is

Find points of intersection by setting the curves equal to each other.

2 sin θ = 1

(2)
−1 1
θ = sin

π 5π
θ= ,
6 6

713
The overlapping area is given by the area inside r = 1 between the points
of intersection, plus the two slivers of area inside r = 2 sin θ on [0,π /6] and
[5π /6,π]. Since the two slivers contain equal area, we can just double the
area given on the interval [0,π /6].
5π π

( 2 ∫0 )
1 6 1 6
2 ∫π
2
A= (1) dθ + 2 (2 sin θ)2 dθ
6

5π π
1 6
2 ∫π ∫0
6
A= dθ + 4 sin2 θ dθ
6

Use a double-angle identity to rewrite the integral.

( )
5π π
1 6 1
∫ ∫
6
A= dθ + 4 (1 − cos(2θ)) dθ
2 π 0 2
6

5π π
1 6
∫ ∫0
6
A= dθ + 2 1 − cos(2θ) dθ
2 π
6

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

( )
5π π
1 6 1 6
A= θ + 2 θ − sin(2θ)
2 π 2 0
6

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 5π 1 π π π
A= − +2 − sin 2 ⋅ − 2(0) − sin(2 ⋅ 0)
2 6 2 6 6 6

2( 6 6) 3 (3)
1 5π π π π
A= − + − sin − sin(0)

714
 π π 3
A= + −
3 3 2

2π 3
A= −
3 2

4π − 3 3
A=
6

3. Find the area of the region that’s inside both polar curves.

r = 2(1 − cos θ)

r=2

Solution:

A sketch of the curves is

715
Find points of intersection by setting the curves equal to each other.

2 − 2 cos θ = 2

−2 cos θ = 0

cos θ = 0

π 3π
θ= ,
2 2

The overlapping area is given by the area inside r = 2 between the points
of intersection, plus the two slivers of area inside r = 2(1 − cos θ) on [0,π /2]
and [3π /2,2π]. Since the two slivers contain equal area, we can just double
the area given on the interval [0,π /2].
3π π

( )
1 2 1 2
2 ∫π 2 ∫0
2
A= (2) dθ + 2 (2 − 2 cos θ)2 dθ
2

716
 3π π

∫π ∫0
2 2
A= 2 dθ + 4 − 8 cos θ + 4 cos2 θ dθ
2

Use a double-angle identity to rewrite the integral.

(2 )
3π π
1
∫π ∫0
2 2
A= 2 dθ + 4 − 8 cos θ + 4 (1 + cos(2θ)) dθ
2

3π π

∫π ∫0
2 2
A= 2 dθ + 4 − 8 cos θ + 2 + 2 cos(2θ) dθ
2

3π π

∫π ∫0
2 2
A= 2 dθ + 6 − 8 cos θ + 2 cos(2θ) dθ
2

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

3π π
2 2
A = 2θ + 6θ − 8 sin θ + sin(2θ)
π
2 0

( 2 ) (2) (2) (2) ( 2)

3π π π π π
A=2 −2 +6 − 8 sin + sin 2 ⋅

−(6(0) − 8 sin(0) + sin(2(0)))

A = 3π − π + 3π − 8

A = 5π − 8

4. Find the area of the region that’s inside both polar curves.

717
 r = 2(1 + cos θ)

r = 2(1 − cos θ)

Solution:

A sketch of the curves is

Find points of intersection by setting the curves equal to each other.

2(1 + cos θ) = 2(1 − cos θ)

2 + 2 cos θ = 2 − 2 cos θ

cos θ = − cos θ

π 3π
θ= ,
2 2

718
The overlapping area is given by the area inside r = 2(1 − cos θ) on [0,π /2],
as long as we multiply that area by 4, which will give us the total area
inside both curves.
π

( 2 ∫0 )
1 2
A=4 (2(1 − cos θ))2 dθ

∫0
2
A=2 4(1 − cos θ)2 dθ

∫0
2
A=8 1 − 2 cos θ + cos2 θ dθ

Use a double-angle identity to rewrite the integral.

π
1
∫0
2
A=8 1 − 2 cos θ + (1 + cos(2θ)) dθ
2

π
3 1
∫0 2
2
A=8 − 2 cos θ + cos(2θ) dθ
2

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

(2 )
π
3 1 2
A=8 θ − 2 sin θ + sin(2θ)
4 0

(2 (2) (2) 4 ( 2 ))
3 π π 1 π
A=8 − 2 sin + sin 2 ⋅

(2 )
3 1
−8 (0) − 2 sin(0) + sin(2(0))
4

719
 ( 4 )
3π
A=8 −2

A = 6π − 16

5. Find the area of the region that’s inside both polar curves.

r = 3 + 2 sin θ

r=2

Solution:

A sketch of the curves is

Find points of intersection by setting the curves equal to each other.

720
 3 + 2 sin θ = 2

2 sin θ = − 1

7π 11π
θ= ,
6 6

The overlapping area is given by the area inside r = 2 on [0,2π] (the area of
the full circle), minus the area between r = 2 and r = 3 + 2 sin θ on the
interval [7π /6,11π /6].
11π
1 2π 2 1 6 2
2 ∫0 2 ∫ 7π
A= (2) dθ − 2 − (3 + 2 sin θ)2 dθ
6

11π
2π
1 6
∫0 2 ∫ 7π
A=2 dθ − 4 − (9 + 12 sin θ + 4 sin2 θ) dθ
6

11π
2π
1 6
∫0 2 ∫ 7π
A=2 dθ + 5 + 12 sin θ + 4 sin2 θ dθ
6

Use a double-angle identity to rewrite the integral.

( )
11π
2π
1 6 1
∫0 ∫
A=2 dθ + 5 + 12 sin θ + 4 (1 − cos(2θ)) dθ
2 7π 2
6

11π
2π
1 6
∫0 ∫
A=2 dθ + 5 + 12 sin θ + 2 − 2 cos(2θ) dθ
2 7π
6

11π
2π
1 6
∫0 ∫
A=2 dθ + 7 + 12 sin θ − 2 cos(2θ) dθ
2 7π
6

721
Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.
11π
2π
1 6
A = 2θ + (7θ − 12 cos θ − sin(2θ))
0 2 7π
6

2( ( 6 ) ( 6 ) ( 6 ))
1 11π 11π 11π
A = 2(2π) − 2(0) + 7 − 12 cos − sin 2 ⋅

2( ( 6 ) ( 6 ) ( 6 ))
1 7π 7π 7π
− 7 − 12 cos − sin 2 ⋅

( 6 ) 2 ( 6 )
77π 11π 1 22π
A = 4π + − 6 cos − sin
12

( 6 ) 2 ( 3 )
49π 7π 1 7π
− + 6 cos + sin
12

( 2 ) 2 ( 2 ) 12 ( 2 ) 2( 2 )
77π 3 1 3 49π 3 1 3
A = 4π + −6 − − − +6 − +
12

19π 11 3
A= −
3 2

722
SURFACE AREA OF REVOLUTION OF A POLAR CURVE

1. Find the surface area generated by revolving the polar curve about
the y-axis over the interval 0 ≤ θ ≤ π.

r = 2 cos θ

Solution:

The derivative of r = 2 cos θ is

dr
= − 2 sin θ
dθ

So the surface area of revolution will be

( dθ )
β 2
dr
∫α
Sy = 2πx r2 + dθ

∫0
Sy = 2π(2 cos θ)cos θ (2 cos θ)2 + (−2 sin θ)2 dθ

∫0
Sy = 4π cos2 θ 4 cos2 θ + 4 sin2 θ dθ

∫0
Sy = 4π cos2 θ 4(cos2 θ + sin2 θ) dθ

723
 π

∫0
Sy = 4π cos2 θ 4(1) dθ

∫0
Sy = 4π cos2 θ 4 dθ

∫0
Sy = 8π cos2 θ dθ

Use the trig identity

1
cos2 θ = (1 + cos(2θ))
2

to substitute.
π
1
∫0 2
Sy = 8π (1 + cos(2θ)) dθ

∫0
Sy = 4π 1 + cos(2θ) dθ

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

( )
π
1
Sy = 4π θ + sin(2θ)
2 0

π
Sy = 4πθ + 2π sin(2θ)
0

Sy = 4π 2 + 2π sin(2π) − (4π(0) + 2π sin(2(0)))

Sy = 4π 2 + 2π(0) − 4π(0) − 2π(0)

724
 Sy = 4π 2

2. Find the surface area generated by revolving the polar curve about
the x-axis over the interval 0 ≤ θ ≤ π /2.

r = 4 cos θ

Solution:

The derivative of r = 4 cos θ is

dr
= − 4 sin θ
dθ

So the surface area of revolution will be

( dθ )
β 2
dr
∫α
Sx = 2π y r2 + dθ

∫0
2
Sx = 2π(4 cos θ)sin θ (4 cos θ)2 + (−4 sin θ)2 dθ

∫0
2
Sx = 8π cos θ sin θ 16 cos2 θ + 16 sin2 θ dθ

∫0
2
Sx = 8π cos θ sin θ 16(cos2 θ + sin2 θ) dθ

725
 π

∫0
2
Sx = 8π cos θ sin θ 16(1) dθ

∫0
2
Sx = 8π cos θ sin θ 16 dθ

∫0
2
Sx = 32π cos θ sin θ dθ

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

π

( 2 )
cos2 θ 2
Sx = 32π −
0

π
2
Sx = − 16π(cos2 θ)
0

( 2)
π
Sx = − 16π cos2 + 16π(cos2(0))

Sx = − 16π(02) + 16π(12)

Sx = 16π

3. Find the surface area generated by revolving the polar curve about
the y-axis over the interval 0 ≤ θ ≤ π /2.

r = 8 sin θ

726
Solution:

The derivative of r = 8 sin θ is

dr
= 8 cos θ
dθ

So the surface area of revolution will be

( dθ )
β 2
dr
∫α
2
Sy = 2πx r + dθ

∫0
2
Sy = 2π(8 sin θ)cos θ (8 sin θ)2 + (8 cos θ)2 dθ

∫0
2
Sy = 16π sin θ cos θ 64 sin2 θ + 64 cos2 θ dθ

∫0
2
Sy = 16π sin θ cos θ 64(sin2 θ + cos2 θ) dθ

∫0
2
Sy = 16π sin θ cos θ 64(1) dθ

∫0
2
Sy = 16π sin θ cos θ 64 dθ

∫0
2
Sy = 128π sin θ cos θ dθ

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

727
 π

( 2 )
2
sin θ 2
Sy = 128π
0

π
2
Sy = 64π sin2 θ
0

π
Sy = 64π sin2 − 64π sin2(0)
2

Sy = 64π(1)2 − 64π(0)2

Sy = 64π(1)

Sy = 64π

4. Find the surface area generated by revolving the polar curve about
the x-axis over the interval 0 ≤ θ ≤ π.

r = 7 sin θ

Solution:

The derivative of r = 7 sin θ is

dr
= 7 cos θ
dθ

So the surface area of revolution will be

728
 ( dθ )
β 2
dr
∫α
Sx = 2π y r2 + dθ

∫0
Sx = 2π(7 sin θ)sin θ (7 sin θ)2 + (7 cos θ)2 dθ

∫0
Sx = 14π sin θ sin θ 49 sin2 θ + 49 cos2 θ dθ

∫0
Sx = 14π sin θ sin θ 49(sin2 θ + cos2 θ) dθ

∫0
Sx = 14π sin θ sin θ 49(1) dθ

∫0
Sx = 14π sin θ sin θ 49 dθ

∫0
Sx = 98π sin2 θ dθ

Use the trig identities

1
sin2 θ = (1 − cos(2θ))
2

to substitute.
π
1
∫0 2
Sx = 98π (1 − cos(2θ)) dθ

∫0
Sx = 49π 1 − cos(2θ) dθ

729
Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

( )
π
1
Sx = 49π θ − sin(2θ)
2 0

( )
2 49 49
Sx = 49π − π sin(2π) − 49π(0) − π sin(2(0))
2 2

49 49
Sx = 49π 2 − π(0) − 49π(0) + π(0)
2 2

Sx = 49π 2 − 49π(0)

Sx = 49π 2

730
SEQUENCES VS. SERIES

1. Determine whether the expression is a sequence or a series.

5, 10, 15, 20 , 25, 30

Solution:

A sequence is a list of terms. A series is the sum of a sequence of terms.

The question provides a list, not a sum, so it’s a sequence.

2. Determine whether the expression is a sequence or a series.

15

∑
5n − 2
n=1

Solution:

A sequence is a list of terms. A series is the sum of a sequence of terms.

The question provides a sum of a sequence, so it’s a series.

3. Determine whether the expression is a sequence or a series.

3 + 6 + 9 + 12 + 15 + 18 + 21

731
Solution:

A sequence is a list of terms. A series is the sum of a sequence of terms.

The question provides a sum of a sequence, so it’s a series.

732
LISTING THE FIRST TERMS

1. Write the first five terms of the sequence.

an+1 = 3an + 4

a1 = 4

Solution:

Since a1 = 4, the first term of the sequence is 4. Use the rule for an+1 to find
the rest of the first five terms.

a1 = 4

a2 = 3a1 + 4 = 3(4) + 4 = 16

a3 = 3a2 + 4 = 3(16) + 4 = 52

a4 = 3a3 + 4 = 3(52) + 4 = 160

a5 = 3a4 + 4 = 3(160) + 4 = 484

2. Write the first five terms of the sequence.

an+1 = 4an − 5

a1 = 3

733
Solution:

Since a1 = 3, the first term of the sequence is 3. Use the rule an+1 = 4an − 5 to
find the rest of the first five terms.

a1 = 3

a2 = 4a1 − 5 = 4(3) − 5 = 7

a3 = 4a2 − 5 = 4(7) − 5 = 23

a4 = 4a3 − 5 = 4(23) − 5 = 87

a5 = 4a4 − 5 = 3(87) − 5 = 343

3. Write the first five terms of the sequence.

an+1 = an + 9

a1 = 24

Solution:

Since a1 = 24, the first term of the sequence is 24. Use the rule an+1 = an + 9
to find the rest of the first five terms.

a1 = 24

734
a2 = a1 + 9 = 24 + 9 = 33

a3 = a2 + 9 = 33 + 9 = 42

a4 = a3 + 9 = 42 + 9 = 51

a5 = a4 + 9 = 51 + 9 = 60

735
CALCULATING THE FIRST TERMS

1. Write the first five terms of the sequence and find the limit of the
sequence an as n → ∞.

5n 2 − 2
an = 2
n + 3n − 2

Solution:

To get the first five terms of the sequence, plug n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 into the
formula for an.

5n 2 − 2
n an = 2 an
n + 3n − 2

5(1)2 − 2 3
1 a1 = 2 a1 =
1 + 3(1) − 2 2

5(2)2 − 2 9
2 a2 = 2 a2 =
2 + 3(2) − 2 4

5(3)2 − 2 43
3 a3 = 2 a3 =
3 + 3(3) − 2 16

5(4)2 − 2
4 a4 = 2 a4 = 3
4 + 3(4) − 2

736
 5(5)2 − 2 123
5 a5 = 2 a5 =
5 + 3(5) − 2 38

Find the limit.

lim an
n→∞

5n 2 − 2
lim 2
n→∞ n + 3n − 2

1
2
5n − 2 n2
lim ⋅
n→∞ n + 3n − 2
2 1
n2

5n 2 2
−
n2 n2
lim
n→∞ n 3n 2
2
+ −
n2 n2 n2

5−0
lim
n→∞ 1 + 0 − 0

5
lim
n→∞ 1

2. Write the first five terms of the sequence and find the limit of the
sequence an as n → ∞.

6n
an = 2n
e

737
Solution:

To get the first five terms of the sequence, plug n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 into the
formula for an.

6n
n an = 2n an
e

6(1) 6
1 a1 = 2(1) a1 = 2
e e

6(2) 12
2 a2 = 2(2) a2 = 4
e e

6(3) 18
3 a3 = 2(3) a3 = 6
e e

6(4) 24
4 a4 = 2(4) a4 = 8
e e

6(5) 30
5 a4 = a4 =
e 2(5) e 10

To find the limit, apply L’Hospital’s Rule.

lim an
n→∞

6n
lim
n→∞ e 2n

6
lim
n→∞ 2e 2n

738
 3
lim
n→∞ e 2n

0
lim
n→∞ ∞

lim 0
n→∞

3. Write the first five terms of the sequence and find the limit of the
sequence an as n → ∞.

n2 + 1
an = 2
n + 8n

Solution:

To get the first five terms of the sequence, plug n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 into the
formula for an.

n2 + 1
n an = 2 an
n + 8n

12 + 1 2
1 a1 = 2 a1 =
1 + 8(1) 9

22 + 1 1
2 a2 = 2 a2 =
2 + 8(2) 4

739
 32 + 1 10
3 a3 = 2 a3 =
3 + 8(3) 33

42 + 1 17
4 a4 = 2 a4 =
4 + 8(4) 48

52 + 1 2
5 a5 = 2 a5 =
5 + 8(5) 5

Find the limit.

lim an
n→∞

n2 + 1
lim 2
n→∞ n + 8n

1
2
n +1 n2
lim ⋅
n→∞ n 2 + 8n 1
n2

n2 1
+
lim n2 n2
2

n→∞ n + 8n
n2 n2

n2 1
+
n2 n2
lim 2
n→∞ n + 8n
n2

1+0
lim
n→∞ 1 + 0

1
lim
n→∞ 1

740
1

741
FORMULA FOR THE GENERAL TERM

1. What is a formula for the general term of the sequence?

3 5 7 9 11
, , , ,
4 8 12 16 20

Solution:

In a sequence of fractions, consider the sequence of the numerators and

the sequence of the denominators separately.

The sequence of the numerators is

n 1 2 3 4 5

an 3 5 7 9 11

an = 2n + 1

The sequence of the denominators is

n 1 2 3 4 5

an 4 8 12 16 20

an = 4n

So the rule for the sequence is

742
 2n + 1
an =
4n

2. What is a formula for the general term of the sequence?

5, 8, 13, 20, 29, 40

Solution:

The sequence of the terms is

n 1 2 3 4 5 6

an 5 8 13 20 29 40

We can build upon the chart, to see that the pattern is

n 1 2 3 4 5 6

n2 1 4 9 16 25 36

Add 4 +4 +4 +4 +4 +4 +4

an 5 8 13 20 29 40

an = n 2 + 4

3. What is a formula for the general term of the sequence?

743
 1 2 3 4 1 6
− , , − , , − ,
6 7 8 9 2 11

Solution:

In a sequence of fractions, consider the sequence of the numerators and

the sequence of the denominators separately.

The sequence of the numerators is

n 1 2 3 4 5 6

an -1 2 -3 4 -1 6

Notice that the 5th term seems out of sequence, but if the term is changed
to match the pattern of the other terms, the sequence becomes

1 2 3 4 5 6
− , , − , , − ,
6 7 8 9 10 11

So the new sequence of the numerators is

n 1 2 3 4 5 6

an -1 2 -3 4 -5 6

The sign of the numerator is negative when n is odd and is positive when n
is even. So the term value for the numerator is found using the formula
an = (−1)n(n).

The sequence of the denominators is

744
 n 1 2 3 4 5 6

an 6 7 8 9 10 11

The value of the denominator is consistently 5 more than the term number.
So the formula for the denominator is n + 5.

Therefore, the rule for the sequence is the rule for the numerator divided
by the rule for the denominator.

(−1)n(n)
an =
n+5

745
CONVERGENCE OF A SEQUENCE

1. If the sequence converges, find its limit.

5n
an =
n 2 + 2n − 1

Solution:

The sequence converges if the limit of the sequence as n → ∞ exists and is

finite. The sequence diverges if the limit does not exist or is infinite.
Because

5n ∞
lim =
n→∞ n 2 + 2n − 1 ∞

is indeterminate, use L’Hospital’s Rule to find the limit.

5n 5 5
lim = lim = =0
n→∞ n + 2n − 1
2 n→∞ 2n + 2
2 ∞

2. If the sequence converges, find its limit.

9n 3 − 27n 2 + 5n
an =
3n 3 + 12n 2 − n

Solution:

746
The sequence converges if the limit of the sequence as n → ∞ exists and is
finite. The sequence diverges if the limit does not exist or is infinite.
Because

9n 3 − 27n 2 + 5n ∞
lim =
n→∞ 3n 3 + 12n 2 − n ∞

is indeterminate, use L’Hospital’s Rule to find the limit.

9n 3 − 27n 2 + 5n 27n 2 − 54n + 5 54n − 54 54

lim = lim = lim = lim =3
n→∞ 3n 3 + 12n 2 − n n→∞ 9n 2 + 24n − 1 n→∞ 18n + 24 n→∞ 18

3. If the sequence converges, find its limit.

2

( n3 )
2
n +3
an =

Solution:

The sequence converges if the limit of the sequence as n → ∞ exists and is

finite. The sequence diverges if the limit does not exist or is infinite.
Because
2

n→∞ ( n 3 )
2
n +3 (n 2 + 3)2 n 4 + 6n 2 + 9 ∞
lim = lim = lim =
n→∞ (n 3)2 n→∞ n6 ∞

is indeterminate, use L’Hospital’s Rule to find the limit.

747
 n 4 + 6n 2 + 9 4n 3 + 12n 12n 2 + 12
lim = lim = lim
n→∞ n6 n→∞ 6n 5 n→∞ 30n 4

24n 24 24
= lim = lim = =0
n→∞ 120n 3 n→∞ 120n 2 ∞

748
LIMIT OF A CONVERGENT SEQUENCE

1. Find the limit of the convergent sequence.

3n 2 − 6
an = 2
9n + 3n − 12

Solution:

Since the sequence converges, the limit of the sequence as n → ∞ exists

and is finite. Find the limit. Because

3n 2 − 6 n2 − 2 ∞
lim 2 = lim 2 =
n→∞ 9n + 3n − 12 n→∞ 3n + n − 4 ∞

is indeterminate, use L’Hospital’s Rule to find the limit.

2n 2 1
lim = lim =
n→∞ 6n + 1 n→∞ 6 3

2. Find the limit of the convergent sequence.

n3
an = n
3

Solution:

749
Since the sequence converges, the limit of the sequence as n → ∞ exists
and is finite. Find the limit. Because

n3 ∞
lim n =
n→∞ 3 ∞

is indeterminate, use L’Hospital’s Rule to find the limit.

n3 3n 2 1 3n 2 1 6n
lim n = lim n = lim n = lim n
n→∞ 3 n→∞ 3 ⋅ ln 3 ln 3 n→∞ 3 ln 3 n→∞ 3 ⋅ ln 3

1 6n 1 6 1 6
= lim = lim = lim
(ln 3)2 n→∞ 3n (ln 3)2 n→∞ 3n ⋅ ln 3 (ln 3)3 n→∞ 3n

1 6 6
= ⋅
3 ∞
= =0
(ln 3) ∞

3. Find the limit of the convergent sequence.

an = n 5e −2n

Solution:

Since the sequence converges, the limit of the sequence as n → ∞ exists

and is finite. Find the limit. Because

5 −2n n5 ∞
lim n e = lim 2n =
n→∞ n→∞ e ∞

is indeterminate, use L’Hospital’s Rule to find the limit.

750
 n5 5n 4 20n 3 60n 2
lim = lim 2n = lim = lim
n→∞ e 2n n→∞ 2e n→∞ 4e 2n n→∞ 8e 2n

120n 120 120

= lim = lim = =0
n→∞ 16e 2n n→∞ 32e 2n ∞

751
INCREASING, DECREASING, AND NOT MONOTONIC

1. State whether the sequence is increasing, decreasing, and monotonic

or not monotonic.

17
an =
4n 2 + 6n + 3

Solution:

Calculate the value of the first few terms.

17 17
n=1 a1 = =
4(1)2 + 6(1) + 3 13

17 17
n=2 a2 = =
4(2)2 + 6(2) + 3 31

17 17
n=3 a3 = =
4(3)2 + 6(3) + 3 57

17 17
n=4 a4 = =
4(4) + 6(4) + 3 91
2

17 17
n=5 a5 = =
4(5)2 + 6(5) + 3 133

752
Based on the first five terms, the value of the terms get consistently
smaller as n gets larger, which means the sequence is decreasing, and also
monotonic.

2. State whether the sequence is increasing, decreasing, and monotonic

or not monotonic.

3n 2 − 5
an =
4n + 2

Solution:

Calculate the value of the first few terms.

3(1)2 − 5 1
n=1 a1 = =−
4(1) + 2 3

3(2)2 − 5 7
n=2 a2 = =
4(2) + 2 10

3(3)2 − 5 11
n=3 a3 = =
4(3) + 2 7

3(4)2 − 5 43
n=4 a4 = =
4(4) + 2 18

3(5)2 − 5 35
n=5 a5 = =
4(5) + 2 11

753
Based on the first five terms, the value of the terms get consistently larger
as n gets larger, which means the sequence is increasing, and also
monotonic.

3. State whether the sequence is increasing, decreasing, and monotonic

or not monotonic.

an = n 5 + 1

Solution:

Calculate the value of the first few terms.

n=1 a1 = (1)5 + 1 = 2

n=2 a2 = (2)5 + 1 = 33

n=3 a3 = (3)5 + 1 = 244

n=4 a4 = (4)5 + 1 = 1,025

n=5 a5 = (5)5 + 1 = 3,126

Based on the first five terms, the value of the terms get consistently larger
as n gets larger, which means the sequence is increasing, and also
monotonic.

754
BOUNDED SEQUENCES

1. Describe how the sequence is bounded by indicating the upper and

lower bounds, or say whether there is no upper bound or now lower
bound.

2n + 5
an =
n2

Solution:

Find the first few terms of the sequence.

2(1) + 5
n=1 a1 = =7
12

2(2) + 5 9
n=2 a2 = =
22 4

2(3) + 5 11
n=3 a3 = =
32 9

2(4) + 5 13
n=4 a4 = =
42 16

2(5) + 5 15
n=5 a5 = =
52 25

The sequence is bounded above at a1 = 7. Now find the limit as n → ∞.

Because

755
 2n + 5 ∞
lim =
n→∞ n 2 ∞

is indeterminate, use L’Hospital’s Rule to find the limit.

2n + 5 2 2
lim = lim = =0
n→∞ n 2 n→∞ 2n ∞

Therefore, the sequence is bounded below at 0, and above at a1 = 7.

2. Describe how the sequence is bounded by indicating the upper and

lower bounds, or say whether there is no upper bound or now lower
bound.

3n 3 + 2
an =
n4

Solution:

Find the first few terms of the sequence.

3(1)3 + 2
n=1 a1 = =5
14

3(2)3 + 2 13
n=2 a2 = =
24 8

3(3)3 + 2 83
n=3 a3 = =
34 81

756
 3(4)3 + 2 97
n=4 a4 = =
44 128

3(5)3 + 2 377
n=5 a5 = =
5 4 625

The sequence is bounded above at a1 = 5. Now find the limit as n → ∞.

Because

3n 3 + 2 ∞
lim =
n→∞ n4 ∞

is indeterminate, use L’Hospital’s Rule to find the limit.

3n 3 + 2 9n 2 18n 18 18
lim = lim = lim = lim = =0
n→∞ n 4 n→∞ 4n 3 n→∞ 12n 2 n→∞ 24n ∞

Therefore, the sequence is bounded below at 0, and above at a1 = 5.

3. Describe how the sequence is bounded by indicating the upper and

lower bounds, or say whether there is no upper bound or now lower
bound.

7n 3 + 15
an =
2n 3

Solution:

Find the first few terms of the sequence.

757
 7(1)3 + 15
n=1 a1 = 3
= 11
2(1)

7(2)3 + 15 71
n=2 a2 = =
2(2)3 16

7(3)3 + 15 34
n=3 a3 = =
2(3)3 9

7(4)3 + 15 463
n=4 a4 = =
2(4)3 128

7(5)3 + 15 89
n=5 a5 = =
2(5)3 25

The sequence is bounded above at a1 = 11. Now find the limit as n → ∞.

Because

7n 3 + 15 ∞
lim =
n→∞ 2n 3 ∞

is indeterminate, use L’Hospital’s Rule to find the limit.

21n 2 21 7
lim = lim =
n→∞ 6n 2 n→∞ 6 2

Therefore, the sequence is bounded below at 7/2 and above at a1 = 11.

758
 4. Describe how the sequence is bounded by indicating the upper and
lower bounds, or say whether there is no upper bound or now lower
bound.

3n 4 + 9
an =
4n 3

Solution:

Find the first few terms of the sequence.

3(1)4 + 9
n=1 a1 = 3
=3
4(1)

3(2)4 + 9 57
n=2 a2 = =
4(2)3 32

3(3)4 + 9 7
n=3 a3 = =
4(3)3 3

3(4)4 + 9 777
n=4 a4 = =
4(4)3 256

3(5)4 + 9 471
n=5 a5 = =
4(5)3 125

The sequence is bounded below at a2 = 57/32. Because

3n 4 + 9 ∞
lim =
n→∞ 4n 3 ∞

759
is indeterminate, use L’Hospital’s Rule to find the limit.

12n 3 n
lim = lim =∞
n→∞ 12n 2 n→∞ 1

Therefore, the sequence is bounded below at a2 = 57/32 and has no upper

bound.

760
CALCULATING THE FIRST TERMS OF A SERIES OF PARTIAL SUMS

1. Approximate the first four terms of the series of partial sums.

∞
7n
∑ 3n 2 + 2
n=1

Solution:

Make a table and calculate the value of each term.

7(1) 7
n=1 a1 = = ≈ 1.40 s1 = 1.40
3(1) + 2 5
2

7(2) 14
n=2 a2 = = = 1 = 1.00 s2 = 1.40 + 1.00 = 2.40
3(2)2 + 2 14

7(3) 21
n=3 a3 = = ≈ 0.72 s3 = 2.40 + 0.72 = 3.12
3(3)2 + 2 29

7(4) 28 14
n=4 a4 = = = ≈ 0.56 s4 = 3.12 + 0.56 = 3.68
3(4)2 + 2 50 25

2. Approximate the first four terms of the series of partial sums.

∞
5n 2
∑ 7n + 4
n=1

761
Solution:

Make a table and calculate the value of each term.

5(1)2 5
n=1 a1 = = ≈ 0.45 s1 = 0.45
7(1) + 4 11

5(2)2 20 10
n=2 a2 = = = ≈ 1.11 s2 = 0.45 + 1.11 = 1.56
7(2) + 4 18 9

5(3)2 45 9
n=3 a3 = = = ≈ 1.80 s3 = 1.56 + 1.80 = 3.36
7(3) + 4 25 5

5(4)2 80 5
n=4 a4 = = = ≈ 2.50 s4 = 3.36 + 2.50 = 5.86
7(4) + 4 32 2

3. Approximate the first four terms of the series of partial sums.

∞
9n 3
∑ 8n 2 + 13
n=1

Solution:

Make a table and calculate the value of each term.

9(1)3 9 3
n=1 a1 = = = ≈ 0.43 s1 = 0.43
8(1) + 13 21 7
2

762
 9(2)3 72 8
n=2 a2 = = = = 1.60 s2 = 0.43 + 1.60 = 2.03
8(2)2 + 13 45 5

9(3)3 243
n=3 a3 = = ≈ 2.86 s3 = 2.03 + 2.86 = 4.89
8(3)2 + 13 85

9(4)3 576
n=4 a4 = = ≈ 4.09 s4 = 4.89 + 4.09 = 8.98
8(4) + 13 141
2

763
SUM OF THE SERIES OF PARTIAL SUMS

1. Use the partial sums equation to find the sum of the series.

9
sn = 12 +
n

Solution:

The sum of the series with terms an is given by

∑ n n→∞ ( n)
∞
9
a = lim 12 +
n=1

∞
9
∑ n
a = 12 +
n=1
∞

∑
an = 12 + 0
n=1

∑
an = 12
n=1

2. Use the partial sums equation to find the sum of the series.

7n 2 + 9n
sn = 2
n −6

764
Solution:

The sum of the series with terms an is given by

∑ n n→∞ ( n 2 − 6 )
7n 2 + 9n
a = lim
n=1

Because evaluating the limit gives an indeterminate form, use L’Hospital’s

Rule to evaluate the limit.

n→∞ ( n 2 − 6 ) n→∞ ( 2n ) n→∞ ( 2 )

7n 2 + 9n 14n + 9 14
lim = lim = lim =7

So the sum of the series an is 7.

3. Use the partial sums equation to find the sum of the series.

9n 3 + 7n + 9
sn = 3
8n + 2n 2 + 5

Solution:

The sum of the series with terms an is given by

∑ n n→∞ ( 8n 3 + 2n 2 + 5 )
9n 3 + 7n + 9
a = lim
n=1

765
Because evaluating the limit gives an indeterminate form, use L’Hospital’s
Rule to evaluate the limit.

n→∞ ( 8n + 2n + 5 ) n→∞ ( 24n + 4n ) ( )

9n 3 + 7n + 9 27n 2 + 7 54n 54 9
lim = lim = lim = =
3 2 2 n→∞ 48n + 4 48 8

So the sum of the series an is 9/8.

4. Use the partial sums equation to find the sum of the series.

13 12
sn = + +5
15n 3 n

Solution:

The sum of the series with terms an is given by

( )
∞
13 12
∑
an = lim + +5
n=1
n→∞ 15n 3 n

∞
13 12
∑ n ∞ ∞
a = + +5
n=1

∑
an = 0 + 0 + 5
n=1

∑
an = 5
n=1

766
 5. Use the partial sums equation to find the sum of the series.

14n 2 n 1 1
sn = − − +
15n 3 16n 2 4n 3

Solution:

The sum of the series with terms an is given by

n→∞ ( 15n 3 4n 3 )
14n 2 n 1 1
∑
an = lim − − +
n=1
16n 2

∑ n n→∞ ( 15n 16n 4n 3 )

∞
14 1 1 1
a = lim − − +
n=1

∞
14 1 1 1
∑ n ∞ ∞ ∞ 3
a = − − +
n=1

∞
1
∑ n
a =0+0+0+
n=1
3

∞
1
∑ n 3
a =
n=1

767
GEOMETRIC SERIES TEST

1. Use the geometric series test to say whether the geometric series
converges or diverges, then give the value of the common ratio r.

∑ (3)
∞ n−1
2
6
n=1

Solution:

In the series, a = 6 and r = 2/3. Since | r | < 1, the series converges.

2. Use the geometric series test to say whether the geometric series
converges or diverges, then give the value of the common ratio r.

∑(7)
∞ n−1
3
n=1

Solution:

In the series, a = 1 and r = 3/7. Since | r | < 1, the series converges.

768
 3. Use the geometric series test to say whether the geometric series
converges or diverges, then give the value of the common ratio r.

π π2 π3 π4
+ + + +⋯
2 6 18 54

Solution:

In the series, a = π /2 and r = π /3. Since | r | > 1, the series diverges.

4. Use the geometric series test to say whether the geometric series
converges or diverges, then give the value of the common ratio r.

( 3)
n−1
1 1 1 1
1− + − +⋯+ − +⋯
3 9 27

Solution:

In the series, a = 1 and r = − 1/3. Since | r | < 1, the series converges.

5. Use the geometric series test to say whether the geometric series
converges or diverges, then give the value of the common ratio r.

∑(π)
∞ n
e
n=1

769
Solution:

In the series, a = e/π and r = e/π. Since | r | < 1, the series converges.

770
SUM OF THE GEOMETRIC SERIES

1. Find the sum of the geometric series.

∑ (8)
∞ n−1
3
7
n=1

Solution:

In the series, a = 7 and r = 3/8, so | r | < 1. Then the series converges to the
sum
7
a 7 1 7 8 56
S= = = = ⋅ =
1−r 1− 3 5 1 5 5
8 8

2. Find the sum of the geometric series.

∑ ( 14 )
∞ n−1
5
9
n=1

Solution:

In the series, a = 9 and r = 5/14, so | r | < 1. Then the series converges to the
sum

771
 9
a 9 1 9 14
S= = = = ⋅ = 14
1−r 1− 5 9 1 9
14 14

3. Find the sum of the geometric series.

1 2 4 8
− + − +⋯
3 9 27 81

Solution:

In the series, a = 1/3 and r = − 2/3, so | r | < 1. Then the series converges to
the sum
1 1
a 3 3 1 3 1
S= = = = ⋅ =
( 3)
1 − r 1 − −2 5 3 5 5
3

4. Find the sum of the geometric series.

∑(π)
∞ n
e
n=1

Solution:

772
In the series, a = e/π and r = e/π, so | r | < 1. Then the series converges to
the sum
e e e
a π π π e π e
S= = e = π e = π−e = ⋅ =
1−r 1− π π
− π π
π π−e π−e

773
VALUES FOR WHICH THE SERIES CONVERGES

1. Find the values of x for which the geometric series converges.

∞
17 n−1
∑ 3
x
n=1

Solution:

Expand the series.

∞
17 n−1 17 17 17 2 17 3 17 4
∑ 3
x = + x+ x + x + x +⋯
n=1
3 3 3 3 3

The common ratio between each term is x. So we’ll set up the inequality
r < 1 to solve for the values where the series converges.

|x| < 1

−1 < x < 1

2. Find the values of x for which the geometric series converges.

∑ ( 3 )
∞ n−1
x−2
5
n=1

774
Solution:

Expand the series.

∑ ( 3 ) ( 3 ) ( 3 ) ( 3 )
∞ n−1 2 3
x−2 x−2 x−2 x−2
5 =5+5 +5 +5
n=1

( 3 ) ( 3 )
4 5
x−2 x−2
+5 +5 +⋯

The common ratio between each term is (x − 2)/3. So we’ll set up the
inequality r < 1 to solve for the values where the series converges.

x−2
<1
3

x−2
−1 < <1
3

−3 < x − 2 < 3

−1 < x < 5

3. Find the values of x for which the geometric series converges.

∞
4n x n
∑
n=0

Solution:

775
Expand the series.
∞
4n x n = 1 + 4x + 16x 2 + 64x 3 + 256x 4 + ⋯
∑
n=0

The common ratio between each term is 4x. So we’ll set up the inequality
r < 1 to solve for the values where the series converges.

| 4x | < 1

−1 < 4x < 1

1 1
− <x<
4 4

776
GEOMETRIC SERIES FOR REPEATING DECIMALS

1. Express the repeating decimal 0.17 as a geometric series.

Solution:

The repeating decimal can be re-written as

0.17

0.17171717171717...

0.17 + 0.0017 + 0.000017 + 0.00000017 + . . .

17 17 17 17
+ + + + ...
100 10,000 1,000,000 100,000,000

( )
17 1 1 1
1+ + + + ...
100 100 10,000 1,000,000

Now that the repeating decimal is written as a series, we can identify

a = 17/100 and r = 1/100. So the series is
∞
a1r n−1
∑
n=1

∑ 100 ( 100 )
∞ n−1
17 1
n=1

777
 2. Express the repeating decimal 23.23 as a geometric series.

Solution:

The repeating decimal can be re-written as

23.23

23.23232323...

23 + 0.23 + 0.0023 + 0.000023 + 0.00000023 + . . .

23 23 23 23
23 + + + + + ...
100 10,000 1,000,000 100,000,000

( )
23 1 1 1
23 + 1+ + + + ...
100 100 10,000 1,000,000

Now that the repeating decimal is written as a series, we can identify

a = 23/100 and r = 1/100. So the series is
∞
a1r n−1
∑
n=1

∑ 100 ( 100 )
∞ n−1
23 1
23 +
n=1

778
 3. Express the repeating decimal 6.72 as a geometric series.

Solution:

The repeating decimal can be re-written as

6.72

6.722222222...

6.7 + 0.02 + 0.002 + 0.0002 + 0.00002 + . . .

2 2 2 2
6.7 + + + + + ...
100 1,000 10,000 100,000

1 1 1 1
6.7 + + + + + ...
50 500 5,000 50,000

50 ( )
1 1 1 1
6.7 + 1+ + + + ...
10 100 1,000

Now that the repeating decimal is written as a series, we can identify

a = 1/50 and r = 1/10. So the series is
∞
a1r n−1
∑
n=1

∑ 50 ( 10 )
∞ n−1
1 1
6.7 +
n=1

779
 4. Express the repeating decimal 9.1565 as a geometric series.

Solution:

The repeating decimal can be re-written as

9.1565

9.1565656565...

9.15 + 0.0065 + 0.000065 + 0.00000065 + 0.0000000065 + . . .

65 65 65 65
9.15 + + + + + ...
10,000 1,000,000 100,000,000 10,000,000,000

13 13 13 13
9.15 + + + + + ...
2,000 200,000 20,000,000 2,000,000,000

2,000 ( )
13 1 1 1
9.15 + 1+ + + + ...
100 10,000 1,000,000

Now that the repeating decimal is written as a series, we can identify

a = 13/2,000 and r = 1/100. So the series is
∞
a1r n−1
∑
n=1

∑ 2,000 ( 100 )
∞ n−1
13 1
9.15 +
n=0

780
CONVERGENCE OF A TELESCOPING SERIES

1. Say whether the telescoping series converges or diverges.

∞

∑ ( 5n − 5n−1)
n=1

Solution:

Rewrite the series.

∞

∑ ( 5n − 5n−1)
n=1

∑(
5⋅5 n−1
− 5n−1)
n=1

∞
(5 − 1)5n−1
∑
n=1

∞
(4)5n−1
∑
n=1

Matching this to
∞
a1 ⋅ r n−1
∑
n=1

781
tells us that r = 5. Because the series only converges when | r | < 1, this
series diverges.

2. Say whether the telescoping series converges or diverges.

∞
1
∑ n(n + 2)
n=1

Solution:

Using a partial fractions decomposition on the series,

∞ ∞
1 1 1
∑ n(n + 2) ∑ 2n 2(n + 2)
= −
n=1 n=1

Find the first few terms of this rewritten series.

1 1 1 1
n=1 − = −
2(1) 2(1 + 2) 2 6

1 1 1 1
n=2 − = −
2(2) 2(2 + 2) 4 8

1 1 1 1
n=3 − = −
2(3) 2(3 + 2) 6 10

1 1 1 1
n=4 − = −
2(4) 2(4 + 2) 8 12

782
 1 1 1 1
n=5 − = −
2(5) 2(5 + 2) 10 14

If we use these terms to write out the expanded series, we get

( 2 6 ) ( 4 8 ) ( 6 10 )
1 1 1 1 1 1
− + − + −

( 8 12 ) ( 10 14 ) ( 2n 2(n + 2) )
1 1 1 1 1 1
+ − + − + ... + − + ...

1 1 1 1 1 1
− + − + −
2 6 4 8 6 10

1 1 1 1 1 1
+ − + − + ... + − + ...
8 12 10 14 2n 2(n + 2)

1 1 1 1 1 1
− + + − +
2 6 6 4 8 8

1 1 1 1 1 1
− + − − + ... + − + ...
10 10 12 14 2n 2(n + 2)

1 1 1 1 1 1
+ − − + ... + − + ...
2 4 12 14 2n 2(n + 2)

But if we were to continue with the pattern, those middle terms cancel,
and we’re left with only

1 1 1 1
+ − −
2 4 2((n − 1) + 2) 2(n + 2)

1 1 1 1
+ − −
2 4 2(n + 1) 2(n + 2)

783
 3 1 1
− −
4 2(n + 1) 2(n + 2)

Take the limit as n → ∞.

3 1 1
lim − −
n→∞ 4 2(n + 1) 2(n + 2)

3 1 1
− −
4 2(∞ + 1) 2(∞ + 2)

3
−0−0
4

3
4

The series converges.

3. Say whether the telescoping series converges or diverges.

∞
2
∑ n2 + n
n=1

Solution:

Using a partial fractions decomposition on the series,

∞ ∞
2 2 2
∑ n2 + n ∑ n n + 1
= −
n=1 n=1

784
Find the first few terms of this rewritten series.

2 2 2 2
n=1 − = − =2−1=1
n n+1 1 1+1

2 2 2 2 2 1
n=2 − = − =1− =
n n+1 2 2+1 3 3

2 2 2 2 2 1 1
n=3 − = − = − =
n n+1 3 3+1 3 2 6

2 2 2 2 1 2 1
n=4 − = − = − =
n n + 1 4 4 + 1 2 5 10

2 2 2 2 2 1 1
n=5 − = − = − =
n n + 1 5 5 + 1 5 3 15

If we use these terms to write out the expanded series, we get

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 1 1 2 2 1 2 2
(2 − 1) + 1 − + − + − + − + ... + − + ...
3 3 2 2 5 5 3 n n+1

2 2 1 1 2 2 1 2 2
2−1+1− + − + − + − + ... + − + ...
3 3 2 2 5 5 3 n n+1

1 2 2
2− + ... + − + ...
3 n n+1

But if we were to continue with the pattern, those middle terms cancel,
and we’re left with only

2
2−
n+1

Take the limit as n → ∞.

785
 2 2
lim 2 − =2− =2−0=2
n→∞ n+1 ∞+1

The series converges.

4. Say whether the telescoping series converges or diverges.

∞
4
∑ n 2 + 3n + 2
n=1

Solution:

Using a partial fractions decomposition on the series,

∞ ∞
4 4 4
∑ n 2 + 3n + 2 ∑ n + 1 n + 2
= −
n=1 n=1

Find the first few terms of this rewritten series.

4 4 4 4 4
n=1 − = − =2−
n+1 n+2 1+1 1+2 3

4 4 4 4 4
n=2 − = − = −1
n+1 n+2 2+1 2+2 3

4 4 4 4 4
n=3 − = − =1−
n+1 n+2 3+1 3+2 5

4 4 4 4 4 2
n=4 − = − = −
n+1 n+2 4+1 4+2 5 3

786
 4 4 4 4 2 4
n=5 − = − = −
n+1 n+2 5+1 5+2 3 7

If we use these terms to write out the expanded series, we get

( 3) (3 ) ( 5)
4 4 4
2− + −1 + 1−

(5 3) (3 7) (n + 1 n + 2)
4 2 2 4 4 4
+ − + − + ... + − + ...

4 4 4 4 2 2 4 4 4
2 − + − 1 + 1 − + − + − + ... + − + ...
3 3 5 5 3 3 7 n+1 n+2

4 4 4
2 − + ... + − + ...
7 n+1 n+2

But if we were to continue with the pattern, those middle terms cancel,
and we’re left with only

4
2−
n+2

Take the limit as n → ∞.

4 4
lim 2 − =2− =2−0=2
n→∞ n+2 ∞+2

The series converges.

5. Say whether the telescoping series converges or diverges.

787
 ∞
5 5
∑n+1 n+2
−
n=1

Solution:

Find the first few terms of this rewritten series.

5 5 5 5 5 5 5
n=1 − = − = − =
n+1 n+2 1+1 1+2 2 3 6

5 5 5 5 5 5 5
n=2 − = − = − =
n + 1 n + 2 2 + 1 2 + 2 3 4 12

5 5 5 5 5 1
n=3 − = − = −1=
n+1 n+2 3+1 3+2 4 4

5 5 5 5 5 1
n=4 − = − =1− =
n+1 n+2 4+1 4+2 6 6

5 5 5 5 5 5 5
n=5 − = − = − =
n + 1 n + 2 5 + 1 5 + 2 6 7 42

If we use these terms to write out the expanded series, we get

(2 3) (3 4) (4 )
5 5 5 5 5
− + − + −1

( 6) (6 7) (n + 1 n + 2)
5 5 5 5 5
+ 1− + − + ... + − + ...

5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
− + − + − 1 + 1 − + − + ... + − + ...
2 3 3 4 4 6 6 7 n+1 n+2

788
 5 5 5 5
− + ... + − + ...
2 7 n+1 n+2

But if we were to continue with the pattern, those middle terms cancel,
and we’re left with only

5 5
−
2 n+2

Take the limit as n → ∞.

5 5 5 5 5 5
lim − = − = −0=
n→∞ 2 n+2 2 ∞+1 2 2

The series converges.

789
SUM OF A TELESCOPING SERIES

1. Calculate the sum of the telescoping series.

∞
3
∑ n2 + n
n=1

Solution:

Use a partial fractions decomposition to rewrite the series.

∞ ∞
3 3 3
∑ n2 + n ∑ n n + 1
= −
n=1 n=1

Then the first few terms of the series are

3 3 3 3 3
n=1 − = − =3−
n n+1 1 1+1 2

3 3 3 3 3
n=2 − = − = −1
n n+1 2 2+1 2

3 3 3 3 3
n=3 − = − =1−
n n+1 3 3+1 4

3 3 3 3 3 3
n=4 − = − = −
n n+1 4 4+1 4 5

3 3 3 3 3 1
n=5 − = − = −
n n+1 5 5+1 5 2

790
If we use these terms to write out the expanded series, we get

( 2) (2 ) ( 4)
3 3 3
3− + −1 + 1−

(4 5) (5 2) (n n + 1)
3 3 3 1 3 3
+ − + − + ... + − + ...

( )
3 3 3 3 3 3 1 3 3
3− + − 1 + 1 − + − + − + ... + − + ...
2 2 4 4 5 5 2 n n+1

(n n + 1)
1 3 3
3 − + ... + − + ...
2

But if we were to continue with the pattern, those middle terms cancel,
and we’re left with only

3
3−
n+1

Take the limit as n → ∞.

3 3
lim 3 − =3− =3−0=3
n→∞ n+1 ∞+1

The sum of the series is 3.

2. Calculate the sum of the telescoping series.

∞
4
∑ n 2 + 3n + 2
n=1

791
Solution:

Use a partial fractions decomposition to rewrite the series.

∞ ∞
4 4 4
∑ n 2 + 3n + 2 ∑ n + 1 n + 2
= −
n=1 n=1

Then the first few terms of the series are

4 4 4 4 4 2
n=1 − = − =2− =
n+1 n+2 1+1 1+2 3 3

4 4 4 4 4 1
n=2 − = − = −1=
n+1 n+2 2+1 2+2 3 3

4 4 4 4 4 1
n=3 − = − =1− =
n+1 n+2 3+1 3+2 5 5

4 4 4 4 4 2 2
n=4 − = − = − =
n + 1 n + 2 4 + 1 4 + 2 5 3 15

4 4 4 4 2 4 2
n=5 − = − = − =
n + 1 n + 2 5 + 1 5 + 2 3 7 21

If we use these terms to write out the expanded series, we get

( 3) (3 ) ( 5)
4 4 4
2− + −1 + 1−

(5 3) (3 7) (n + 1 n + 2)
4 2 2 4 4 4
+ − + − + ... + − + ...

792
 4 4 4 4 2 2 4 4 4
2− + − 1 + 1 − + − + − + ... + − + ...
3 3 5 5 3 3 7 n+1 n+2

4 4 4
2− + ... + − + ...
7 n+1 n+2

But if we were to continue with the pattern, those middle terms cancel,
and we’re left with only

4
2−
n+2

Take the limit as n → ∞.

4 4
lim 2 − =2− =2−0=2
n→∞ n+2 ∞+2

The sum of the series is 2.

3. Calculate the sum of the telescoping series.

∞
6 6
∑n+2 n+3
−
n=1

Solution:

Then the first few terms of the series are

6 6 6 6 3
n=1 − = − =2−
n+2 n+3 1+2 1+3 2

793
 6 6 6 6 3 6
n=2 − = − = −
n+2 n+3 2+2 2+3 2 5

6 6 6 6 6
n=3 − = − = −1
n+2 n+3 3+2 3+3 5

6 6 6 6 6
n=4 − = − =1−
n+2 n+3 4+2 4+3 7

6 6 6 6 6 3
n=5 − = − = −
n+2 n+3 5+2 5+3 7 4

If we use these terms to write out the expanded series, we get

( ) ( ) ( )
3 3 6 6
2− + − + −1
2 2 5 5

( 7) (7 4) (n + 2 n + 3)
6 6 3 6 6
+ 1− + − + ... + − + ...

3 3 6 6 6 6 3 6 6
2− + − + − 1 + 1 − + − + ... + − + ...
2 2 5 5 7 7 4 n+2 n+3

3 6 6
2− + .... + − + ...
4 n+2 n+3

But if we were to continue with the pattern, those middle terms cancel,
and we’re left with only

6
2−
n+3

Take the limit as n → ∞.

794
 6 6
lim 2 − =2− =2−0=2
n→∞ n+3 ∞+3

The sum of the series is 2.

795
LIMIT VS. SUM OF THE SERIES

1. Find the limit of the series, and if it converges, find its sum.
∞
3e −n + 2−n
∑
n=1

Solution:

The limit of the series is given by

1 3 1
lim 3e −n + = lim + lim
n→∞ 2n n→∞ e n n→∞ 2n

Notice that the denominator of both expressions gets bigger and bigger,
but the numerator is a constant. So the value of each fraction approaches
0.

3 1 3 1
lim + lim n = + =0+0=0
n→∞ e n n→∞ 2 ∞ ∞

To find the sum of the series, rewrite it as

∞
3e −n + 2−n
∑
n=1

∞
3 1
∑ e n 2n
+
n=1

796
The first few terms of the series are

3 1 3 1
a1 = + = +
e 1 2 1 e 2

3 1 3 1
a2 = + = +
e 2 22 e 2 4

3 1 3 1
a3 = 3 + 3 = 3 +
e 2 e 8

3 1 3 1
a4 = 4 + 4 = 4 +
e 2 e 16

Then the sum of the series is

3 1 3 1 3 1 3 1 3 1
S= + + 2 + + 3 + + 4 + + ... + n + n + ...
e 2 e 4 e 8 e 16 e 2

Split this into two separate sums.

3 3 3 3 3
S1 = + 2 + 3 + 4 + ... + n + ...
e e e e e

1 1 1 1 1
S2 = + + + + ... + n + ...
2 4 8 16 2

S1 is a geometric series with a = 3/e and r = 1/e. So S1 is

3 3 3
a e e e 3
S1 = = = = =
1−r 1− 1 e
− 1 e−1 e−1
e e e e

S2 is a geometric series with a = 1/2 and r = 1/2. So S2 is

797
 1 1
a
S2 = = 2 = 2
=1
1−r 1− 1 1
2 2

So the sum of the series and limit of the series are

3
S1 + S2 = +1
e−1

3 1
lim + =0
n→∞ e n 2 n

2. Find the limit of the series, and if it converges, find its sum.
∞
3n + 2n
∑ 6n
n=1

Solution:

The limit of the series is given by

3n + 2n
lim
n→∞ 6n

3n 2n
lim n + lim n
n→∞ 6 n→∞ 6

n→∞ ( 6 ) n→∞ ( 6 )
n n
3 2
lim + lim

798
 n→∞ ( 2 ) n→∞ ( 3 )
n n
1 1
lim + lim

1 1
lim + lim
n→∞ 2n n→∞ 3n

Notice that the denominator of both expressions gets bigger and bigger,
but the numerator is a constant. So the value of each fraction approaches
0.

1 1 1 1
lim + lim = + =0+0=0
n→∞ 2n n→∞ 3n ∞ ∞

To find the sum of the series, rewrite it as

∞
3n + 2n
∑ 6n
n=1

∞
1 1
∑ 2n 3n
+
n=1

The first few terms of the series are

1 1 1 1
a1 = + = +
21 31 2 3

1 1 1 1
a2 = 2 + 2 = +
2 3 4 9

1 1 1 1
a3 = 3 + 3 = +
2 3 8 27

1 1 1 1
a4 = 4 + 4 = +
2 3 16 81

799
Then the sum of the series is

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
S= + + + + + + + + ... + n + n + ...
2 3 4 9 8 27 16 81 2 3

Split this into two separate sums.

1 1 1 1 1
S1 = + + + + ... + n + ...
2 4 8 16 2

1 1 1 1 1
S2 = + + + + ... + n + ...
3 9 27 81 3

S1 is a geometric series with a = 1/2 and r = 1/2. So S1 is

1 1
a
S1 = = 2 = 2
=1
1−r 1− 1 1
2 2

S2 is a geometric series with a = 1/3 and r = 1/3. So S2 is

1 1
a 1
S2 = = 3 = 3
=
1−r 1− 1 2 2
3 3

So the sum of the series and limit of the series are

1 3
S1 + S2 = 1 + =
2 2

1 1
lim + =0
n→∞ 2 n 3 n

3. Find the limit of the series, and if it converges, find its sum.

800
 ∞
3 2
∑ 5n n
+
n=1

Solution:

The limit of the series is given by

3 2 3 2
lim + = lim + lim
n→∞ 5n n n→∞ 5n n→∞ n

Notice that the denominator of both expressions gets bigger and bigger,
but the numerator is a constant. So the value of each fraction approaches
0.

1 1 1 1
lim + lim = + =0+0=0
n→∞ 2n n→∞ 3n ∞ ∞

To find the sum of the series, rewrite it as

∞
3 2
∑ 5n n
+
n=1

∞ ∞
3 2
∑ 5n ∑ n
+
n=1 n=1

The first few terms of the first series are

3 3
a1 = =
51 5

3 3
a2 = 2 =
5 25

801
 3 3
a3 = =
53 125

3 3
a4 = =
54 625

Then the sum of the series is

3 3 3 3 3
S1 = + + + + ... + n + ...
5 25 125 625 5

S1 is a geometric series with a = 3/5 and r = 1/5. So S1 is

3 3
a 3
S1 = = 5 = 5
=
1−r 1− 1 4 4
5 5

The first few terms of the second series are

2
a1 =
1

2
a2 =
2

2
a3 =
3

2
a4 =
4

Notice that this series is a p-series with p = 1, which means the series
diverges and has no sum. Since part of the given series has no sum, the
whole series has no sum.

802
INTEGRAL TEST

1. Use the integral test to say whether the series converges or diverges.
If it converges, give the value to which it converges.
∞
7
∑ n 32
n=1

Solution:

Every term of the series is positive, every term is less than the preceding
term, and the series is defined for every term because n ≥ 1, so the integral
test will apply.

So express the series as a function.

7 3
f (x) = 3
= 7x − 2
x2

Then set up the integral.

∞ b b

∫1 b→∞ ∫1 b→∞ ∫1
− 32 − 32
f (x) d x = lim 7x d x = 7 lim x dx

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

b
− 12
7 lim − 2x
b→∞ 1

803
 b
2
7 lim −
b→∞ x 1

( 1)
2 2
7 lim − − −
b→∞ b

2
7 lim − +2
b→∞ b

7(0 + 2)

14

The integral converges to a real number value, which means the series
also converges. To find the value to which the series converges, we’ll take
the limit of the series as n → ∞.

7
lim 3
n→∞ n2

7
lim
n→∞ n3

Therefore, the series is convergent, and converges to 0.

2. Use the integral test to say whether the series converges or diverges.
If it converges, give the value to which it converges.

804
 ∞
9
∑n+1
n=1

Solution:

Every term of the series is positive, every term is less than the preceding
term, and the series is defined for every term because n ≥ 1, so the integral
test will apply.

So express the series as a function.

9
f (x) =
x+1

Then set up the integral.

∞ b b
9 1
∫1 ∫ ∫
f (x) d x = lim d x = 9 lim dx
b→∞ 1 x + 1 b→∞ 1 x + 1

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

b
9 lim ln | x + 1 |
b→∞ 1

9 lim ln | b + 1 | − ln | 1 + 1 |
b→∞

9(∞ − ln 2)

The integral diverges, which means the series also diverges.

805
 3. Use the integral test to say whether the series converges or diverges.
If it converges, give the value to which it converges.
∞
9
∑ 7n − 2
n=1

Solution:

Every term of the series is positive, every term is less than the preceding
term, and the series is defined for every term because n ≥ 1, so the integral
test will apply.

So express the series as a function.

9
f (x) =
7x − 2

Then set up the integral.

∞ b b
9 1
∫1 ∫ ∫
f (x) d x = lim d x = 9 lim dx
b→∞ 1 7x − 2 b→∞ 1 7x − 2

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

b
9
lim ln | 7x − 2 |
7 b→∞ 1

9
lim ln | 7b − 2 | − ln | 7(1) − 2 |
7 b→∞

806
 9
(∞ − ln 5)
7

The integral diverges, which means the series also diverges.

807
P-SERIES TEST

1. Use the p-series test to say whether the series converges of diverges.
∞
23
∑43n
n=1

Solution:

Rewrite the series as

∞
2323 ∞ 1 23 ∞ 1
∑43n ∑ 3n ∑ n 13
= =
n=1
4 n=1
4 n=1

Now that the series is in standard form for a p-series, and p = 1/3 ≤ 1, we
know the series diverges.

2. Use the p-series test to say whether the series converges of diverges.
∞
7
∑ 5n 3
n=1

Solution:

Rewrite the series as

808
 ∞
7 7 ∞ 1
∑ 5n 3 5 ∑ n 3
=
n=1 n=1

Now that the series is in standard form for a p-series, and p = 3 > 1, we
know the series converges.

3. Use the p-series test to say whether the series converges of diverges.
∞
6n 2 + 2n
∑ 9n 4
n=1

Solution:

Rewrite the series as

∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
6n 2 + 2n 6n 2 2n 2 2 2 ∞ 1 2 ∞ 1
∑ 9n 4 ∑ 9n 4 9n 4 ∑ 3n 2 ∑ 9n 3 3 ∑ n 2 9 ∑ n 3
= + = + = +
n=1 n=1 n=1 n=1 n=1 n=1

In both series, 1/n 2 and 1/n 3, p > 1 (because p is 2 in the first series and 3 in
the second series), which means both series converge, which means the
series in general converges.

809
NTH TERM TEST

1. Use the nth term test to say whether the series diverges, or whether
the nth term test is inconclusive.
∞
1
∑ 2n − 1
n=1

Solution:

First find the limit of the series.

1 1 1
lim = = =0
n→∞ 2n − 1 2⋅∞−1 ∞

Because the limit is 0, the nth term test is inconclusive.

2. Use the nth term test to say whether the series diverges, or whether
the nth term test is inconclusive.
∞
1 1 1 1
∑
an = 8 + 2 + + + + + ...
n=1
2 8 32 128

Solution:

First find the limit of the series.

810
 (4)
n−1
1 8 8 8 8
lim an = lim 8 ⋅ = lim = = ∞ = =0
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞ 4n−1 4∞−1 4 ∞

Because the limit is 0, the nth term test is inconclusive.

3. Use the nth term test to say whether the series diverges, or whether
the nth term test is inconclusive.
∞
11n
∑ 10n
n=1

Solution:

First find the limit of the series.

( )
n
11n 11
lim an = lim n = lim =∞
n→∞ n→∞ 10 n→∞ 10

Because the limit is not 0, the nth term test tells us the series will diverge.

4. Use the nth term test to say whether the series diverges, or whether
the nth term test is inconclusive.
∞
n
∑n+1
n=1

811
Solution:

First find the limit of the series.

n ∞ ∞
lim = = =1
n→∞ n + 1 ∞+1 ∞

Because the limit is not 0, the nth term test tells us the series will diverge.

812
COMPARISON TEST

1. Use the comparison test to say whether or not the series converges.
∞
4
∑ 3n + n
n=0

Solution:

Identify the comparison series.

4 4
an = bn =
3n + n 3n

For all n ≥ 0,

4 4
≤
3n + n 3n

Rewrite the comparison series.

∞
4
∑ 3n
n=0

∑ (3)
∞ n−1
1
4
n=1

The comparison series is a geometric series with a = 4 and r = 1/3. The sum
of the geometric comparison series is

813
 ∞
4 a 4 4 4 3
∑ 3n 1 − r 1 −
= = = = ⋅ =6
n=0
1 2 1 2
3 3

Because we know the original series is always less than or equal to the
comparison series, we can also say
∞ ∞
4 4
∑ 3n + n ∑ 3n
≤
n=0 n=0

∞
4
∑ 3n + n
≤6
n=0

Therefore, the series converges.

2. Use the comparison test to say whether or not the series converges.
∞
n
∑ n4 + 7
n=1

Solution:

Identify the comparison series.

n n 1
an = bn = =
n4 + 7 n4 n3

The original series an will be less than the comparison series bn,

814
 n 1
≤
n4 + 7 n3

n4 + 7
n≤
n3

n4 7
n≤ 3 + 3
n n

7
n≤n+
n3

7
0≤
n3

for any n > 0. The comparison series is a p-series with p = 3 > 1, which
means the comparison series converges, and because we know the
original series is always less than or equal to the comparison series, we
can say that the original series also converges.

3. Use the comparison test to say whether or not the series converges.
∞
5
∑ ln n
n=2

Solution:

Identify the comparison series.

815
 5 5
an = bn =
ln n n

For all n ≥ 2,

5 5
≥
ln n n

The comparison series is

∞
5
∑n
n=2

The comparison series is a p-series with p = 1 ≤ 1, which means the

comparison series diverges.

Therefore, because bn diverges, an also diverges.

816
LIMIT COMPARISON TEST

1. Use the limit comparison test to say whether or not the series
converges.
∞
3n + 2
∑ (2n − 1)4
n=1

Solution:

Let the comparison series be

∞ ∞
1
∑ n ∑ n3
b =
n=1 n=1

Use the limit comparison test.

3n 4 2n 3
an 3n + 2 n 3
3n + 2n 4 3 +
n4 n4
lim = lim ⋅ = lim = lim
b→∞ bn b→∞ (2n − 1)4 1 b→∞ (2n − 1)4 b→∞ (2n − 1)4
n4

2 2
3+ n
3+ ∞ 3+0 3
= lim = = =
(2 − n) (2 − ∞)
b→∞ 1
4
1
4
(2 − 0)4 16

So the value of L is L = 3/16 > 0. We know also that the comparison series
converges by the p-series test since for that series p = 3 > 1. Therefore,
because bn converges, an also converges.

817
 2. Use the limit comparison test to say whether or not the series
converges.
∞
12n 2 + 5
∑ n3 − 7
n=1

Solution:

Let the comparison series be

∞ ∞ ∞
n2 1
∑ n ∑ n3 ∑ n
b = =
n=1 n=1 n=1

Use the limit comparison test.

12n 3 5n
an 12n + 5 n 2
12n + 5n 3 +
lim n 3 n3
3
lim = lim 3 ⋅ = lim =
b→∞ bn b→∞ n − 7 1 b→∞ n − 7
3 b→∞ n − 7
n3 n3

5 5
12 + 12 + 12 + 0
n2 ∞
= lim = = = 12
b→∞ 1− 7
1− 7 1−0
n3 ∞

So the value of L is L = 12 > 0. We know also that the comparison series

diverges by the p-series test since for that series p = 1 ≤ 1. Therefore,
because bn diverges, an also diverges.

818
 3. Use the limit comparison test to say whether or not the series
converges.
∞
n 4 + 3n 2
∑ 7n 6 + 3n 4
n=1

Solution:

Let the comparison series be

∞ ∞ ∞
n4 1
∑ ∑ n6 ∑ n2
bn = =
n=1 n=1 n=1

Use the limit comparison test.

n6 3n 4
an 4
n + 3n n 2 2
n + 3n 6 4 +
lim n 6 n 4
6 6
lim = lim 6 ⋅ = lim =
b→∞ bn b→∞ 7n + 3n 4 1 b→∞ 7n + 3n
6 4 b→∞ 7n + 3n
n6 n6

3 3
1+ 1+ 1+0 1
n2 ∞
= lim = = =
b→∞ 7+ 3
7+ 3 7+0 7
n2 ∞

So the value of L is L = 1/7 > 0. We know also that the comparison series
converges by the p-series test since for that series p = 2 > 1. Therefore,
because bn converges, an also converges.

819
ERROR OR REMAINDER OF A SERIES

1. Estimate the remainder of the series using the first three terms.
∞
3
∑ 7n 3 + 2n 2 + 3
n=1

Solution:

To find the remainder, estimate the total sum by calculating a partial sum
for the series, determine whether the series converges or diverges using
the comparison test, and use the integral test to solve for the remainder.

3 3 1
n=1 a1 = = =
7(1)3 + 2(1)2 + 3 12 4

1
s1 = a1 = = 0.25
4

3 3
n=2 a2 = =
7(2) + 2(2) + 3 67
3 2

1 3 79
s2 = a1 + a2 = + = ≈ 0.295
4 67 268

3 3 1
n=3 a3 = = =
7(3)3 + 2(3)2 + 3 210 70

1 3 1 2,899
s3 = a1 + a2 + a3 = + + = ≈ 0.309
4 67 70 9,380

820
Use the comparison test to determine convergence or divergence, using
the comparison series
∞ ∞
3
∑ n ∑ n3
b =
n=1 n=1

Apply the comparison test.

3n 3
an 3 3
3 n 3n n3
lim = lim 3 ⋅ = lim = lim
b→∞ bn b→∞ 7n + 2n + 3
2 3 b→∞ 21n + 6n + 9
3 2 b→∞ 21n + 6n 9
3 2
+
n3 n3 n3

3 3 3 1
= lim = = =
b→∞ 21 + 6
+ 9
21 + 6
+ 9 21 + 0 + 0 7
n n3 ∞ ∞

This value for L is L = 1/7 > 0. Now check convergence or divergence of the
comparison series.
∞ ∞ ∞
3 1
∑ n ∑ n3 ∑ n3
b = =3
n=1 n=1 n=1

This is a p-series with p = 3 > 1, which means the comparison series

converges. Which means the original series an also converges.

Use the integral test to find the remainder of an after the first three terms.
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
3
∫3 ∫3 ∫3 ∫3
−3
R3 ≤ T3 ≤ bn d x = f (x) d x = d x = 3x dx
x3

∫3
R3 ≤ 3x −3 d x

821
Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

b
3x −2
R3 ≤ lim
b→∞ −2 3

b
3
R3 ≤ lim − 2
b→∞ 2x 3

( 2(3)2 )
3 3
R3 ≤ lim − 2 − −
b→∞ 2b

3 1
R3 ≤ lim − 2 +
b→∞ 2b 6

1
R3 ≤ − 0 +
6

1
R3 ≤
6

R3 ≤ 0.167

The third partial sum of the series an is s3 ≈ 0.309, with error R3 ≤ 0.167.

2. Estimate the remainder of the series using the first three terms.
∞
5
∑ n4 + 6
n=1

Solution:

822
To find the remainder, estimate the total sum by calculating a partial sum
for the series, determine whether the series converges or diverges using
the comparison test, and use the integral test to solve for the remainder.

5 5
n=1 a1 = =
14 + 6 7

5
s1 = a1 = ≈ 1.890
7

5 5
n=2 a2 = = ≈ 1.066
24 + 6 22

s2 = a1 + a2 = 1.890 + 1.066 ≈ 2.956

5 5
n=3 a3 = = ≈ 0.836
34 +6 87

s3 = a1 + a2 + a3 = 1.890 + 1.066 + 0.536 ≈ 3.492

Use the comparison test to determine convergence or divergence, using

the comparison series
∞ ∞ ∞
5 5
∑ ∑ ∑ n2
bn = =
n=1 n=1 n 4
n=1

Apply the comparison test.

5n 2
an 2 2
5 n 5n n2
lim = lim ⋅ = lim = lim
b→∞ bn b→∞ n4 + 6 5 b→∞ 5 n 4 + 6 b→∞ n4 + 6
5
n2

823
 5n 2
n2 5 5
= lim = lim =
b→∞ n4 6 b→∞ 6 6
5 + 5 1+ 5 1+ ∞
n4 n4 n4

5 5
= = =1
5 1+0 5

This value for L is L = 1 > 0. Now check convergence or divergence of the

comparison series.
∞ ∞ ∞
5 1
∑ ∑ n2 ∑ n2
bn = = 5
n=1 n=1 n=1

This is a p-series with p = 2 > 1, which means the comparison series

converges. Which means the original series an also converges.

Use the integral test to find the remainder of an after the first three terms.
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
5
∫3 ∫3 ∫3 ∫
−2
R3 ≤ T3 ≤ bn d x = f (x) d x = d x = 5x dx
x 2
3

∫3
R3 ≤ 5x −2 d x

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

b
5x −1
R3 ≤ lim
b→∞ −1 3

b
5
R3 ≤ lim −
b→∞ x 3

824
 b ( 3)
5 5
R3 ≤ lim − − −
b→∞

5 5
R3 ≤ lim − +
b→∞ b 3

5
R3 ≤ − 0 +
3

5
R3 ≤
3

R3 ≤ 0.167

The third partial sum of the series an is s3 ≈ 3.492, with error R3 ≤ 0.167.

3. Estimate the remainder of the series using the first three terms.
∞
4n 2
∑ n5 + n2 + 3
n=1

Solution:

To find the remainder, estimate the total sum by calculating a partial sum
for the series, determine whether the series converges or diverges using
the comparison test, and use the integral test to solve for the remainder.

4(1)2 4
n=1 a1 = 5 =
1 + 12 + 3 5

825
 4
s1 = a1 = = 0.8
5

4(2)2 16
n=2 a2 = 5 = ≈ 0.410
2 + 2 + 3 39
2

s2 = a1 + a2 = 0.8 + 0.410 ≈ 1.210

4(3)2 36 12
n=3 a3 = 5 = = ≈ 0.141
3 + 3 + 3 255 85
2

s3 = a1 + a2 + a3 = 0.8 + 0.410 + 0.141 ≈ 1.351

Use the comparison test to determine convergence or divergence, using

the comparison series
∞ ∞ ∞
4n 2 4
∑ ∑ n5 ∑ n3
bn = =
n=1 n=1 n=1

Apply the comparison test.

n5
an 2 3 5
4n n n n5
lim = lim 5 ⋅ = lim = lim
b→∞ bn b→∞ n + n + 3
2 4 b→∞ n + n + 3
5 2 b→∞ n5
+ n2
+ 3
n5 n5 n5

1 1 1
= lim = = =1
b→∞ 1+ 1
+ 3
1+ 1
+ 3 1+0+0
n3 n5 ∞ ∞

This value for L is L = 1 > 0. Now check convergence or divergence of the

comparison series.
∞ ∞ ∞
4 1
∑ ∑ n3 ∑ n3
bn = = 4
n=1 n=1 n=1

826
This is a p-series with p = 3 > 1, which means the comparison series
converges. Which means the original series an also converges.

Use the integral test to find the remainder of an after the first three terms.
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
4
∫3 ∫3 ∫3 ∫
−3
R3 ≤ T3 ≤ bn d x = f (x) d x = d x = 4x dx
x 3
3

∫3
R3 ≤ 4x −3 d x

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

b
4x −2
R3 ≤ lim
b→∞ −2 3

b
2
R3 ≤ lim − 2
b→∞ x 3

( 3 )
2 2
R3 ≤ lim − 2 − − 2
b→∞ b

2 2
R3 ≤ lim − 2 +
b→∞ b 9

2
R3 ≤ − 0 +
9

2
R3 ≤
9

R3 ≤ 0.222

The third partial sum of the series an is s3 ≈ 1.351, with error R3 ≤ 0.222.

827
RATIO TEST

1. Use the ratio test to determine the convergence of the series.

∞
7n
∑ n3
n=1

Solution:

Apply the ratio test.

an+1
L = lim
n→∞ an

7n+1
(n + 1)3 7n+1 n3
L = lim 7n
= lim ⋅
3 7n
n→∞ n→∞ (n + 1)
n3

7 n3 7n 3
L = lim ⋅ = lim
n→∞ (n + 1) 3 1 n→∞ (n + 1)3

n3
L = 7 lim 3
=7⋅1
n→∞ (n + 1)

L=7>1

828
The series converges if L < 1 and diverges if L > 1, which means this series
diverges.

2. Use the ratio test to determine the convergence of the series.

∞
9(n + 3)
∑ n2
n=1

Solution:

Apply the ratio test.

an+1
L = lim
n→∞ an

9(n + 4)
(n + 1)2 9(n + 4) n2
L = lim 9(n + 3)
= lim ⋅
2 9(n + 3)
n→∞ n→∞ (n + 1)
n2

(n + 4) n2 n 3 + 4n 2
L = lim ⋅
2 (n + 3)
= lim
n→∞ (n + 1) n→∞ n 3 + 5n 2 + 7n + 3

L=1

The ratio test is inconclusive when L = 1, so we can’t use it to determine

convergence for this particular series.

829
 3. Use the ratio test to determine the convergence of the series.
∞
10n
∑ 53n+1(n + 2)
n=1

Solution:

Apply the ratio test.

an+1
L = lim
n→∞ an

10 n+1
53n+4(n + 3) 10n+1 53n+1(n + 2)
L = lim = lim ⋅
n→∞ 10 n n→∞ 53n+4(n + 3) 10n
53n+1(n + 2)

10 (n + 2) 10(n + 2)
L = lim ⋅ = lim
n→∞ 53(n + 3) 1 n→∞ 125(n + 3)

2(n + 2) 2 n+2
L = lim = lim
n→∞ 25(n + 3) 25 n→∞ n + 3

2
L= ⋅1
25

2
L=
25

830
The series converges if L < 1 and diverges if L > 1, which means this series
converges.

4. Use the ratio test to determine the convergence of the series.

∞
6n + 17
∑ 32n+1
n=1

Solution:

Apply the ratio test.

an+1
L = lim
n→∞ an

6n + 23
32n+3 6n + 23 32n+1
L = lim = lim ⋅
n→∞ 6n + 17 n→∞ 3 2n+3 6n + 17
32n+1

6n + 23 1 6n + 23
L = lim ⋅ = lim
n→∞ 9 6n + 17 n→∞ 9(6n + 17)

1 6n + 23
L= lim
9 n→∞ 6n + 17

1
L= ⋅1
9

831
 1
L=
9

The series converges if L < 1 and diverges if L > 1, which means this series
converges.

5. Use the ratio test to determine the convergence of the series.

∞
(−1)n ⋅ 5n+3
∑ 6n+1
n=1

Solution:

Apply the ratio test.

an+1
L = lim
n→∞ an

(−1)n+1 ⋅ 5n+4 5n+4

6 n+2 6 n+2
L = lim = lim
n→∞ (−1)n ⋅ 5n+3 n→∞ 5n+3
6 n+1 6 n+1

5n+4 6n+1 5
L = lim ⋅ = lim
n→∞ 6n+2 5n+3 n→∞ 6

5
L=
6

832
The series converges if L < 1 and diverges if L > 1, which means this series
converges.

833
RATIO TEST WITH FACTORIALS

1. Use the ratio test to determine the convergence of the series.

∞
n3
∑ (2n − 1)!
n=1

Solution:

Apply the ratio test.

an+1
L = lim
n→∞ an

(n + 1)3
(2n + 1)! (n + 1)3 (2n − 1)!
L = lim = lim ⋅
n→∞ n3 n→∞ (2n + 1)! n3
(2n − 1)!

(n + 1)3 (2n − 1)! (n + 1)3 1

L = lim ⋅ = lim ⋅
n→∞ (2n + 1)(2n)(2n − 1)! n3 n→∞ (2n + 1)(2n) n 3

(n + 1)3 n 3 + 3n 2 + 3n + 1
L = lim = lim
n→∞ n 3(2n + 1)(2n) n→∞ 4n 5 + 2n 4

L=0

834
The series converges if L < 1 and diverges if L > 1, which means this series
converges.

2. Use the ratio test to determine the convergence of the series.

∞
8n
∑ 2n+1 ⋅ n!
n=1

Solution:

Apply the ratio test.

an+1
L = lim
n→∞ an

8n+1
2n+2 ⋅ (n + 1)! 8n+1 2n+1 ⋅ n!
L = lim = lim ⋅
n→∞ 8n n→∞ 2 ⋅ (n + 1)!
n+2 8n
2n+1 ⋅ n!

8 1 ⋅ n! 4
L = lim ⋅ = lim
n→∞ 2 ⋅ (n + 1) ⋅ n! 1 n→∞ n + 1

1
L = 4 lim =4⋅0
n→∞ n+1

L=0

835
The series converges if L < 1 and diverges if L > 1, which means this series
converges.

3. Use the ratio test to determine the convergence of the series.

∞
(−1)nn!
∑ n3 + 1
n=1

Solution:

Apply the ratio test.

an+1
L = lim
n→∞ an

(−1)n+1(n + 1)! (n + 1)!

(n + 1)3 + 1 (n + 1)3 + 1
L = lim = lim
n→∞ (−1)n n! n→∞ n!
n3 + 1 n3 +1

(n + 1)! n3 + 1
L = lim ⋅
n→∞ 3
(n + 1) + 1 n!

(n + 1)n! n3 + 1 (n + 1) n3 + 1
L = lim ⋅ = lim ⋅
n→∞ 3
(n + 1) + 1 n! n→∞ 3
(n + 1) + 1 1

836
 (n + 1)(n 3 + 1) n4 + n3 + n + 1
L = lim = lim
n→∞ (n + 1) + 1 3 n→∞ n 3 + 3n 2 + 3n + 2

L=∞

The series converges if L < 1 and diverges if L > 1, which means this series
diverges.

4. Use the ratio test to determine the convergence of the series.

∞
(n + 2)!
∑ (3n)2 + 7
n=0

Solution:

Apply the ratio test.

an+1
L = lim
n→∞ an

(n + 3)!
(3n + 3)2 + 7 (n + 3)! (3n)2 + 7
L = lim = lim ⋅
n→∞ (n + 2)! n→∞ (3n + 3) + 7 (n + 2)!
2
(3n)2 + 7

(n + 3)(n + 2)! 9n 2 + 7 (n + 3) 9n 2 + 7
L = lim ⋅ = lim ⋅
n→∞ (3n + 3) + 7 (n + 2)!
2 2
n→∞ (3n + 3) + 7 1

837
 (n + 3)(9n 2 + 7) 9n 3 + 27n 2 + 7n + 21
L = lim = lim
n→∞ (3n + 3) + 7 2 n→∞ 9n 2 + 36n + 16

L=∞

The series converges if L < 1 and diverges if L > 1, which means this series
diverges.

5. Use the ratio test to determine the convergence of the series.

∞
4n(n + 1)
∑ n!
n=0

Solution:

Apply the ratio test.

an+1
L = lim
n→∞ an

4n+1(n + 2)
(n + 1)! 4n+1(n + 2) n!
L = lim = lim ⋅ n
n→∞ 4 n(n + 1) n→∞ (n + 1)! 4 (n + 1)
n!

4(n + 2) n! 4(n + 2) 1
L = lim ⋅ = lim ⋅
n→∞ (n + 1)n! (n + 1) n→∞ (n + 1) (n + 1)

838
 4(n + 2) 4n + 2
L = lim = lim
n→∞ (n + 1)(n + 1) n→∞ n 2 + 2n + 1

L=0

The series converges if L < 1 and diverges if L > 1, which means this series
converges.

839
ROOT TEST

1. Use the root test to determine the convergence of the series.

n
∞

∑( 6n 6 + 7n 4 − 8 )
3 2
5n + 3n − 6
n=3

Solution:

Apply the root test.

L = lim n
an
n→∞

1
n
L = lim an
n→∞

1
n n

( 6n 6 + 7n 4 − 8 )
5n 3 + 3n 2 − 6
L = lim
n→∞

5n 3 + 3n 2 − 6
L = lim
n→∞ 6n 6 + 7n 4 − 8

Divide through by the highest-degree term.

840
 5n 3 + 3n 2 − 6
n3
L = lim
n→∞ 6n 6 + 7n 4 − 8
n3

5n 3 3n 2 6
+ −
n3 n3 n3
L = lim
n→∞ 6n 6 7n 4 8
+ −
n6 n6 n6

3 −6
5+ n n3
L = lim
n→∞ 7 8
6+ −
n2 n6

5+0−0
L = lim
n→∞ 6+0−0

5
L=
6

The series converges absolutely if L < 1 but diverges if L > 1, so the series
diverges.

2. Use the root test to determine the convergence of the series.

∞
7n 3
∑ e 2n2
n=1

841
Solution:

Apply the root test.

L = lim n
an
n→∞

1
n
L = lim an
n→∞

1
n
7n 3
L = lim
n→∞ e 2n2

n
7n 3
L = lim n
n→∞ e 2n2

3
7 ⋅ nn
n

L = lim 2n2
n→∞ e n

1⋅1
L=
∞

L=0

The series converges absolutely if L < 1 but diverges if L > 1, so the series
converges absolutely.

3. Use the root test to determine the convergence of the series.

842
 n
∞

∑ ( 9n 4 + 3 )
4
7n − 6n
n=0

Solution:

Apply the root test.

L = lim n
an
n→∞

1
n
L = lim an
n→∞

1
n n

n→∞ ( 9n 4 + 3 )
7n − 6n 4
L = lim

7n − 6n 4
L = lim
n→∞ 9n 4 + 3

Divide through by the highest-degree term.

7n 6n 4
− 4
n4 n
L = lim
9n 4 3
n→∞ +
n4 n4

7
−6
n3
L = lim 3
n→∞ 9+
n4

843
 0−6
L=
9+0

2
L=
3

The series converges absolutely if L < 1 but diverges if L > 1, so the series
converges absolutely.

844
ABSOLUTE AND CONDITIONAL CONVERGENCE

1. Use the root test to determine the absolute or conditional

convergence of the series.

∑ ( 8n + 5 )
∞ n
6n
n=1

Solution:

Both the ratio and root tests can determine absolute or conditional
convergence. The series converges absolutely if an = an and converges
conditionally if an ≠ an .

By the root test,

1

n→∞ ( 8n + 5 )
n n
6n
L = lim

6n
L = lim
n→∞ 8n + 5

Divide through by the highest-degree term.

6n
n
L = lim 8n 5
n→∞
n
+ n

845
 6
L = lim 5
n→∞ 8+ n

6
L=
8+0

3
L= <1
4

The series converges, so check for absolute vs. conditional convergence

by comparing

6n 6n
n n
lim 8n 5
and lim
n→∞ + n→∞ 8n + 5
n n n n

We’ve already found the first value, but the second value is

6n
n 6 3
L = lim = =
n→∞ 8n + 5 8+0 4
n n

Since the values are equal, the series converges absolutely.

2. Use the ratio test to determine the absolute or conditional

convergence of the series, or say if the series diverges of if the ratio test is
inconclusive.
∞
(−1) n
∑ 25n
n=1

846
Solution:

Both the ratio and root tests can determine absolute or conditional
convergence. The series converges absolutely if an = an and converges
conditionally if an ≠ an .

By the ratio test,

(−1)n+1
25n + 25
L = lim
n→∞ (−1)n
25n

1 25n
L = lim ⋅
n→∞ 25n + 25 1

25n n
L = lim = lim
n→∞ 25n + 25 n→∞ n + 1

n
L = lim
n→∞ n+1

L=1

The series converges if L < 1 and diverges if L > 1, but the ratio test is
inconclusive when L = 1. So the ratio test is inconclusive, and we can’t
determine absolute or conditional convergence.

847
 3. Use the root test to determine the absolute or conditional
convergence of the series.
n
∞

∑ ( 14n 5 + 7 )
5
8n − 9n
n=1

Solution:

Both the ratio and root tests can determine absolute or conditional
convergence. The series converges absolutely if an = an and converges
conditionally if an ≠ an .

By the root test,

1
n n

n→∞ ( 14n 5 + 7 )
8n − 9n 5
L = lim

8n − 9n 5
L = lim
n→∞ 14n 5 + 7

Divide through by the highest-degree term.

8n 9n 5
−
n5 n5
L = lim
14n 5
n→∞ + 75
n 5 n

848
 8
−9
n4
L = lim 7
n→∞ 14 +
n5

0−9
R=
14 + 0

9
R= <1
14

The series converges, so check for absolute vs. conditional convergence

by comparing

8 8
−9 −9
n4 n4
lim 7
and lim 7
n→∞ 14 + n→∞ 14 +
n5 n5

We’ve already found the first value, but the second value is
8
−9 0−9 9
n4
L = lim = =−
n→∞ 14 + 7 14 + 0 14
n5

Since the values are unequal, the series conditionally converges.

4. Use the ratio test to determine the absolute or conditional

convergence of the series, or say if the series diverges of if the ratio test is
inconclusive.
∞
n!
∑ 9n
n=1

849
Solution:

Both the ratio and root tests can determine absolute or conditional
convergence. The series converges absolutely if an = an and converges
conditionally if an ≠ an .

By the ratio test,

(n + 1)!
9n+1
L = lim n!
n→∞
9n

(n + 1)! 9n
L = lim ⋅
n→∞ 9 n+1 n!

(n + 1)n! 9n n+1
L = lim ⋅ = lim
n→∞ 9 ⋅ 9n n! n→∞ 9

L = 9 lim n + 1
n→∞

L =9⋅∞

L=∞

The series converges if L < 1 and diverges if L > 1, so the series diverges.

850
ALTERNATING SERIES TEST

1. Use the alternating series test to say whether the series converges or
diverges.

( 5n + 6 )
∞
3
(−1)n−1
∑
n=1

Solution:

An alternating series will only converge if the series is decreasing. Check

the first few terms of the series.

3
an =
5n + 6

3 3 3
a1 = = =
5(1) + 6 5 + 6 11

3 3 3
a2 = = =
5(2) + 6 10 + 6 17

3 3 3
a3 = = =
5(3) + 6 15 + 6 21

3 3 3
a4 = = =
5(4) + 6 20 + 6 26

We can see that the series is decreasing. The limit as n → ∞ must also be 0
if the alternating series is going to converge.

851
 3 3 3
lim an = lim = = =0
n→∞ n→∞ 5n + 6 5(∞) + 6 ∞

Because these two conditions are met, the alternating series converges.

2. Use the alternating series test to say whether the series converges or
diverges.

(7)
∞ n
2
(−1)n−1n
∑
n=1

Solution:

An alternating series will only converge if the series is decreasing. Check

the first few terms of the series.

(7)
n
2
an = n

(7)
1
2 2
a1 = 1 = ≈ 0.2857
7

(7)
2
2 4 8
a2 = 2 =2⋅ = ≈ 0.1633
49 49

(7)
3
2 8 24
a3 = 3 =3⋅ = ≈ 0.0988
343 343

852
 (7)
4
2 16 64
a4 = 4 =4⋅ = ≈ 0.0267
2401 2401

(7)
5
2 32 160
a5 = 5 =5⋅ = ≈ 0.0095
16,807 16807

(7)
6
2 64 384
a6 = 6 =6⋅ = ≈ 0.0033
117,649 117,649

(7)
7
2 128 896
a7 = 7 =7⋅ = ≈ 0.0011
823,453 823,453

(7)
8
2 256 800
a8 = 8 =8⋅ = ≈ 0.00039
5,764,801 5,764,801

We can see that the series is decreasing. The limit as n → ∞ must also be 0
if the alternating series is going to converge.

( )
n
2 n
lim an = lim n = lim
(2)
n
n→∞ n→∞ 7 n→∞ 7

Use L’Hospital’s Rule to evaluate the limit.

n 1
lim = lim =0
(2) (2) ln ( 72 )
n n
n→∞ 7 n→∞ 7

Because these two conditions are met, the alternating series converges.

853
 3. Use the alternating series test to say whether the series converges or
diverges.
∞ 3
n+1 n
∑
(−1)
n=3
n!

Solution:

An alternating series will only converge if the series is decreasing. Check

the first few terms of the series.

n3
an =
n!

33 27
a3 = = ≈ 4.5
3! 6

43 81
a4 = = ≈ 3.375
4! 24

53 125
a5 = = ≈ 1.042
5! 120

63 216
a6 = = ≈ 0.3
6! 720

73 343
a7 = = ≈ 0.681
7! 5040

We can see that the series is decreasing. The limit as n → ∞ must also be 0
if the alternating series is going to converge.

854
 3
n−1 n
lim an = lim (−1)
n→∞ n→∞ n!

Use the ratio test to find the limit.

3
n
lim (−1)n−1
n→∞ n!

3
(n + 1)
(−1)n+1−1 (n + 1)!
lim
(−1)n−1 nn!
3
n→∞

(n + 1)3
(n + 1)!
lim
n→∞ n3
n!

(n + 1)3 n!
lim ⋅ 3
n→∞ (n + 1)! n

(n + 1)3 n!
lim ⋅
n→∞ (n + 1)n! n 3

(n + 1)3 1
lim ⋅
n→∞ (n + 1) n 3

(n + 1)3
lim
n→∞ n 3(n + 1)

855
 n + 3n 2 + 3n + 1
lim
n→∞ n4 + n3

n 3n 2 3n 1
+ + +
n4 n4 n4 n4
lim
n4 n3
n→∞ +
n4 n4

1 3 3 1
+ + +
n3 n2 n3 n4
lim 1
n→∞ 1+ n

0+0+0+0
1+0

Because these two conditions are met, the alternating series converges.

856
ALTERNATING SERIES ESTIMATION THEOREM

1. Approximate the sum of the alternating series to three decimal places,

using the first 5 terms. Then find the remainder of the approximation, to
the nearest six decimal places.
∞
(−1)n−1n 3
∑ 12 n
n=1

Solution:

The first several terms of the series are

(−1)n−1n 3
an =
12n

(−1)1−1(1)3 1 ⋅ 1 1
a1 = = = ≈ 0.083333
121 12 12

(−1)2−1(2)3 −1 ⋅ 8 −8 1
a2 = = = =− ≈ − 0.055556
122 144 144 18

(−1)3−1(3)3 1 ⋅ 27 27 1
a3 = = = = ≈ 0.015625
123 1728 1728 64

(−1)4−1(4)3 −1 ⋅ 81 81 1
a4 = = =− =− ≈ − 0.003086
124 20736 20736 256

(−1)5−1(5)3 1 ⋅ 125 125

a5 = = = ≈ 0.0005023
125 248,832 248,832

857
 (−1)6−1(6)3 −1 ⋅ 216 216 27
a6 = = = − = − ≈ − 0.0000723
12 6 2,985,984 2,985,984 373,248

Then the first five partial sums are

s1 = a1 = 0.08333

s2 = a1 + a2 = 0.08333 − 0.05556 = 0.02777

s3 = a1 + a2 + a3 = 0.08333 − 0.05556 + 0.015625 = 0.043395

s4 = a1 + a2 + a3 + a4

= 0.08333 − 0.05556 + 0.015625 − 0.003086 = 0.04031

s5 = a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + a5

= 0.08333 − 0.05556 + 0.015625 − 0.003086 + 0.000502 = 0.040811

s6 = a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + a5 + a6

= 0.08333 − 0.05556 + 0.015625 − 0.003086 + 0.000502 − 0.0000723

= 0.040739

The approximation to three decimal places is s = 0.041. Verify that the

series is decreasing, bn+1 ≤ bn.

n3
bn = n
12

(1)3 1
b1 = 1 = ≈ 0.08333
12 12

858
 (2)3 8 8 1
b2 = 2 = = = ≈ 0.05556
12 144 144 18

(3)3 27 1
b3 = 3 = = ≈ 0.015625
12 1728 64

(4)3 64 1
b4 = 4 = = ≈ 0.003086
12 20,736 324

(5)3 125
b5 = 5 = ≈ 0.000502
12 248,832

(6)3 216
b6 = 6 = ≈ 0.0000723
12 2,985,984

Verify that the limit as n → ∞ is 0. Use L’Hospital’s rule.

n3 3n 2 6n 6 6
lim n = lim n = lim = lim = =0
n→∞ 12 n→∞ 12 ln 12 n→∞ 12 (ln 12)
n 2 n→∞ 12 (ln 12)
n 3 ∞

Find the remainder.

Rn = S − Sn ≤ bn+1

R5 = S − S5 ≤ b5+1

R5 ≤ b6

R5 ≤ 0.0000723

So the approximation of the sum of the alternating series is S5 ≈ 0.041, with

an error of R5 ≤ 0.0000723.

859
 2. Approximate the sum of the alternating series to three decimal places,
using the first 12 terms. Then find the remainder of the approximation, to
the nearest six decimal places.
∞
(−1)n+1
∑ 3n 3
n=1

Solution:

The first several terms of the series are

(−1)n+1
an =
3n 3

(−1)1+1 1
a1 = = ≈ 0.333333
3(1)3 3

(−1)2+1 −1
a2 = = ≈ − 0.041667
3(2)3 24

(−1)3+1 1
a3 = = ≈ 0.012346
3(3)3 81

(−1)4+1 −1
a4 = = ≈ − 0.005208
3(4)3 192

(−1)5+1 1
a5 = = ≈ 0.002667
3(5)3 729

860
 (−1)6+1 −1
a6 = = ≈ − 0.001543
3(6)3 648

(−1)7+1 1
a7 = = ≈ 0.000972
3(7)3 1029

(−1)8+1 −1
a8 = = ≈ − 0.000651
3(8)3 1536

(−1)9+1 1
a9 = = ≈ 0.000457
3(9)3 2187

(−1)10+1 −1
a10 = = ≈ − 0.000333
3(10)3 3000

(−1)11+1 1
a11 = = ≈ 0.000250
3(11)3 3993

(−1)12+1 −1
a12 = = ≈ − 0.000193
3(12)3 5184

(−1)13+1 1
a13 = = ≈ 0.000152
3(13)3 6591

Then the first five partial sums are

s1 = a1 = 0.333333

s2 = a1 + a2 = 0.333333 − 0.041667 = 0.291666

s3 = a1 + a2 + a3 = 0.333333 − 0.041667 + 0.012346 = 0.304012

861
s4 = a1 + a2 + a3 + a4

= 0.333333 − 0.041667 + 0.012346 − 0.005208 = 0.298804

s5 = a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + a5

= 0.333333 − 0.041667 + 0.012346 − 0.005208 + 0.002667 = 0.301471

s6 = a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + a5 + a6

= 0.333333 − 0.041667 + 0.012346 − 0.005208 + 0.002667 − 0.001543

= 0.299928

s7 = a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + a5 + a6 + a7

= 0.333333 − 0.041667 + 0.012346 − 0.005208

+0.002667 − 0.001543 + 0.000972

= 0.300900

s8 = a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + a5 + a6 + a7 + a8

= 0.333333 − 0.041667 + 0.012346 − 0.005208

+0.002667 − 0.001543 + 0.000972 − 0.000651

= 0.300249

s9 = a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + a5 + a6 + a7 + a8 + a9

= 0.333333 − 0.041667 + 0.012346 − 0.005208 + 0.002667

862
 −0.001543 + 0.000972 − 0.000651 + 0.000457

= 0.300706

s10 = a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + a5 + a6 + a7 + a8 + a9 + a10

= 0.333333 − 0.041667 + 0.012346 − 0.005208 + 0.002667

−0.001543 + 0.000972 − 0.000651 + 0.000457 − 0.000333

= 0.300373

s11 = a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + a5 + a6 + a7 + a8 + a9 + a10 + a11

= 0.333333 − 0.041667 + 0.012346 − 0.005208 + 0.002667 − 0.001543

+0.000972 − 0.000651 + 0.000457 − 0.000333 + 0.000250

= 0.300623

s12 = a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + a5 + a6 + a7 + a8 + a9 + a10 + a11 + a12

= 0.333333 − 0.041667 + 0.012346 − 0.005208

+0.002667 − 0.001543 + 0.000972 − 0.000651

+0.000457 − 0.000333 + 0.000250 − 0.000193

= 0.300430

s13 = a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + a5 + a6 + a7 + a8 + a9 + a10 + a11 + a12 + a13

= 0.333333 − 0.041667 + 0.012346 − 0.005208

863
 +0.002667 − 0.001543 + 0.000972 − 0.000651

+0.000457 − 0.000333 + 0.000250 − 0.000193 + 0.000152

= 0.300195

The approximation to three decimal places is s = 0.300. Verify that the

series is decreasing, bn+1 ≤ bn.

1
bn =
3n 3

1 1
b1 = = ≈ 0.333333
3(1) 3 3

1 1
b2 = = ≈ 0.041667
3(2) 3 24

1 1
b3 = = ≈ 0.012346
3(3)3 81

1 1
b4 = = ≈ 0.005208
3(4)3 192

1 1
b5 = = ≈ 0.002667
3(5) 3 729

1 1
b6 = = ≈ 0.001543
3(6) 3 648

1 1
b7 = = ≈ 0.000972
3(7)3 1029

864
 1 1
b8 = = ≈ 0.000651
3(8)3 1536

1 1
b9 = = ≈ 0.000457
3(9) 3 2187

1 1
b10 = = ≈ 0.000333
3(10) 3 3000

1 1
b11 = = ≈ 0.000250
3(11)3 3993

1 1
b12 = = ≈ 0.000193
3(12)3 5184

1 1
b13 = = ≈ 0.000152
3(13) 3 6591

Verify that the limit as n → ∞ is 0.

1 1 1 1
lim = lim 3 = ⋅ 0 = 0
n→∞ 3n 3 3 n→∞ n 3

Find the remainder.

Rn = S − Sn ≤ bn+1

R12 = S − S10 ≤ b12+1

R12 ≤ b13

R12 ≤ 0.000152

865
So the approximation of the sum of the alternating series is S10 ≈ 0.300, with
an error of R10 ≤ 0.000152.

3. Approximate the sum of the alternating series to three decimal places,

using the first 10 terms. Then find the remainder of the approximation.
∞
(−1)n−1 ⋅ 3
∑ 12n 3 + 4n 2
n=1

Solution:

The first several terms of the series are

(−1)n−1 ⋅ 3
an =
12n 3 + 4n 2

(−1)1−1 ⋅ 3 1⋅3 3
a1 = = = = 0.187500
12(1)3 + 4(1)2 12 + 4 16

(−1)2−1 ⋅ 3 −1 ⋅ 3 3
a2 = = =− ≈ − 0.026786
3
12(2) + 4(2) 2 96 + 16 112

(−1)3−1 ⋅ 3 1⋅3 3
a3 = = = ≈ 0.008333
3
12(3) + 4(3) 2 324 + 36 360

(−1)4−1 ⋅ 3 −1 ⋅ 3 3
a4 = = =− ≈ − 0.003606
3
12(4) + 4(4) 2 768 + 64 832

866
 (−1)5−1 ⋅ 3 1⋅3 3
a5 = = = ≈ 0.001875
12(5)3 + 4(5)2 1500 + 100 1600

(−1)6−1 ⋅ 3 −1 ⋅ 3 3
a6 = = =− ≈ − 0.001096
12(6)3 + 4(6)2 2592 + 144 2736

(−1)7−1 ⋅ 3 1⋅3 3
a7 = = = ≈ 0.000696
12(7)3 + 4(7)2 4116 + 196 4312

(−1)8−1 ⋅ 3 −1 ⋅ 3 3
a8 = = =− ≈ − 0.000469
12(8)3 + 4(8)2 6144 + 256 6400

(−1)9−1 ⋅ 3 1⋅3 3
a9 = = = ≈ 0.000331
3
12(9) + 4(9) 2 8748 + 324 9072

(−1)10−1 ⋅ 3 −1 ⋅ 3 3
a10 = = =− ≈ − 0.000242
3
12(10) + 4(10) 2 12000 + 400 12400

(−1)11−1 ⋅ 3 1⋅3 3
a11 = = = ≈ 0.000182
12(11)3 + 4(11)2 15972 + 484 16456

Then the first five partial sums are

s1 = a1 = 0.187500

s2 = a1 + a2 = 0.1875 − 0.026786 = 0.160714

s3 = a1 + a2 + a3 = 0.1875 − 0.026786 + 0.008333 = 0.169047

s4 = a1 + a2 + a3 + a4

= 0.1875 − 0.026786 + 0.008333 − 0.003606 = 0.165441

867
s5 = a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + a5

= 0.1875 − 0.026786 + 0.008333 − 0.003606 + 0.001875 = 0.167316

s6 = a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + a5 + a6

= 0.1875 − 0.026786 + 0.008333 − 0.003606 + 0.001875 − 0.001096

= 0.166220

s7 = a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + a5 + a6 + a7

= 0.1875 − 0.026786 + 0.008333 − 0.003606

+0.001875 − 0.001096 + 0.000696

= 0.166916

s8 = a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + a5 + a6 + a7 + a8

= 0.1875 − 0.026786 + 0.008333 − 0.003606

+0.001875 − 0.001096 + 0.000696 − 0.000469

= 0.166447

s9 = a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + a5 + a6 + a7 + a8 + a9

= 0.1875 − 0.026786 + 0.008333 − 0.003606 + 0.001875

−0.001096 + 0.000696 − 0.000469 + 0.000331

= 0.166778

868
 s10 = a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + a5 + a6 + a7 + a8 + a9 + a10

= 0.1875 − 0.026786 + 0.008333 − 0.003606 + 0.001875

−0.001096 + 0.000696 − 0.000469 + 0.000331 − 0.000242

= 0.166536’

s11 = a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + a5 + a6 + a7 + a8 + a9 + a10 + a11

= 0.1875 − 0.026786 + 0.008333 − 0.003606

+0.001875 − 0.001096 + 0.000696 − 0.000469

+0.000331 − 0.000242 + 0.000182

= 0.166718

The approximation to three decimal places is s = 0.167. Verify that the

series is decreasing, bn+1 ≤ bn.

3
bn =
12n 3 + 4n 2

3 3 3
b1 = = = = 0.187500
3
12(1) + 4(1)2 12 + 4 16

3 3 3
b2 = = = ≈ 0.026786
12(2)3 + 4(2)2 96 + 16 112

3 3 3
b3 = = = ≈ 0.008333
12(3)3 + 4(3)2 324 + 36 360

869
 3 3 3
b4 = = = ≈ 0.003606
12(4)3 + 4(4)2 768 + 64 832

3 3 3
b5 = = = ≈ 0.001875
3
12(5) + 4(5)2 1500 + 100 1600

3 3 3
b6 = = = ≈ 0.001096
3
12(6) + 4(6)2 2592 + 144 2736

3 3 3
b7 = = = ≈ 0.000696
12(7)3 + 4(7)2 4116 + 196 4312

3 3 3
b8 = = = ≈ 0.000469
12(8)3 + 4(8)2 6144 + 256 6400

3 3 3
b9 = = = ≈ 0.000331
12(9)3 + 4(9)2 8748 + 324 9072

3 3 3
b10 = = = ≈ 0.000242
3
12(10) + 4(10) 2 12000 + 400 12400

3 3 3
b11 = = = ≈ 0.000182
12(11)3 + 4(11)2 15972 + 484 16456

Verify that the limit as n → ∞ is 0. Use L’Hospital’s rule.

3 0
lim = lim =0
n→∞ 12n + 4n
3 2 n→∞ 6n + 8n
2

Find the remainder.

Rn = S − Sn ≤ bn+1

870
 R10 = S − S10 ≤ b10+1

R10 ≤ b11

R10 ≤ 0.000182

So the approximation of the sum of the alternating series is S10 ≈ 0.167, with
an error of R10 ≤ 0.000182.

871
POWER SERIES REPRESENTATION

1. Find the power series representation of the function.

3x
f (x) =
7 + x2

Solution:

The standard form of a power series is

∞
1
xn
1−x ∑
=
n=0

Manipulate the function until it’s in the form of the standard power series.

1 3x
=
1 − x 7 + x2

1 1
= (3x)
1−x 7 + x2

1 1
= (3x)
1−x 7 (1 + 7)
x2

1 − x ( 7 ) 1 + x2
1 3x 1
=
( 7)

872
 1 − x ( 7 ) 1 − − x2
1 3x 1
=
( 7)

Then the power series representation of the function is

n
∞

( 7)
2
3x x
7 ∑
−
n=0

n
∞

∑ 71 ( 7 )
1 1 2
3x (−1)x
n=0

∞
31x 1(−1)n x 2n
∑
n=0
71 ( 7n )

∞
(−1)n3x 2n+1
∑ 7n+1
n=0

2. Find the power series representation of the function.

5
f (x) =
4 − 6x

Solution:

The standard form of a power series is

873
 ∞
1
xn
1−x ∑
=
n=0

Manipulate the function until it’s in the form of the standard power series.

1 5
=
1 − x 4 − 6x

1 1
= (5)
1−x 4 − 6x

1 1
= (5)
1−x 4 (1 − 4 )
6x

1 1
= (5)
1−x 4 (1 − 2 )
3x

1 − x ( 4 ) 1 − 3x
1 5 1
=
( 2 )

1 − x ( 4 ) 1 − 3x
1 5 1
=
2

Then the power series representation of the function is

(2)
n
5 ∞ 3x
4∑n=0

∑ 41 ( 2 )
∞ n
51 3x
n=0

874
 ∑ 22 ( 2 )
∞ n
51 3x
n=0

∞
5(3x)n
∑ 2n+2
n=0

3. Find the power series representation of the function.

4
f (x) = 2
x − x3

Solution:

The standard form of a power series is

∞
1
xn
1−x ∑
=
n=0

Manipulate the function until it’s in the form of the standard power series.

1 4
=
1 − x x2 − x3

1 1
= (4) 2
1−x x − x3

1 1
= (4) 2
1−x x (1 − x)

875
 1 − x ( x2 ) 1 − x
1 4 1
=

Then the power series representation of the function is

4 ∞ n
∑
x
x n=0
2

∞
41 n
∑ x2
(x)
n=0

∞
41 x n
∑ x2
n=0

∞
4x n−2
∑
n=0

4. Find the power series representation of the function.

5x 2
f (x) =
1 + x3

Solution:

The standard form of a power series is

∞
1
xn
1−x ∑
=
n=0

876
Manipulate the function until it’s in the form of the standard power series.

1 5x 2
=
1 − x 1 + x3

1 1
= (5x 2)
1−x 1 + x3

1 1
= (5x 2)
1−x 1 − (−x 3)

Then the power series representation of the function is

∞
2
(−x 3)n
∑
5x
n=0

∞
51x 2(−x 3)n
∑
n=0

∞
n
51x 2(−1)n(x 3)
∑
n=0

∞
5x 2(−1)n x 3n
∑
n=0

∞
(−1)n5x 3n+2
∑
n=0

5. Find the power series representation of the function.

877
 x
f (x) =
8−x

Solution:

The standard form of a power series is

∞
1
xn
1−x ∑
=
n=0

Manipulate the function until it’s in the form of the standard power series.

1 x
=
1−x 8−x

1 1
= (x)
1−x 8−x

1 1
= (x)
1−x 8 (1 − 8x )

1 − x (8) 1 −
1 x 1
= x
8

Then the power series representation of the function is

(8)
n
x ∞ x
8∑n=0

∑ 81 ( 8 )
∞ n
x1 x
n=0

878
∞
x1 xn
∑ 81 8n
⋅
n=0

∞
x n+1
∑ 8n+1
n=0

879
POWER SERIES MULTIPLICATION

1. Use power series multiplication to find the first four non-zero terms of
the Maclaurin series.

y = cos(3x)e 3x

Solution:

The given series is the product of two other series.

y = cos(3x)

y = e 3x

For the first one, start with the common series

x2 x4 x6 x8
cos x = 1 − + − + −⋯
2! 4! 6! 8!

Substitute 3x for x.

(3x)2 (3x)4 (3x)6 (3x)8

cos(3x) = 1 − + − + −⋯
2! 4! 6! 8!

9x 2 81x 4 729x 6 6,561x 8

cos(3x) = 1 − + − + −⋯
2 24 720 40,320

9x 2 27x 4 81x 6 729x 8

cos(3x) = 1 − + − + −⋯
2 8 80 4,480

880
For the second, start with the common series

x x x2 x3 x4 x5
e =1+ + + + + +⋯
1! 2! 3! 4! 5!

Substitute 3x for x.

3x 3x (3x)2 (3x)3 (3x)4 (3x)5

e =1+ + + + + +⋯
1! 2! 3! 4! 5!
2 3 4 5
9x 9x 27x 81x
e 3x = 1 + 3x + + + + +⋯
2 2 8 40

Multiply the series together.

( )
2 4 6 8
9x 27x 81x 729x
cos(3x)e 3x = 1 − + − + −⋯
2 8 80 4,480

( )
9x 2 9x 3 27x 4 81x 5
1 + 3x + + + + +⋯
2 2 8 40

Multiply every term in the first series by every term in the second series.

( )
2 3 4 5
9x 9x 27x 81x
cos(3x)e 3x = 1 1 + 3x + + + + +⋯
2 2 8 40

2 ( )
9x 2 9x 2 9x 3 27x 4 81x 5
− 1 + 3x + + + + +⋯
2 2 8 40

8 ( )
27x 4 9x 2 9x 3 27x 4 81x 5
+ 1 + 3x + + + + +⋯
2 2 8 40

881
 80 ( )
81x 6 9x 2 9x 3 27x 4 81x 5
− 1 + 3x + + + + +⋯
2 2 8 40

+⋯

3x 9x 2 9x 3 27x 4 81x 5
cos(3x)e = 1 + 3x + + + + +⋯
2 2 8 40

9x 2 27x 3 81x 4 81x 5 243x 6 729x 7

− − − − − − −⋯
2 2 4 4 16 80

27x 4 81x 5 243x 6 243x 7 729x 8 2,187x 9

+ + + + + + +⋯
8 8 16 16 64 320

81x 6 243x 7 729x 8 729x 9 2,187x 10 6,561x 11

− − − − − − −⋯
80 80 160 160 60 3,200

To get the first four non-zero terms, we only need terms through x 4.

3x 9x 2 9x 2 9x 3 27x 3 27x 4 81x 4 27x 4

cos(3x)e = 1 + 3x + − + − + − + + ...
2 2 2 2 8 4 8
4
27x
cos(3x)e 3x = 1 + 3x − 9x 3 − + ...
4

2. Use power series multiplication to find the first four non-zero terms of
the Maclaurin series.

y = arctan(2x)sin x

882
Solution:

The given series is the product of two other series.

y = arctan(2x)

y = sin x

For the first one, start with the common series

x3 x5 x7 x9
arctan x = x − + − + −⋯
3 5 7 9

Substitute 2x for x.

(2x)3 (2x)5 (2x)7 (2x)9

arctan(2x) = 2x − + − + −⋯
3 5 7 9

8x 3 32x 5 128x 7 512x 9

arctan(2x) = 2x − + − + −⋯
3 5 7 9

For the second, use the common series

x3 x5 x7 x9
sin x = x − + − + −⋯
3! 5! 7! 9!

x3 x5 x7 x9
sin x = x − + − + −⋯
6 120 5,040 362,880

Multiply the series together.

( )
8x 3 32x 5 128x 7 512x 9
arctan(2x)sin x = 2x − + − + −⋯
3 5 7 9

883
 ( )
x3 x5 x7 x9
x− + − + −⋯
6 120 5,040 362,880

Multiply every term in the first series by every term in the second series.

( )
8x 3 32x 5 128x 7 512x 9
arctan(2x)sin x = x 2x − + − + −⋯
3 5 7 9

6 ( )
x3 8x 3 32x 5 128x 7 512x 9
− 2x − + − + −⋯
3 5 7 9

120 ( )
x5 8x 3 32x 5 128x 7 512x 9
+ 2x − + − + −⋯
3 5 7 9

5,040 ( )
x7 8x 3 32x 5 128x 7 512x 9
− 2x − + − + −⋯
3 5 7 9

362,880 ( )
x9 8x 3 32x 5 128x 7 512x 9
+ 2x − + − + −⋯
3 5 7 9

−⋯

4 6 8 10
8x 32x 128x 512x
arctan(2x)sin x = 2x 2 − + − + +⋯
3 5 7 9

x 4 4x 6 16x 8 128x 10
− + − + −⋯
3 9 15 42

x6 x 8 4x 10
+ − + −⋯
60 45 75

884
 x8 8x 10
− + −⋯
2,520 15,120

x 10
+ −⋯
181,440

To get the first four non-zero terms, we only need terms through x 8.

2 8x 4 x 4 32x 6 4x 6 x 6
arctan(2x)sin x = 2x − − + + +
3 3 5 9 60

128x 8 16x 8 x 8 x8
− − − − +⋯
7 15 45 2,520

2 4 247x 6 155x 8
arctan(2x)sin x = 2x − 3x + − +⋯
36 8

3. Use power series multiplication to find the first four non-zero terms of
the Maclaurin series.

y = e −2x cos(2x)

Solution:

The given series is the product of two other series.

y = e −2x

y = cos(2x)

885
For the first one, start with the common series

x x x2 x3 x4 x5
e =1+ + + + + +⋯
1! 2! 3! 4! 5!

Substitute −2x for x.

−2x −2x (−2x)2 (−2x)3 (−2x)4 (−2x)5

e =1+ + + + + +⋯
1! 2! 3! 4! 5!
3 4 5
4x 2x 4x
e −2x = 1 − 2x + 2x 2 − + − +⋯
3 3 15

For the second, use the common series

x2 x4 x6 x8
cos x = 1 − + − + −⋯
2! 4! 6! 8!

x2 x4 x6 x8
cos x = 1 − + − + −⋯
2 24 720 40,320

Substitute 2x for x.

(2x)2 (2x)4 (2x)6 (2x)8

cos(2x) = 1 − + − + −⋯
2 24 720 40,320

4x 2 16x 4 64x 6 256x 8

cos(2x) = 1 − + − + −⋯
2 24 720 40,320

22x 4 4x 6 2x 8
cos(2x) = 1 − 2x + − + −⋯
3 45 315

Multiply the series together.

886
 ( )
−2x 2 4x 3 2x 4 4x 5
e cos(2x) = 1 − 2x + 2x − + − +⋯
3 3 15

( )
2 2x 4 4x 6 2x 8
1 − 2x + − + −⋯
3 45 315

Multiply every term in the first series by every term in the second series.

( )
−2x 2 2x 4 4x 6 2x 8
e cos(2x) = 1 1 − 2x + − + −⋯
3 45 315

( )
22x 4 4x 6 2x 8
−2x 1 − 2x + − + −⋯
3 45 315

( )
4 6 8
2x 4x 2x
+2x 2 1 − 2x 2 + − + −⋯
3 45 315

3 ( )
4x 3 2x 4
4x 6
2x 8
− 1 − 2x 2 + − + −⋯
3 45 315

3 ( )
2x 4 2x 4
4x 6
2x 8
+ 1 − 2x 2 + − + −⋯
3 45 315

15 ( )
4x 5 2x 4
4x 6
2x 8
− 1 − 2x 2 + − + −⋯
3 45 315

+⋯

887
 −2x 2 2x 4 4x 6 2x 8
e cos(2x) = 1 − 2x + − + −⋯
3 45 315

3 4x 5 8x 7 4x 9
−2x + 4x − + − +⋯
3 45 315
6 8 10
4x 8x 4x
+2x 2 − 4x 4 + − + −⋯
3 45 315

4x 3 8x 5 8x 7 16x 9 8x 11
− + − + − +⋯
3 3 9 135 945

2x 4 4x 6 4x 8 8x 10 4x 12
+ − + − + −⋯
3 3 9 135 945

4x 5 8x 7 8x 9 16x 11 8x 13
− + − + − +⋯
15 15 45 675 4,725

To get the first four non-zero terms, we only need terms through x 4.
3 4 4
4x 2x 2x
e −2x cos(2x) = 1 − 2x − 2x 2 + 2x 2 + 4x 3 − + − 4x 4 +
3 3 3

−2x 8x 3 8x 4
e cos(2x) = 1 − 2x + −
3 3

4. Use power series multiplication to find the first four non-zero terms of
the Maclaurin series.

y = e 5x ln(1 + 3x)

888
Solution:

The given series is the product of two other series.

y = e 5x

y = ln(1 + 3x)

For the first one, start with the common series

x x x2 x3 x4 x5
e =1+ + + + + +⋯
1! 2! 3! 4! 5!

Substitute 5x for x.

2 3 4 5
5x (5x) (5x) (5x) (5x)
e (5x) = 1 + + + + + +⋯
1! 2! 3! 4! 5!

(5x) 25x 2 125x 3 625x 4 3,125x 5

e = 1 + 5x + + + + +⋯
2 6 24 120

For the second, use the common series

x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7
ln(1 + x) = x − + − + − + −⋯
2 3 4 5 6 7

Substitute 3x for x.

(3x)2 (3x)3 (3x)4 (3x)5

ln(1 + 3x) = 3x − + − + −⋯
2 3 4 5

9x 2 27x 3 81x 4 273x 5

ln(1 + 3x) = 3x − + − + −⋯
2 3 4 5

Multiply the series together.

889
 ( )
5x 25x 2 125x 3 625x 4 3,125x 5
e ln(1 + 3x) = 1 + 5x + + + + +⋯
2 6 24 120

( )
9x 2 27x 3 81x 4 273x 5
3x − + − + −⋯
2 3 4 5

Multiply every term in the first series by every term in the second series.

( )
5x 9x 2 27x 3 81x 4 273x 5
e ln(1 + 3x) = 1 3x − + − + −⋯
2 3 4 5

( )
9x 2 27x 3 81x 4 273x 5
+5x 3x − + − + −⋯
2 3 4 5

2 ( )
25x 2 9x 2 27x 3 81x 4 273x 5
+ 3x − + − + −⋯
2 3 4 5

6 ( )
125x 3 9x 2 27x 3 81x 4 273x 5
+ 3x − + − + −⋯
2 3 4 5

24 ( )
625x 4 9x 2 27x 3 81x 4 273x 5
+ 3x − + − + −⋯
2 3 4 5

120 ( )
3,125x 5 9x 2 27x 3 81x 4 273x 5
+ 3x − + − + −⋯
2 3 4 5

2 3 4 5
9x 27x 81x 273x
e 5x ln(1 + 3x) = 3x − + − + −⋯
2 3 4 5

890
 45x 3 135x 4 405x 5 1,365x 6
2
+15x − + − + −⋯
2 3 4 5

75x 3 225x 4 675x 5 2,025x 6 6,825x 7

+ − + − + −⋯
2 4 6 8 10

125x 4 375x 5 375x 6 3,375x 7 11,375x 8

+ − + − + −⋯
2 4 2 8 10

625x 5 1,875x 6 1,875x 7 16,875x 8 56,875x 9

+ − + − + −⋯
8 16 8 32 40

3,125x 6 9,375x 7 9,375x 8 84,375x 9 284,375x 10

+ − + − + −⋯
40 80 40 160 200

To get the first four non-zero terms, we only need terms through x 4.

5x 9x 2 2 27x 3 45x 3 75x 3 81x 4 135x 4 225x 4 125x 4

e ln(1 + 3x) = 3x − + 15x + − + − + − +
2 3 2 2 4 3 4 2

5x 21x 2
e ln(1 + 3x) = 3x + + 24x 3 + 31x 4
2

5. Use power series multiplication to find the first four non-zero terms of
the Maclaurin series.

3
y = e 3x ⋅
1−x

Solution:

891
The given series is the product of two other series.

y = e 3x

3
y=
1−x

For the first one, start with the common series

x x x2 x3 x4 x5
e =1+ + + + + +⋯
1! 2! 3! 4! 5!

Substitute 3x for x.

2 3 4 5
3x (3x) (3x) (3x) (3x)
e 3x = 1 + + + + + +⋯
1! 2! 3! 4! 5!

3x 9x 2 9x 3 27x 4 81x 5
e = 1 + 3x + + + + +⋯
2 2 8 40

For the second, use the common series

1
= 1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 + x5 + x6 + ⋯
1−x

Multiply through by 3.

3
= 3 + 3x + 3x 2 + 3x 3 + 3x 4 + 3x 5 + 3x 6 + ⋯
1−x

Multiply the series together.

1−x ( )
3
3x 9x 2 9x 3 27x 4 81x 5
e ⋅ = 1 + 3x + + + + +⋯
2 2 8 40

892
 (3 + 3x + 3x 2 + 3x 3 + 3x 4 + 3x 5 + 3x 6 + ⋯)

Multiply every term in the first series by every term in the second series.

3
e 3x ⋅ = 1(3 + 3x + 3x 2 + 3x 3 + 3x 4 + 3x 5 + 3x 6 + ⋯)
1−x

+3x(3 + 3x + 3x 2 + 3x 3 + 3x 4 + 3x 5 + 3x 6 + ⋯)

9x 2
+ (3 + 3x + 3x 2 + 3x 3 + 3x 4 + 3x 5 + 3x 6 + ⋯)
2

9x 3
+ (3 + 3x + 3x 2 + 3x 3 + 3x 4 + 3x 5 + 3x 6 + ⋯)
2

27x 4
+ (3 + 3x + 3x 2 + 3x 3 + 3x 4 + 3x 5 + 3x 6 + ⋯)
8

81x 5
+ (3 + 3x + 3x 2 + 3x 3 + 3x 4 + 3x 5 + 3x 6 + ⋯)
40

3x 3
e ⋅ = 3 + 3x + 3x 2 + 3x 3 + 3x 4 + 3x 5 + 3x 6 + ⋯
1−x

+9x + 9x 2 + 9x 3 + 9x 4 + 9x 5 + 9x 6 + 9x 7 + ⋯

27x 2 27x 3 27x 4 27x 5 27x 6 27x 7 27x 8

+ + + + + + + +⋯
2 2 2 2 2 2 2

27x 3 27x 4 27x 5 27x 6 27x 7 27x 8 27x 9

+ + + + + + + +⋯
2 2 2 2 2 2 2

81x 4 81x 5 81x 6 81x 7 81x 8 81x 9 81x 10

+ + + + + + + +⋯
8 8 8 8 8 8 8

893
 243x 5 243x 6 243x 7 243x 8 243x 9 243x 10 243x 11
+ + + + + + + +⋯
40 40 40 40 40 40 40

To get the first four non-zero terms, we only need terms through x 3.
2 3 3
3 27x 27x 27x
e 3x ⋅ = 3 + 3x + 9x + 3x 2 + 9x 2 + + 3x 3 + 9x 3 + +
1−x 2 2 2
2
3 51x
e 3x ⋅ = 3 + 12x + + 39x 3
1−x 2

894
POWER SERIES DIVISION

1. Use power series division to find the first four non-zero terms of the
Maclaurin series.

e 3x
y= 2
x

Solution:

Start with the common series

x x x2 x3
e =1+ + + + ...
1! 2! 3!

Substitute 3x for x.

3x 3x (3x)2 (3x)3
e =1+ + + + ...
1! 2! 3!
2 3
3x 9x 27x
e 3x = 1 + + + + ...
1! 2! 3!

Divide through by x 2.

e 3x 1 3x 9x 2 27x 3
= 2+ + + + ...
x 2 x 1!x 2 2!x 2 3!x 2

e 3x 1 3 9 9x
= 2+ + + + ...
x2 x x 2 2

895
 2. Use power series division to find the first four non-zero terms of the
Maclaurin series.

6x
y=
ln(1 + 6x)

Solution:

Start with the common series

x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7
ln(1 + x) = x − + − + − + −⋯
2 3 4 5 6 7

Substitute 6x for x.

(6x)2 (6x)3 (6x)4 (6x)5 (6x)6 (6x)7

ln(1 + 6x) = 6x − + − + − + −⋯
2 3 4 5 6 7

36x 2 216x 3 1,296x 4 7,776x 5 46,656x 6

ln(1 + 6x) = 6x − + − + − +⋯
2 3 4 5 6

ln(1 + 6x) = 6x − 18x 2 + 72x 3 − 324x 4 + 1,552.2x 5 − 7,776x 6 + ⋯

Divide through by 6x.

6x 6x 6x 6x 6x 60x 6x
= − + − + − +⋯
ln(1 + 6x) 6x 18x 2 72x 3 324x 4 15,522x 5 7,776x 6

6x 1 1 1 10 1
=1− + − + − +⋯
ln(1 + 6x) 3x 12x 2 54x 3 2587x 4 1,296x 5

896
To get the first four non-zero terms, we only need

6x 1 1 1
=1− + −
ln(1 + 6x) 3x 12x 2 54x 3

3. Use power series division to find the first four non-zero terms of the
Maclaurin series.

cos(2x)
y=
2x 3

Solution:

Start with the common series

x2 x4 x6 x8
cos x = 1 − + − + −⋯
2! 4! 6! 8!

Substitute 2x for x.

(2x)2 (2x)4 (2x)6 (2x)8

cos(2x) = 1 − + − + −⋯
2! 4! 6! 8!

4x 2 16x 4 64x 6 256x 8

cos(2x) = 1 − + − + −⋯
2! 4! 6! 8!

Divide through by 2x 3.

cos(2x) 1 4x 2 16x 4 64x 6 256x 8

= 3− + − + − ...
2x 3 2x 2!2x 3 4!2x 3 6!2x 3 8!2x 3

897
 cos(2x) 1 4x 2 16x 4 64x 6 256x 8
= 3− 3+ − + − ...
2x 3 2x 4x 48x 3 1,440x 3 80,640x 3

cos(2x) 1 1 x 2x 3 x5
= 3− + − + − ...
2x 3 2x x 3 45 315

To get the first four non-zero terms, we only need

cos(2x) 1 1 x 2x 3
= 3− + −
2x 3 2x x 3 45

4. Use power series division to find the first four non-zero terms of the
Maclaurin series.

sin(3x)
y=
3x 2

Solution:

Start with the common series

x3 x5 x7 x9
sin x = x − + − + −⋯
3! 5! 7! 9!

Substitute 3x for x.

(3x)3 (3x)5 (3x)7 (3x)9

sin(3x) = 3x − + − + −⋯
3! 5! 7! 9!

27x 3 243x 5 2,187x 7 19,683x 9

sin(3x) = 3x − + − + −⋯
6 120 5,040 362,880

898
 9x 3 81x 5 243x 7 243x 9
sin(3x) = 3x − + − + −⋯
2 40 560 4,480

Divide this series by 3x 2.

sin(3x) 3x 9x 3 81x 5 243x 7 243x 9

= 2− + − + −⋯
3x 2 3x 2(3x ) 40(3x ) 560(3x ) 4,480(3x )
2 2 2 2

sin(3x) −1 3 27 3 81 5 81 7
= x − x + x − x + x −⋯
3x 2 2 40 560 4,480

To get the first four non-zero terms, we only need

sin(3x) −1 3 27 3 81 5
= x − x + x − x + ...
3x 2 2 40 560

5. Use power series division to find the first four non-zero terms of the
Maclaurin series.

arctan(4x)
y=
4x 2

Solution:

Start with the common series

x3 x5 x7 x9
arctan x = x − + − + −⋯
3 5 7 9

Substitute 4x for x.

899
 (4x)3 (4x)5 (4x)7 (4x)9
arctan(4x) = 4x − + − + −⋯
3 5 7 9

64x 3 1,024x 5 16,384x 7 262,144x 9

arctan(4x) = 4x − + − + −⋯
3 5 7 9

Divide through by 4x 2.

arctan(4x) 4x 64x 3 1,024x 5 16,384x 7 262,144x 9

= 2− + − + −⋯
4x 2 4x 3(4x )
2 5(4x )
2 7(4x )
2 9(4x )
2

arctan(4x) 1 16x 256x 3 4,096x 5 65,536x 7

= − + − + −⋯
4x 2 x 3 5 7 9

To get the first four non-zero terms, we only need

arctan(4x) 1 16x 256x 3 4,096x 5

= − + − +⋯
4x 2 x 3 5 7

900
POWER SERIES DIFFERENTIATION

1. Differentiate to find the power series representation of the function.

5
f (x) =
(3 − x)2

Solution:

Integrate the given function using u-substitution.

5
∫ (3 − x)2
dx

u =3−x

du = − d x

d x = − du

5 5
∫ (3 − x)2 ∫ u2 ∫
−2
d x = (−du) = − 5u du

−5u −1 5 5
+C = +C = +C
−1 u 3−x

Starting with the standard form of a power series,

∞
1
= 1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 + x5 + ⋯ = xn
1−x ∑
n=0

901
find the series that represents the integrated function.

1 5
=
1−x 3−x

1 1
= (5)
1−x 3−x

1 1
= (5)
1−x 3 (1 − 3x )

1 − x (3) 1 −
1 5 1
= x
3

The power series representation of this is

(3) ∑ 3(3)
n n
5 ∞ x ∞
5 x ∞
51 ⋅ x n ∞
5x n
3∑ ∑ 31 ⋅ 3n ∑ 3n+1
= = =
n=0 n=0 n=0 n=0

So the integrated function can be written as

3 − x 3 3 (3) 3(3) 3(3) 3(3) 3(3)

2 3 ∞ 4 5
5 5 5 x 5 x 5 x 5 x 5 x 5x n
∑ 3n+1
= + + + + + + ⋯=
n=0

∞
5 5 5x 5x 2 5x 3 5x 4 5x 5 5x n
∑ 3n+1
= + + + + + + ⋯=
3−x 3 9 27 81 243 729 n=0

Now differentiate this entire equation, include the function on the left, the
terms in the middle, and the series on the right.
∞
(3 − x)(0) − 5(−1) 5 10x 15x 2 20x 3 25x 4 5n x n−1
∑ 3n+1
= + + + + +⋯=
(3 − x)2 9 27 81 243 729 n=0

902
 ∞
5 5 10x 15x 2 20x 3 25x 4 5n x n−1
∑ 3n+1
= + + + + +⋯=
(3 − x) 2 9 27 81 243 729 n=0

So the power series representation of the original function is

∞
5 5n x n−1
∑ 3n+1
2
=
(3 − x) n=0

When n = 0,

5(0)x 0−1 0
= =0
3 0+1 3x

so we can start the index at n = 1 instead of n = 0, without changing the

value of the series.
∞
5 5n x n−1
∑ 3n+1
2
=
(3 − x) n=1

2. Differentiate to find the power series representation of the function.

3
f (x) =
(4 + x)2

Solution:

Integrate the given function using u-substitution.

903
 3
∫ (4 + x)2
dx

u =4+x

du = d x

d x = du

3 3
∫ (4 + x)2 ∫ u2 ∫
−2
d x = du = 3u du

3u −1 3 3
+C =− +C =− +C
−1 u 4+x

Starting with the standard form of a power series,

∞
1
= 1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 + x5 + ⋯ = xn
1−x ∑
n=0

find the series that represents the integrated function.

1 3
=−
1−x 4+x

1 3
=−
1−x 4 − (−x)

1 1
= (−3)
1−x 4 (1 − (− 4x ))

1 1
= (−3)
1−x 4 (1 − (− 4x ))

904
 1 − x ( 4) 1 − −x
1 3 1
= −
( 4)

The power series representation of this is

( ) ( )
n n
3 ∞ x ∞
3 x ∞
−31 ⋅ (−1)n x n ∞
(−1)n+13x n
∑ ∑ ∑ ∑
− − = − − = =
4 n=0 4 n=0
4 4 n=0
4 1 ⋅ 4 n
n=0
4 n+1

So the original function can be written as

( 4) ( 4) ( 4) ( 4) ( 4)
2 3 4 5

4( )
3 3 x x x x x
− =− 1+ − + − + − + − + − +⋯
4+x

∞
(−1)n+13x n
∑
=
n=0
4 n+1

4( )
3 3 x x2 x3 x4 x5
− =− 1− + − + − +⋯
4+x 4 16 64 256 1,024

∞
(−1)n+13x n
∑
=
n=0
4 n+1

4 + x ( 4 ) 4 ( 4 ) 16 ( 4 ) 64 ( 4 ) 256 ( 4 ) 1,024 ( 4 )
3 3 x 3 x2 3 x3 3 x4 3 x5 3
− = − − − + − − − + − − − +⋯

∞
(−1)n+13x n
∑
=
n=0
4 n+1

3 3 3x 3x 2 3x 3 3x 4 3x 5
− =− + − + − + −⋯
4+x 4 16 64 256 1,024 4,096

905
 ∞
(−1)n+13x n
∑
=
n=0
4 n+1

Now differentiate this entire equation, include the function on the left, the
terms in the middle, and the series on the right.
∞
(4 + x)(0) − 3(1) 3 6x 9x 2 12x 3 15x 4 (−1)n+13n x n−1
∑
− = − + − + −⋯=
(4 + x)2 16 64 256 1,024 4,096 n=0
4n+1

∞
3 3 6x 9x 2 12x 3 15x 4 (−1)n+13n x n−1
∑
= − + − + −⋯=
(4 + x) 2 16 64 256 1,024 4,096 n=0
4 n+1

So the power series representation of the original function is

∞
3 (−1)n+13n x n−1
∑
=
(4 + x) 2
n=0
4 n+1

∞
3 (−1)n+1+13(n + 1)x n+1−1
∑
=
(4 + x) 2
n+1=0
4 n+1+1

∞
3 (−1)n+23(n + 1)x n
∑
=
(4 + x) 2
n=−1
4n+2

If we plug in n = − 1, the start of the new index, we get a zero value

because of the n + 1 factor in the numerator. Which means we can start
the index at n = 0 instead.
∞
3 (−1)n+23(n + 1)x n
∑
=
(4 + x) 2
n=0
4n+2

906
 3. Differentiate to find the power series representation of the function.

1
f (x) =
(−5 − x)2

Solution:

Integrate the given function using u-substitution.

1
∫ (−5 − x)2
dx

u =−5−x

du = − d x

d x = − du

1 1
∫ (−5 − x)2 ∫ u2 ∫
−2
d x = (−du) = − u du

u −1 1 1
− +C = +C = +C
−1 u −5 − x

Starting with the standard form of a power series,

∞
1
= 1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 + x5 + ⋯ = xn
1−x ∑
n=0

find the series that represents the integrated function.

907
 1 1
=
1 − x −5 − x

1 3
=−
1−x 1 − (6 + x)

The power series representation of this is

∞
(x + 6)n
∑
n=0

So the original function can be written as

∞
1 2 3 4 5
(x + 6)n
∑
= 1 + (x + 6) + (x + 6) + (x + 6) + (x + 6) + (x + 6) + ⋯ =
1 − (x + 6) n=0

∞
1 2 3 4 5
(x + 6)n
∑
= 1 + (x + 6) + (x + 6) + (x + 6) + (x + 6) + (x + 6) + ⋯ =
−5 − x n=0

Now differentiate this entire equation, include the function on the left, the
terms in the middle, and the series on the right.
∞
(−5 − x)(0) − 1(−1) 2 3 4
n(x + 6)n−1
∑
2
= 1 + 2(x + 6) + 3(x + 6) + 4(x + 6) + 5(x + 6) + ⋯ =
(−5 − x) n=0

∞
1
= 1 + 2(x + 6) + 3(x + 6)2 + 4(x + 6)3 + 5(x + 6)4 + ⋯ = n(x + 6)n−1
(−5 − x)2 ∑
n=0

So the power series representation of the original function is

∞
1
n(x + 6)n−1
∑
=
(−5 − x)2 n=0

908
 ∞
1
(n + 1)(x + 6)n+1−1
∑
=
(−5 − x)2 n+1=0

∞
1
(n + 1)(x + 6)n
∑
=
(−5 − x)2 n=−1

4. Differentiate to find the power series representation of the function.

3
f (x) =
(6 − 3x)2

Solution:

Integrate the given function using u-substitution.

3
∫ (6 − 3x)2
dx

u = 6 − 3x

du = − 3d x

du
dx = −
3

∫ u2 ( 3 )
3 3 du
∫ (6 − 3x)2 ∫
−2
dx = − = − u du

u −1 1 1
− +C = +C = +C
−1 u 6 − 3x

909
Starting with the standard form of a power series,
∞
1
= 1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 + x5 + ⋯ = xn
1−x ∑
n=0

find the series that represents the integrated function.

1 1
=
1 − x 6 − 3x

1 1
=
( 2)
1−x 6 1− x

1 1 1
= ⋅ x
1−x 6 1− 2

The power series representation of this is

(2) ∑ 6 (2)
n n
1 ∞ x ∞
1 x
6∑
=
n=0 n=0

So the original function can be written as

2 (2) (2) (2) (2) 6 (2)

2 3 ∞ 4 5 n

6 − 3x 6 ( ) ∑
1 1 x x x x x 1 x
= 1+ + + + + + ... =
n=0

6 (2)
∞ n

6 − 3x 6 ( ) ∑
1 1 x x2 x3 x4 x5 1 x
= 1+ + + + + + ... =
2 4 8 16 32 n=0

∑ 6 (2)
∞ n
1 1 x x2 x3 x4 x5 1 x
= + + + + + + ... =
6 − 3x 6 12 24 48 96 192 n=0

910
Now differentiate this entire equation, including the function on the left,
the terms in the middle, and the series on the right.

∑ 6 (2)
∞ n−1
(0)(6 − 3x) − (1)(−3) 1 x x2 x3 5x 4 1 x 1
= + + + + + . . . = n ⋅
(6 − 3x)2 12 12 16 24 192 n=0
2

∑ 12 ( 2 )
∞ n−1
3 1 x x2 x3 5x 4 n x
= + + + + + . . . =
(6 − 3x)2 12 12 16 24 192 n=0

So the power series representation of the original function is

∑ 12 ( 2 )
∞ n−1
3 n x
2
=
(6 − 3x) n=0

5. Differentiate to find the power series representation of the function.

2
f (x) =
(1 − 2x)2

Solution:

Integrate the given function using u-substitution.

2
∫ (1 − 2x)2
dx

u = 1 − 2x

911
 du = − 2d x

du
dx = −
2

∫ u2 ( 2 )
2 2 du
∫ (1 − 2x)2 ∫
−2
dx = − = − u du

u −1 1 1
− +C = +C = +C
−1 u 1 − 2x

Starting with the standard form of a power series,

∞
1 2 3 4 5
xn
∑
=1+x+x +x +x +x + ⋯=
1−x n=0

find the series that represents the integrated function.

1 1
=
1 − x 1 − 2x

The power series representation of this is

∞
(2x)n
∑
n=0

So the original function can be written as

∞
1 2 3 4 5
(2x)n
∑
= 1 + (2x) + (2x) + (2x) + (2x) + (2x) + ⋯ =
1 − 2x n=0

∞
1 2 3 4 5
(2x)n
∑
= 1 + 2x + 4x + 8x + 16x + 32x + ⋯ =
1 − 2x n=0

912
Now differentiate this entire equation, include the function on the left, the
terms in the middle, and the series on the right.
∞
(1 − 2x)(0) − 1(−2)
= 2 + 8x + 24x 2 + 64x 3 + 160x 4 + ⋯ = n(2x)n−1 ⋅ 2
(1 − 2x)2 ∑
n=0

∞
1 2 3 4
2n(2x)n−1
∑
= 2 + 8x + 24x + 64x + 160x + ⋯ =
(1 − 2x)2 n=0

So the power series representation of the original function is

∞
2
4n(2x)n−1
∑
=
(1 − 2x)2 n=0

∞
2
4(n + 1)(2x)n+1−1
∑
=
(1 − 2x)2 n+1=0

∞
2
4(n + 1)(2x)n
∑
=
(1 − 2x)2 n=−1

913
RADIUS OF CONVERGENCE

1. Find the radius of convergence of the series.

∞
(−1)n x 2n
∑ 4 ⋅ 22n
n=0

Solution:

Apply the ratio test.

an+1
L = lim
n→∞ an

(−1)n+1x 2(n+1)
4 ⋅ 22(n+1)
L = lim
n→∞ (−1)n x 2n
4 ⋅ 22n

x 2(n+1)
4 ⋅ 22(n+1)
L = lim
n→∞ x 2n
4 ⋅ 22n

x 2n+2 4 ⋅ 22n
L = lim ⋅ 2n
n→∞ 4 ⋅ 22n+2 x

x2 1
L = lim ⋅
n→∞ 2 1
2

914
 x2
L = lim
n→∞ 22

x2
L=
4

Then the interval of convergence is given by the inequality

x2
<1
4

x2 < 4

−2 < x < 2

The interval of convergence spans −2 to 2, which is 4 units wide. The

radius of convergence will be half that, so the radius of convergence is 2.

2. Find the radius of convergence of the series.

∞
(−1)n x 2n+1
∑ (2n + 1)!
n=0

Solution:

Apply the ratio test.

an+1
L = lim
n→∞ an

915
 (−1)n+1x 2(n+1)+1
(2(n + 1) + 1)!
L = lim
n→∞ (−1)n x 2n+1
(2n + 1)!

x 2n+3
(2n + 3)!
L = lim
n→∞ x 2n+1
(2n + 1)!

x 2n+3 (2n + 1)!

L = lim ⋅
n→∞ (2n + 3)! x 2n+1

x2 (2n + 1)!
L = lim ⋅
n→∞ (2n + 3)(2n + 2)(2n + 1)! 1

x2 1
L = lim ⋅
n→∞ (2n + 3)(2n + 2) 1

2 1
L = x lim
n→∞ (2n + 3)(2n + 2)

L = x2 ⋅ 0

L=0

The series converges if L < 1 and diverges if L > 1, which means the series
converges everywhere, so the interval of convergence is ∞, and the radius
of convergence is, too.

916
 3. Find the radius of convergence of the series.
∞
xn
∑n+4
n=0

Solution:

Apply the ratio test.

an+1
L = lim
n→∞ an

x n+1
n+1+4
L = lim xn
n→∞
n+4

x n+1
n+5
L = lim xn
n→∞
n+4

x n+1 n + 4
L = lim ⋅ n
n→∞ n+5 x

x n+4
L = lim ⋅
n→∞ n+5 1

n+4
L = x lim
n→∞ n+5

917
 L = x ⋅1

L= x

Then the interval of convergence is given by the inequality

x <1

−1 < x < 1

The interval of convergence spans −1 to 1, which is 2 units wide. The

radius of convergence will be half that, so the radius of convergence is 1.

4. Find the radius of convergence of the series.

∞
3n(x + 2)n
∑ n!
n=0

Solution:

Apply the ratio test.

an+1
L = lim
n→∞ an

3n+1(x + 2)n+1
(n + 1)!
L = lim
n→∞ 3n(x + 2)n
n!

918
 3n+1(x + 2)n+1 n!
L = lim ⋅ n
n→∞ (n + 1)! 3 (x + 2)n

3(x + 2) n!
L = lim ⋅
n→∞ (n + 1)n! 1

3(x + 2) 1
L = lim ⋅
n→∞ (n + 1) 1

1
L = 3(x + 2) lim
n→∞ n+1

L = 3(x + 2) ⋅ 0

L=0

The series converges if L < 1 and diverges if L > 1, which means the series
converges everywhere, so the interval of convergence is ∞, and the radius
of convergence is, too.

5. Find the radius of convergence of the series.

∞
3n(x + 2)n
∑ n+1
n=0

Solution:

919
Apply the ratio test.

an+1
L = lim
n→∞ an

3n+1(x + 2)n+1
n+1+1
L = lim
n→∞ 3n(x + 2)n
n+1

3n+1(x + 2)n+1 n+1

L = lim ⋅ n
n→∞ n+2 3 (x + 2)n

3(x + 2) n + 1
L = lim ⋅
n→∞ n+2 1

n+1
L = 3(x + 2) lim
n→∞ n+2

L = 3(x + 2) ⋅ 1

L = 3(x + 2)

Then the interval of convergence is given by the inequality

3(x + 2) < 1

−1 < 3(x + 2) < 1

1 1
− < x+2<
3 3

920
 7 5
− < x+2<−
3 3

The interval of convergence spans −7/3 to −5/3, which is 2/3 units wide.
The radius of convergence will be half that, so the radius of convergence is
1/3.

921
INTERVAL OF CONVERGENCE

1. Find the interval of convergence of the series.

∞
(−1)n x 2n+1
∑ 2n + 1
n=0

Solution:

Apply the ratio test.

an+1
L = lim
n→∞ an

(−1)n+1x 2(n+1)+1
2(n + 1) + 1
L = lim
n→∞ (−1)n x 2n+1
2n + 1

x 2n+3
2n + 3
L = lim
n→∞ x 2n+1
2n + 1

x 2n+3 2n + 1
L = lim ⋅ 2n+1
n→∞ 2n + 3 x

x2 2n + 1
L = lim ⋅
n→∞ 2n + 3 1

922
 2n + 1
L = x 2 lim
n→∞ 2n + 3

L = x2 ⋅ 1

L = x2

Then the interval of convergence is given by the inequality

x2 < 1

−1 < x < 1

Check the endpoints of the interval.

At x = − 1,

(−1)n(−1)2n+1 (−1)3n+1
lim = lim
n→∞ 2n + 1 n→∞ 2n + 1

This converges by the alternating series test.

At x = 1,

(−1)n(1)2n+1 (−1)n
lim = lim
n→∞ 2n + 1 n→∞ 2n + 1

This converges by the alternating series test.

So the interval of convergence is

−1 ≤ x ≤ 1

923
 2. Find the interval of convergence of the series.
∞
(−1)n(x − 3)n
∑ n+1
n=0

Solution:

Apply the ratio test.

an+1
L = lim
n→∞ an

(−1)n+1(x − 3)n+1
n+1+1
L = lim
n→∞ (−1)n(x − 3)n
n+1

(x − 3)n+1
n+2
L = lim
n→∞ (x − 3)n
n+1

(x − 3)n+1 n + 1
L = lim ⋅
n→∞ n+2 (x − 3)n

x−3 n+1
L = lim ⋅
n→∞ n+2 1

n+1
L = x − 3 lim
n→∞ n+2

924
 L = x−3 ⋅1

L = x−3

Then the interval of convergence is given by the inequality

x−3 <1

−1 < x − 3 < 1

2<x<4

Check the endpoints of the interval.

At x = 2,

(−1)n(2 − 3)n (−1)n(−1)n (−1)2n 1

lim = lim = lim = lim
n→∞ n+1 n→∞ n+1 n→∞ n + 1 n→∞ n + 1

This is a harmonic series that diverges.

At x = 4,

(−1)n(4 − 3)n (−1)n(1)n (−1)n

lim = lim = lim
n→∞ n+1 n→∞ n+1 n→∞ n + 1

This converges by the alternating series test.

So the interval of convergence is

2<x≤4

925
ESTIMATING DEFINITE INTEGRALS

1. Evaluate the definite integral as a power series, using the first four
terms.
2
24
∫0 x 2 + 4
dx

Solution:

Rewrite the integral.

2 2 2 2 1
24 1 1
∫0 x 2 + 4 ∫0 x 2 + 4 ∫0 x 2 + 22 ∫0
4
d x = 24 d x = 24 d x = 24 dx
(2)
2
x
+1

Integrate, then evaluate over the interval.

(2) (2) (4)

2
24 x 2 π
arctan = 12 arctan = 12 arctan 1 = 12 = 3π
2 0

Write the original function in the same format as the common series.

1 24
=
1 + x x2 + 4

1 1
= (24) 2
1+x x +4

926
 1 1
= (24)

( )
1+x
4 (2)
2
x
+1

1 1
= (6)
(2)
1+x x
2
+1

Substitute into the common series.

∞
1
(−1)n x n
1+x ∑
=
n=0

(2)
∞ ∞ 2n
2n
24 n x nx
∑ ∑
=6 (−1) = 6(−1) 2n
x2 + 4 n=0 n=0
2

Now integrate this series, then evaluate over the interval.

2 2n
nx
∫0
6(−1) dx
22n

6(−1)n 2 2n
22n ∫0
x dx

2
6(−1)n x 2n+1
⋅
2 2n 2n + 1 0

6(−1)n 22n+1
⋅
2 2n 2n + 1

6(−1)n 02n+1
⋅
2 2n 2n + 1

927
 6(−1)n 22n+1
⋅
22n 2n + 1

6(−1)n 2
⋅
1 2n + 1

12(−1)n
2n + 1

Then we can set up an equation with the integral and the new series.
2 ∞
24 12(−1)n
∫0 x 2 + 4 ∑ 2n + 1
dx =
n=0

2
24 12(−1)0 12(−1)1 12(−1)2 12(−1)3
∫0 x 2 + 4
dx = + + + + ...
2(0) + 1 2(1) + 1 2(2) + 1 2(3) + 1

2
24
∫0 x 2 + 4
d x = 12 − 4 + 2.4 − 1.714 + 1.333

Using the first four terms of the series,

2
24
∫0 x 2 + 4
d x ≈ 12 − 4 + 2.4 − 1.714 ≈ 8.686

2. Evaluate the definite integral as a power series, using the first four
terms.
1

∫0
3x cos(x 3) d x

928
Solution:

Rework the common series so that it matches the integrand. First

substitute x 3 for x.
∞
(−1)n x 2n
∑ (2n)!
cos x =
n=0

∞ 2n
3 (−1)n(x 3)
∑ (2n)!
cos(x ) =
n=0

∞ n 6n
3 (−1) x
∑ (2n)!
cos(x ) =
n=0

Multiply by 3x.

∞ n 3 2n
3x(−1) (x )
3x cos(x 3) =
∑ (2n)!
n=0

∞
3 3(−1)n x 6n+1
∑
3x cos(x ) =
n=0
(2n)!

Now integrate this series, then evaluate over the interval.

1
3(−1)n x 6n+1
∫0
dx
(2n)!

3(−1)n 1 6n+1
(2n)! ∫0
x dx

929
 1
3(−1)n x 6n+2
⋅
(2n)! 6n + 2 0

3(−1)n 16n+2 3(−1)n 06n+2

⋅ − ⋅
(2n)! 6n + 2 (2n)! 6n + 2

3(−1)n
(2n)!(6n + 2)

Then we can set up an equation with the integral and the new series.
1 ∞
3(−1)n
∫0
3
∑ (2n)!(6n + 2)
3x cos(x ) d x =
n=0

1
3(−1)0 3(−1)1
∫0
3
3x cos(x ) d x = +
(2 ⋅ 0)!(6(0) + 2) (2 ⋅ 1)!(6(1) + 2)

3(−1)2 3(−1)3
+ + + ...
(2 ⋅ 2)!(6(2) + 2) (2 ⋅ 3)!(6(3) + 2)

∫0
3x cos(x 3) d x ≈ 1.5 − 0.1875 + 0.00893 − 0.000208

Using the first four terms of the series,

1

∫0
3x cos(x 3) d x ≈ 1.5 − 0.1875 + 0.00893 − 0.000208 ≈ 1.321222

3. Evaluate the definite integral as a power series, using the first four
terms.

930
 1

∫0
2
4e x d x

Solution:

Rework the common series so that it matches the integrand. First

substitute x 2 for x.
n ∞
x
ex =
∑ n!
n=0

2∞ n
2 (x )
ex =
∑ n!
n=0

2 ∞ n
2 x
ex =
∑ n!
n=0

Multiply by 4.

2∞ ∞ n
2n
2 (x ) 4x
4e x = 4
∑ n! ∑ n!
=
n=0 n=0

Now integrate this series, then evaluate over the interval.

n
4x 2 4
∫ n! n! ∫
dx = x 2n d x

1
4 x 2n+1
⋅
n! 2n + 1 0

931
 4 12n+1 4 02n+1
⋅ − ⋅
n! 2n + 1 n! 2n + 1

4
n!(2n + 1)

Then we can set up an equation with the integral and the new series.
1 ∞
4
∫0
x2
∑ n!(2n + 1)
4e dx =
n=0

1
4 4 4
∫0
2
4e x d x = + +
0!(2(0) + 1) 1!(2(1) + 1) 2!(2(2) + 1)

4 4
+ + + ...
3!(2(3) + 1) 4!(2(4) + 1)

∫0
2
4e x d x ≈ 4 + 1.3333 + 0.4 + 0.0953 + 0.01852 + . . .

Using the first four terms of the series,

1

∫0
2
4e x d x ≈ 4 + 1.3333 + 0.4 + 0.0953 + 0.01852 ≈ 5.84712

932
ESTIMATING INDEFINITE INTEGRALS

1. Evaluate the indefinite integral as a power series.

∫
x 2 sin(x 2) d x

Solution:

Start with a common series, substitute x 2 for x,

∞
(−1)n x 2n+1
∑ (2n + 1)!
sin x =
n=0

∞ 2n+1
2 (−1)n(x 2)
∑ (2n + 1)!
sin x =
n=0

∞ n 4n+2
2 (−1) x
∑ (2n + 1)!
sin x =
n=0

and then multiply by x 2.

∞ n 2 2n+1
(−1) (x )
x 2 sin x 2 = x 2
∑ (2n + 1)!
n=0

∞
2 2 (−1)n x 2 ⋅ x 4n+2
∑ (2n + 1)!
x sin x =
n=0

933
 ∞
2 2 (−1)n x 4n+4
∑ (2n + 1)!
x sin x =
n=0

Integrate this series.

(−1)n x 4n+4
∫ (2n + 1)!
dx

(−1)n
(2n + 1)! ∫
x 4n+4 d x

(−1)n x 4n+5
⋅ +C
(2n + 1)! 4n + 5

(−1)n x 4n+5
+C
(4n + 5)(2n + 1)!

(−1)n x 4n+5
(4n + 5)(2n + 1)!

So this is the value of the integral, integrated as a power series.

∞ n 4n+5
(−1) x
∫
2 2
∑ (4n + 5)(2n + 1)!
x sin(x ) d x =
n=0

2. Evaluate the indefinite integral as a power series.

∫
ln(1 + 2x) d x

934
Solution:

Start with a common series, substitute 2x for x.

∞
x2 x3 x4 x5 (−1)n−1x n
∑
ln(1 + x) = x − + − + −⋯=
2 3 4 5 n=1
n

∞
(2x)2 (2x)3 (2x)4 (2x)5 (−1)n−1(2x)n
∑
ln(1 + 2x) = 2x − + − + −⋯=
2 3 4 5 n=1
n

∞
4x 2 8x 3 16x 4 32x 5 (−1)n−12n x n
∑
ln(1 + 2x) = 2x − + − + −⋯=
2 3 4 5 n=1
n

Integrate this series.

(−1)n−12n x n
∫
dx
n

(−1)n−12n n
∫
x dx
n

(n + 1)
(−1)n−12n x n+1
+C
n

(−1)n−12n x n+1
+C
n(n + 1)

So this is the value of the integral, integrated as a power series.

∞
(−1)n−12n x n+1
∫ ∑ n(n + 1)
ln(1 + 2x) d x =
n=1

935
 3. Evaluate the indefinite integral as a power series.

∫
x 2 cos(x 3) d x

Solution:

Start with a common series, substitute x 3 for x,

∞
(−1)n x 2n
∑ (2n)!
cos x =
n=0

∞ 2n
3 (−1)n(x 3)
∑ (2n)!
cos x =
n=0

∞ n 6n
3 (−1) x
∑ (2n)!
cos x =
n=0

and then multiply by x 2.

∞ n 6n
(−1) x
x 2 cos x 3 = x 2
∑ (2n)!
n=0

∞
2 3 (−1)n x 6n+2
∑ (2n)!
x cos x =
n=0

Integrate this series.

936
 (−1)n x 6n+2
∫
dx
(2n)!

(−1)n 6n+2
∫
x dx
(2n)!

(−1)n x 6n+3
⋅ +C
(2n)! 6n + 3

(−1)n x 6n+3
+C
(2n)!(6n + 3)

(−1)n x 6n+3
(2n)!(6n + 3)

So this is the value of the integral, integrated as a power series.

∞
(−1)n x 6n+3
∫
2 3
∑ (2n)!(6n + 3)
x cos(x ) d x =
n=0

937
BINOMIAL SERIES

1. Use a binomial series to expand the function as a power series.

f (x) = (3 + x)5

Solution:

Begin with the binomial series.

∑ (n)
∞
k n k(k − 1) 2
(1 + x)k = x = 1 + kx + x
n=0
2!

k(k − 1)(k − 2) 3 k(k − 1)(k − 2)(k − 3) 4

+ x + x + ...
3! 4!

Replace x with x + 2 and k with 5.

∑ (n)
∞
k n k(x + 2) k(k − 1)
(1 + x + 2)k = x =1+ + (x + 2)2
n=0
1! 2!

k(k − 1)(k − 2) k(k − 1)(k − 2)(k − 3)

+ (x + 2)3 + (x + 2)4 + . . .
3! 4!

∑ (n)
∞
5 5 n 1 0 5 1 5(5 − 1)
(3 + x) = x = (x + 2) + (x + 2) + (x + 2)2
n=0
0! 1! 2!

5(5 − 1)(5 − 2) 3 5(5 − 1)(5 − 2)(5 − 3)

+ (x + 2) + (x + 2)4 + . . .
3! 4!

938
Simplify the right side.

∑ (n)
∞
5 5 n 1 0 5 1 5(4)
(3 + x) = x = (x + 2) + (x + 2) + (x + 2)2
n=0
0! 1! 2!

5(4)(3) 5(4)(3)(2)
+ (x + 2)3 + (x + 2)4 + . . .
3! 4!

Match the terms to their corresponding n-values.

1
n=0 (x + 2)0
0!

5
n=1 (x + 2)1
1!

5(4)
n=2 (x + 2)2
2!

5(4)(3)
n=3 (x + 2)3
3!

5(4)(3)(2)
n=4 (x + 2)4
4!

Then the power series is

∞
5 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ . . . ⋅ (6 − n)
(x + 2)n
∑
(3 + x) = 1 +
n=1
n!

2. Use a binomial series to expand the function as a power series.

f (x) = (6 − x)4

939
Solution:

Begin with the binomial series.

∑ (n)
∞
k n k(k − 1) 2
(1 + x)k = x = 1 + kx + x
n=0
2!

k(k − 1)(k − 2) 3 k(k − 1)(k − 2)(k − 3) 4

+ x + x + ...
3! 4!

Replace x with −x − 5 and k with 4.

∑ (n)
∞
k k n k k(k − 1)
(1 + (−x − 5)) = x = 1 + (−x − 5) + (−x − 5)2
n=0
1! 2!

k(k − 1)(k − 2) 3 k(k − 1)(k − 2)(k − 3)

+ (−x − 5) + (−x − 5)4 + . . .
3! 4!

∑ (n)
∞
4 n 1 4 4(4 − 1)
(6 − x)4 = x = (−x − 5)0 + (−x − 5) + (−x − 5)2
n=0
0! 1! 2!

4(4 − 1)(4 − 2) 3 4(4 − 1)(4 − 2)(4 − 3)

+ (−x − 5) + (−x − 5)4 + . . .
3! 4!

Simplify the right side.

∑ (n)
∞
4 4 n 1 4 4(3)
(6 − x) = x = (−x − 5)0 + (−x − 5)1 + (−x − 5)2
n=0
0! 1! 2!

4(3)(2) 4(3)(2)(1)
+ (−x − 5)3 + (−x − 5)4 + . . .
3! 4!

940
Match the terms to their corresponding n-values.

1
n=0 (−x − 5)0
0!

4
n=1 (−x − 5)1
1!

4(3)
n=2 (−x − 5)2
2!

4(3)(2)
n=3 (−x − 5)3
3!

4(3)(2)(1)
n=4 (−x − 5)4
4!

Then the power series is

∞
4 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ . . . ⋅ (5 − n)
(−x − 5)n
∑
(6 − x) = 1 +
n=1
n!

3. Use a binomial series to expand the function as a power series.

f (x) = (−4 + x)5

Solution:

Begin with the binomial series.

941
 ∑ (n)
∞
k k n k(k − 1) 2
(1 + x) = x = 1 + kx + x
n=0
2!

k(k − 1)(k − 2) 3 k(k − 1)(k − 2)(k − 3) 4

+ x + x + ...
3! 4!

Replace x with x − 5 and k with 5.

∑ (n)
∞
k k n k(x + 2) k(k − 1)
(1 + x − 5) = x =1+ + (x − 5)2
n=0
1! 2!

k(k − 1)(k − 2) 3 k(k − 1)(k − 2)(k − 3

+ (x − 5) + (x − 5)4 + . . .
3! 4!

∑ (n)
∞
5 5 n 1 5 5(5 − 1)
(−4 + x) = x = (x − 5)0 + (x − 5)1 + (x − 5)2
n=0
0! 1! 2!

5(5 − 1)(5 − 2) 3 5(5 − 1)(5 − 2)(5 − 3)

+ (x − 5) + (x − 5)4 + . . .
3! 4!

Simplify the right side.

∑ (n)
∞
5 5 n 1 5
(−4 + x) = x = (x − 5)0 + (x − 5)1
n=0
0! 1!

5(4) 5(4)(3) 5(4)(3)(2)

+ (x − 5)2 + (x − 5)3 + (x − 5)4 + . . .
2! 3! 4!

Match the terms to their corresponding n-values.

1
n=0 (x − 5)0
0!

942
 5
n=1 (x − 5)1
1!

5(4)
n=2 (x − 5)2
2!

5(4)(3)
n=3 (x − 5)3
3!

5(4)(3)(2)
n=4 (x − 5)4
4!

Then the power series is

∞
5 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ . . . ⋅ (6 − n)
(x − 5)n
∑
(−4 + x) = 1 +
n=1
n!

4. Use a binomial series to expand the function as a power series.

f (x) = (7 − x)6

Solution:

Begin with the binomial series.

∑ (n)
∞
k k n k(k − 1) 2
(1 + x) = x = 1 + kx + x
n=0
2!

k(k − 1)(k − 2) 3 k(k − 1)(k − 2)(k − 3) 4

+ x + x + ...
3! 4!

943
Replace x with −x + 6 and k with 6.

∑ (n)
∞
k k n k k(k − 1)
(1 + (−x + 6)) = x = 1 + (−x + 6) + (−x + 6)2
n=0
1! 2!

k(k − 1)(k − 2) k(k − 1)(k − 2)(k − 3)

+ (−x + 6)3 + (−x + 6)4 + . . .
3! 4!

∑ (n)
∞
6 6 n 1 0 6 6(6 − 1)
(7 − x) = x = (−x + 6) + (−x + 6) + (−x + 6)2
n=0
0! 1! 2!

6(6 − 1)(6 − 2) 3 6(6 − 1)(6 − 2)(6 − 3)

+ (−x + 6) + (−x + 6)4 + . . .
3! 4!

Simplify the right side.

∑ (n)
∞
6 6 n 1 6 6(5)
(7 − x) = x = (−x + 6)0 + (−x + 6) + (−x + 6)2
n=0
0! 1! 2!

6(5)(4) 3 6(5)(4)(3)
+ (−x + 6) + (−x + 6)4 + . . .
3! 4!

Match the terms to their corresponding n-values.

1
n=0 (−x + 6)0
0!

6
n=1 (−x + 6)1
1!

6(5)
n=2 (−x + 6)2
2!

6(5)(4)
n=3 (−x + 6)3
3!

944
 6(5)(4)(3)
n=4 (−x + 6)4
4!

Then the power series is

∞
6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ . . . ⋅ (7 − n)
(7 − x)6 = 1 + (−x + 6)n
∑ n!
n=1

5. Use a binomial series to expand the function as a power series.

f (x) = (8 + x)7

Solution:

Begin with the binomial series.

∑ (n)
∞
k n k(k − 1) 2
(1 + x)k = x = 1 + kx + x
n=0
2!

k(k − 1)(k − 2) 3 k(k − 1)(k − 2)(k − 3) 4

+ x + x + ...
3! 4!

Replace x with x + 7 and k with 7.

∑ (n)
∞
k k n k k(k − 1)
(1 + x + 7) = x = 1 + (x + 7) + (x + 7)2
n=0
1! 2!

k(k − 1)(k − 2) k(k − 1)(k − 2)(k − 3)

+ (x + 7)3 + (x + 7)4 + . . .
3! 4!

945
 ∑ (n)
∞
7 7 n 1 0 7 1 7(7 − 1)
(8 + x) = x = (x + 7) + (x + 7) + (x + 7)2
n=0
0! 1! 2!

7(7 − 1)(7 − 2) 7(7 − 1)(7 − 2)(7 − 3)

+ (x + 7)3 + (x + 7)4 + . . .
3! 4!

Simplify the right side.

∑ (n)
∞
7 7 n 1 7
(8 + x) = x = (x + 7) + (x + 7)1
0

n=0
0! 1!

7(6) 2 7(6)(5) 3 7(6)(5)(4)

+ (x + 7) + (x + 7) + (x + 7)4 + . . .
2! 3! 4!

Match the terms to their corresponding n-values.

1
n=0 (x + 7)0
0!

7
n=1 (x + 7)1
1!

7(6)
n=2 (x + 7)2
2!

7(6)(5)
n=3 (x + 7)3
3!

7(6)(5)(4)
n=4 (x + 7)4
4!

Then the power series is

∞
7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ . . . ⋅ (8 − n)
(8 + x)7 = 1 + (x + 7)n
∑ n!
n=1

946
 TAYLOR SERIES

1. Find the third-degree Taylor polynomial and use it to approximate f (5).

f (x) = 3 x + 1

n = 3 and a = 3

Solution:

The formula for the Taylor polynomial of f (x) at a is

f′′(a) 2 f′′′(a) 3 f n(a)

f (x) = f (a) + f′(a)(x − a) + (x − a) + (x − a) + ⋯ + (x − a)n
2! 3! n!

Use the original function and the first three derivatives.

1 1
f (x) = 3(x + 1) 2 f (3) = 3(3 + 1) 2 f (3) = 6

3 3 3
f′(x) = f′(3) = f′(3) =
2(x + 1)
1
2 2(3 + 1) 2
1
4

3 3 3
f′′(x) = − f′′(3) = − f′′(3) = −
4(x + 1) 2
3
4(3 + 1) 2
3
32

9 9 9
f′′′(x) = f′′′(3) = f′′′(3) =
8(x + 1) 2
5
8(3 + 1) 2
5
256

So the third-degree Taylor polynomial is

947
























 3 3 9
f (3)(x) = 6 + (x − 3) − (x − 3)2 + (x − 3)3
4 32 ⋅ 2! 256 ⋅ 3!

3 3 3
f (3)(x) = 6 + (x − 3) − (x − 3)2 + (x − 3)3
4 64 512

Use the polynomial to estimate f (5).

3 3 3
f (3)(5) ≈ 6 + (5 − 3) − (5 − 3)2 + (5 − 3)3
4 64 512

(3) 3 3 3
f (5) ≈ 6 + (2) − (4) + (8)
4 64 512

(3) 3 3 3
f (5) ≈ 6 + − +
2 16 64

f (3)(5) ≈ 7.359

2. Find the third-degree Taylor polynomial and use it to approximate f (4).

f (x) = e 2x + 9

n = 3 and a = 2

Solution:

The formula for the Taylor polynomial of f (x) at a is

n
f′′(a) f′′′(a) f (a)
f (x) = f (a) + f′(a)(x − a) + (x − a)2 + (x − a)3 + ⋯ + (x − a)n
2! 3! n!

948






 Use the original function and the first three derivatives.

f (x) = e 2x + 9 f (2) = e 2(2) + 9 f (2) = e 4 + 9

f′(x) = 2e 2x f′(2) = 2e 2(2) f′(2) = 2e 4

f′′(x) = 4e 2x f′′(2) = 4e 2(2) f′′(2) = 4e 4

f′′′(x) = 8e 2x f′′′(2) = 8e 2(2) f′′′(2) = 8e 4

So the third-degree Taylor polynomial is

4 4
4e 8e
f (3)(x) = e 4 + 9 + 2e 4(x − 2) + (x − 2)2 + (x − 2)3
2! 3!

(3) 4 4 4e 4 2 8e 4
f (x) = e + 9 + 2e (x − 2) + (x − 2) + (x − 2)3
2 6

(3) 4 4 4 4e 4 2
f (x) = e + 9 + 2e (x − 2) + 2e (x − 2) + (x − 2)3
3

Use the polynomial to estimate f (4).

(3) 4 4 4 4e 4 2
f (4) = e + 9 + 2e (4 − 2) + 2e (4 − 2) + (4 − 2)3
3

(3) 4 4 4 4 3
4 2
f (4) = e + 9 + 2e (2) + 2e (2) + e (2)
3

32 4
f (3)(4) = e 4 + 9 + 4e 4 + 8e 4 + e
3

f (3)(4) ≈ 1,301.156

949


















 3. Find the fourth-degree Taylor polynomial and use it to approximate
f (π /24).

f (x) = sin(6x) + 5
π
n = 4 and a =
12

Solution:

The formula for the Taylor polynomial of f (x) at a is

f′′(a) 2 f′′′(a) 3 f n(a)

f (x) = f (a) + f′(a)(x − a) + (x − a) + (x − a) + ⋯ + (x − a)n
2! 3! n!

Use the original function and the first four derivatives.

( 12 ) ( 12 ) ( 12 )
π π π
f (x) = sin 6x + 5 f = sin 6 ⋅ +5 f =6

( 12 ) ( 12 ) ( 12 )
π π π
f′(x) = 6 cos 6x f′ = 6 cos 6 ⋅ f′ =0

( 12 ) ( 12 ) ( 12 )
π π π
f′′(x) = − 36 sin 6x f′′ = − 36 sin 6 ⋅ f′′ = − 36

( 12 ) ( 12 ) ( 12 )
π π π
f′′′(x) = − 216 cos 6x f′′′ = − 216 cos 6 ⋅ f′′′ =0

( 12 ) ( 12 ) ( 12 )
π π π
f′′′′(x) = 1,296 sin 6x f′′′′ = 1,296 sin 6 ⋅ f′′′′ = 1,296

950




































So the fourth-degree Taylor polynomial is

( 12 ) 2! ( 12 ) 3! ( 12 ) 4! ( 12 )
2 3 4
(4) π 36 π 0 π 1,296 π
f (x) = 6 + 0 x − − x− + x− + x−

2 ( 12 ) 24 ( 12 )
2 4
36 π 1,296 π
f (4)(x) = 6 + 0 − x− +0+ x−

( 12 ) ( 12 )
2 4
π π
f (4)(x) = 6 + 0 − 18 x − + 0 + 54 x −

( 12 ) ( 12 )
2 4
π π
f (4)(x) = 6 − 18 x − + 54 x −

Use the polynomial to estimate f (π /24).

( 24 ) ( 24 12 ) ( 24 12 )
2 4
(4) π π π π π
f = 6 − 18 − + 54 −

( 24 ) ( 24 ) ( 24 )
2 4
(4) π π π
f = 6 − 18 − + 54 −

( 24 ) ( ) ( 331,776 )
(4) π π2 π4
f = 6 − 18 + 54
576

( 24 )
π
f (4) ≈ 6 − 0.30843 + 0.01585

( 24 )
π
f (4) ≈ 5.707

951
RADIUS AND INTERVAL OF CONVERGENCE OF A TAYLOR SERIES

1. Find the radius of convergence of the Taylor polynomial.

P(3)(x) = 1 + 2(x − 3) + 4(x − 3)2 + 8(x − 3)3

Solution:

Rewrite the Taylor polynomial

f′′(a) 2 f′′′(a) 3 f n(a)

f (x) = f (a) + f′(a)(x − a) + (x − a) + (x − a) + ⋯ + (x − a)n
2! 3! n!

as a power series in the form

∞ ∞
f n(a) n f n−1
(a)
(x − a)n−1
∑ n! ∑ (n − 1)!
f (x) = (x − a) =
n=1 n=0

Rewrite the Taylor polynomial.

P(3)(x) = 1 + 2(x − 3) + 4(x − 3)2 + 8(x − 3)3

P(3)(x) = 1(x − 3)0 + 2(x − 3)1 + 4(x − 3)2 + 8(x − 3)3

P(3)(x) = 20(x − 3)0 + 21(x − 3)1 + 22(x − 3)2 + 23(x − 3)3

Then its power series representation is

∞
P(x) = 20(x − 3)0 + 21(x − 3)1 + 22(x − 3)2 + 23(x − 3)3 + ⋯ = 2n(x − 3)n
∑
n=0

952






Apply the ratio test.

an+1
L = lim
n→∞ an

2n+1(x − 3)n+1
L = lim
n→∞ 2n(x − 3)n

L = lim 2n+1−n(x − 3)n+1−n

n→∞

L = lim 2(x − 3)
n→∞

L = 2(x − 3)

Then set up an inequality.

2(x − 3) < 1

−1 < 2(x − 3) < 1

1 1
− < x−3<
2 2

5 7
<x<
2 2

The interval of convergence spans from 5/2 to 7/2, which is a distance of 1

unit. The radius of convergence is will be half that distance, so the radius
of convergence is 1/2.

953
 2. Find the radius of convergence of the Taylor polynomial.

P(3)(x) = 4 − 4(x − 5) + 16(x − 5)2 − 64(x − 5)3

Solution:

Rewrite the Taylor polynomial

f′′(a) 2 f′′′(a) 3 f n(a)

f (x) = f (a) + f′(a)(x − a) + (x − a) + (x − a) + ⋯ + (x − a)n
2! 3! n!

as a power series in the form

∞ ∞
f n(a) n f n−1(a)
(x − a)n−1
∑ n! ∑ (n − 1)!
f (x) = (x − a) =
n=1 n=0

Rewrite the Taylor polynomial.

P(3)(x) = 4 − 4(x − 5) + 16(x − 5)2 − 64(x − 5)3

P(3)(x) = 41(x − 5)0 − 41(x − 5)1 + 4(4)(x − 5)2 − 4(4)2(x − 5)3

Then its power series representation is

∞
P(x) = 4 − 41(x − 5)1 + 4(4)(x − 5)2 − 4(4)2(x − 5)3 + ⋯ = 4 + (−4)n(x − 5)n
∑
n=1

Apply the ratio test.

an+1
L = lim
n→∞ an

954






 (−4)n+1(x − 5)n+1
L = lim
n→∞ (−4)n(x − 5)n

L = lim (−4)n+1−n(x − 5)n+1−n

n→∞

L = lim (4)(x − 5)
n→∞

L = 4(x − 5)

Then set up an inequality.

4(x − 5) < 1

4x − 20 < 1

−1 < 4x − 20 < 1

19 < 4x < 21

19 21
<x<
4 4

The interval of convergence spans from 19/4 to 21/4, which is a distance of

2/4 = 1/2 unit. The radius of convergence is will be half that distance, so the
radius of convergence is 1/4.

3. Find the radius of convergence of the Taylor polynomial.

1 1 1 1
P(3)(x) = − (x − 4) + (x − 4)2 − (x − 4)3
4 4 8 24

955
Solution:

Rewrite the Taylor polynomial

f′′(a) 2 f′′′(a) 3 f n(a)

f (x) = f (a) + f′(a)(x − a) + (x − a) + (x − a) + ⋯ + (x − a)n
2! 3! n!

as a power series in the form

∞ ∞
f n(a) n f n−1(a)
(x − a)n−1
∑ n! ∑ (n − 1)!
f (x) = (x − a) =
n=1 n=0

Rewrite the Taylor polynomial.

1 1 1 1
P(3)(x) = − (x − 4) + (x − 4) − (x − 4)3
2
4 4 8 24

1 1 1 1
P(3)(x) = (x − 4)0 − (x − 4)1 + (x − 4)2 − (x − 4)3
4⋅1 4⋅1 4⋅2 4⋅6

(−1)0 (−1) 1
(−1) 2
(−1) 3
P(3)(x) = (x − 4)0 + (x − 4)1 + (x − 4)2 + (x − 4)3
4 ⋅ 0! 4 ⋅ 1! 4 ⋅ 2! 4 ⋅ 3!

Then its power series representation is

(−1)0 (−1) 1
(−1) 2
(−1) 3
P(x) = (x − 4)0 + (x − 4)1 + (x − 4)2 + (x − 4)3 + ⋯
4 ⋅ 0! 4 ⋅ 1! 4 ⋅ 2! 4 ⋅ 3!
∞
(−1)n(x − 4)n
∑
P(x) =
n=0
4 ⋅ n!

Apply the ratio test.

956






 an+1
L = lim
n→∞ an

(−1)n+1(x − 4)n+1
4 ⋅ (n + 1)!
L = lim
n→∞ (−1)n(x − 4)n
4 ⋅ n!

(x − 4)n+1
4 ⋅ (n + 1)!
L = lim
n→∞ (x − 4)n
4 ⋅ n!

(x − 4)n+1 4 ⋅ n!
L = lim ⋅
n→∞ 4 ⋅ (n + 1)! (x − 4)n

x−4 n!
L = lim ⋅
n→∞ (n + 1)n! 1

x−4 1
L = lim ⋅
n→∞ (n + 1) 1

1
L = x − 4 lim
n→∞ (n + 1)

L = x−4 ⋅0

L=0

Then set up an inequality.

957
 0<1

This inequality is true everywhere, so the interval of convergence is

infinite, which means the radius of convergence is, too. The radius of
convergence is ∞.

958
TAYLOR’S INEQUALITY

1. Find Taylor’s inequality for the function.

f (x) = 5 cos x

Solution:

Modify Taylor’s inequality to state that

M
If f n+1
(x) ≤ M for | x | ≤ d, then Rn(x) ≤ | x |n+1 for | x | ≤ d.
(n + 1)!

The function y = cos x is represented by

∞
(−1)n x 2n
∑ (2n)!
cos x =
n=0

So f (x) = 5 cos x is represented by

∞
(−1)n5x 2n
∑ (2n)!
5 cos x =
n=0

Take the first few derivatives of f (x) = 5 cos x in order to find a value for
f (n+1)(x).

n=0 f n+1(x) = f 0+1(x) = f 1(x) = f′(x) = − 5 sin x

n=1 f n+1(x) = f 1+1(x) = f 2(x) = f′′(x) = − 5 cos x

959



 n=2 f n+1(x) = f 2+1(x) = f 3(x) = f′′′(x) = 5 sin x

n=3 f n+1(x) = f 3+1(x) = f 4(x) = f′′′′(x) = 5 cos x

n=4 f n+1(x) = f 4+1(x) = f 5(x) = f′′′′′(x) = − 5 sin x

Then

f (n+1)(x) ≤ 5 cos x or f (n+1)(x) ≤ 5 sin x

Since both cos x and sin x exist only between −1 and 1, both 5 cos x and 5 sin x
exist only between −5 and 5. So

−5 ≤ f (n+1)(x) ≤ 5

But the absolute value in the inequality requires only positive values, so

0 ≤ f (n+1)(x) ≤ 5

2. Find Taylor’s inequality for the function.

f (x) = 3 sin x

Solution:

Modify Taylor’s inequality to state that

M
If f n+1
(x) ≤ M for | x | ≤ d, then Rn(x) ≤ | x |n+1 for | x | ≤ d.
(n + 1)!

960












The function y = sin x is represented by
∞
(−1)n x 2n+1
∑ (2n + 1)!
sin x =
n=0

So f (x) = 3 sin x is represented by

∞
(−1)n3x 2n+1
∑ (2n + 1)!
3 sin x =
n=0

Take the first few derivatives of f (x) = 5 cos x in order to find a value for
f (n+1)(x).

n=0 f n+1(x) = f 0+1(x) = f 1(x) = f′(x) = 3 cos x

n=1 f n+1(x) = f 1+1(x) = f 2(x) = f′′(x) = − 3 sin x

n=2 f n+1(x) = f 2+1(x) = f 3(x) = f′′′(x) = − 3 cos x

n=3 f n+1(x) = f 3+1(x) = f 4(x) = f′′′′(x) = 3 sin x

n=4 f n+1(x) = f 4+1(x) = f 5(x) = f′′′′′(x) = 3 cos x

Then

f (n+1)(x) ≤ 3 cos x or f (n+1)(x) ≤ 3 sin x

Since both cos x and sin x exist only between −1 and 1, both 3 cos x and 3 sin x
exist only between −3 and 3.

−3 ≤ f (n+1)(x) ≤ 3

961















But the absolute value in the inequality requires only positive values, so

0 ≤ f (n+1)(x) ≤ 3

3. Find Taylor’s inequality for the function.

f (x) = 7 sin x + 5

Solution:

Modify Taylor’s inequality to state that

M
If f n+1(x) ≤ M for | x | ≤ d, then Rn(x) ≤ | x |n+1 for | x | ≤ d.
(n + 1)!

The function y = sin x is represented by

∞
(−1)n x 2n+1
∑ (2n + 1)!
sin x =
n=0

So f (x) = 7 sin x + 5 is represented by

∞
(−1)n7x 2n+1
∑ (2n + 1)!
7 sin x + 5 = 5 +
n=0

Take the first few derivatives of f (x) = 7 sin x + 5 in order to find a value for
f (n+1)(x).

n=0 f n+1(x) = f 0+1(x) = f 1(x) = f′(x) = 7 cos x

962

 n=1 f n+1(x) = f 1+1(x) = f 2(x) = f′′(x) = − 7 sin x

n=2 f n+1(x) = f 2+1(x) = f 3(x) = f′′′(x) = − 7 cos x

n=3 f n+1(x) = f 3+1(x) = f 4(x) = f′′′′(x) = 7 sin x

n=4 f n+1(x) = f 4+1(x) = f 5(x) = f′′′′′(x) = 7 cos x

Then

f (n+1)(x) ≤ 7 cos x or f (n+1)(x) ≤ 7 sin x

Since both cos x and sin x exist only between −1 and 1, both 7 cos x and 7 sin x
exist only between −7 and 7.

−7 ≤ f (n+1)(x) ≤ 7

But the absolute value in the inequality requires only positive values, so

0 ≤ f (n+1)(x) ≤ 7

4. Find Taylor’s inequality for the function.

f (x) = π cos x

Solution:

Modify Taylor’s inequality to state that

963














 M
If f n+1(x) ≤ M for | x | ≤ d, then Rn(x) ≤ | x |n+1 for | x | ≤ d.
(n + 1)!

The function y = cos x is represented by

∞
(−1)n x 2n
∑ (2n)!
cos x =
n=0

So f (x) = π cos x is represented by

∞
(−1)nπx 2n
∑ (2n)!
π cos x =
n=0

Take the first few derivatives of f (x) = π cos x in order to find a value for
f (n+1)(x).

n=0 f n+1(x) = f 0+1(x) = f 1(x) = f′(x) = − π sin x

n=1 f n+1(x) = f 1+1(x) = f 2(x) = f′′(x) = − π cos x

n=2 f n+1(x) = f 2+1(x) = f 3(x) = f′′′(x) = π sin x

n=3 f n+1(x) = f 3+1(x) = f 4(x) = f′′′′(x) = π cos x

n=4 f n+1(x) = f 4+1(x) = f 5(x) = f′′′′′(x) = − π sin x

Then

f (n+1)(x) ≤ π cos x or f (n+1)(x) ≤ π sin x

Since both cos x and sin x exist only between −1 and 1, both π cos x and
π sin x exist only between −π and π.

964















 −π ≤ f (n+1)(x) ≤ π

But the absolute value in the inequality requires only positive values, so

0 ≤ f (n+1)(x) ≤ π

5. Find Taylor’s inequality for the function.

f (x) = e sin x

Solution:

Modify Taylor’s inequality to state that

M
If f n+1
(x) ≤ M for | x | ≤ d, then Rn(x) ≤ | x |n+1 for | x | ≤ d.
(n + 1)!

The function y = sin x is represented by

∞
(−1)n x 2n+1
∑ (2n + 1)!
sin x =
n=0

So f (x) = e sin x is represented by

∞
(−1)nex 2n+1
∑ (2n + 1)!
e sin x =
n=0

Take the first few derivatives of f (x) = e sin x in order to find a value for
f (n+1)(x).

965
 n=0 f n+1(x) = f 0+1(x) = f 1(x) = f′(x) = e cos x

n=1 f n+1(x) = f 1+1(x) = f 2(x) = f′′(x) = − e sin x

n=2 f n+1(x) = f 2+1(x) = f 3(x) = f′′′(x) = − e cos x

n=3 f n+1(x) = f 3+1(x) = f 4(x) = f′′′′(x) = e sin x

n=4 f n+1(x) = f 4+1(x) = f 5(x) = f′′′′′(x) = e cos x

Then

f (n+1)(x) ≤ e cos x or f (n+1)(x) ≤ e sin x

Since both cos x and sin x exist only between −1 and 1, both e cos x and e sin x
exist only between −e and e.

−e ≤ f (n+1)(x) ≤ e

But the absolute value in the inequality requires only positive values, so

0 ≤ f (n+1)(x) ≤ e

966















MACLAURIN SERIES

1. Write the first four non-zero terms of the Maclaurin series and use it to
estimate f (π /9).

f (x) = cos (3x)

Solution:

The common Maclaurin series for f (x) = cos x is

x2 x4 x6 n x
2n
cos x = 1 − + − + ⋯ + (−1) +⋯
2! 4! 6! (2n)!

So the Maclaurin series for f (x) = cos (3x) is

(3x)2 (3x)4 (3x)6 (3x)2n

cos(3x) = 1 − + − + ⋯ + (−1)n +⋯
2! 4! 6! (2n)!

2n
9x 2 81x 4 729x 6 (3x)
cos(3x) = 1 − + − + ⋯ + (−1)n +⋯
2 24 720 (2n)!

2n
9x 2 27x 4 81x 6 (3x)
cos(3x) = 1 − + − + ⋯ + (−1)n +⋯
2 8 80 (2n)!

Then f (π /9) is

9( 9 ) 27( 9 ) 81( 9 )
2 4 6
π π π

( 9)
π
cos 3 ⋅ =1− + −
2 8 80

967
 (3)
π
cos ≈ 1 − 0.548311 + 0.050108 − 0.001832

(3)
π
cos ≈ 0.499965

(3)
π
cos ≈ 0.500

2. Write the first three non-zero terms of the Maclaurin series and use it
to estimate f (2π /3).

f (x) = cos2 x

Solution:

Find the first few terms of the series.

n=0 f (x) = cos2 x f (0) = 1

n=1 f′(x) = − 2 cos x sin x f′(0) = 0

n=2 f′′(x) = 2 − 4cos2 x f′′(0) = − 2

n=3 f′′′(x) = 8 sin x cos x f′′′(0) = 0

n=4 f (4)(x) = 16cos2 x − 8 f (4)(0) = 8

So the Maclaurin series for f (x) = cos2 x is

968












 f (0)x 0 f′(0)x 1 f′′(0)x 2 f′′′(0)x 3 f (n)(0)x n
f (x) = + + + +⋯+
0! 1! 2! 3! n!

f (0)x 0 f′(0)x 1 f′′(0)x 2 f′′′(0)x 3 f (4)(0)x 4

f(4)(x) = + + + +
0! 1! 2! 3! 4!

1x 0 0 ⋅ x 1 −2 ⋅ x 2 0 ⋅ x 3 8 ⋅ x 4
f(4)(x) = + + + +
0! 1! 2! 3! 4!

x4 2 3
f(4)(x) = 1 + 0x − x + 0x +
3

2 x4
f(4)(x) = 1 − x +
3

Then f (2π /3) is

(3)
4
2π

( 3 ) ( 3 )
2
2π 2π
f ≈1− +
3

( 3 )
2π
f ≈ 1 − 4.386491 + 6.413767

( 3 )
2π
f ≈ 3.027276

3. Write the first four non-zero terms of the Maclaurin series and use it to
estimate f (2).
3
f (x) = (x + 4) 2

969












 Solution:

Find the first few terms of the series.

3 3
n=0 f (x) = (x + 4) 2 f (0) = (0 + 4) 2 = 8
1 1
3(x + 4) 2 3(0 + 4) 2
n=1 f′(x) = f′(0) = =3
2 2

3 3 3
n=2 f′′(x) = f′′(0) = =
4(x + 4) 2
1
4(0 + 4) 2
1
8

−3 −3 3
n=3 f′′′(x) = f′′′(0) = =−
8(x + 4)
3
2 8(0 + 4)
3
2 64

(4) 9 (4) 9 9
n=4 f (x) = f (0) = =
16(x + 4)
5
2
5
16(0 + 4) 2 512

3
So the Maclaurin series for f (x) = (x + 4) 2 is

f (0)x 0 f′(0)x 1 f′′(0)x 2 f′′′(0)x 3 f (n)(0)x n

f (x) = + + + +⋯+
0! 1! 2! 3! n!

f (0)x 0 f′(0)x 1 f′′(0)x 2 f′′′(0)x 3 f (4)(0)x 4

f(4)(x) = + + + +
0! 1! 2! 3! 4!

8x 0 3 ⋅ x 1 3 ⋅ x 2 −3 ⋅ x 3 9 ⋅ x4
f(4)(x) = + + + +
0! 1! 8 ⋅ 2! 64 ⋅ 3! 512 ⋅ 4!

3x 2 x3 3x 4
f(4)(x) = 8 + 3x + − +
16 128 4,096

970
























 3x 2 x3
f(3)(x) = 8 + 3x + −
16 128

Then f (2) is

3x 2 x3
f (2) ≈ 8 + 3x + −
16 128

3(2)2 (2)3
f (2) ≈ 8 + 3(2) + −
16 128

12 8
f (2) ≈ 8 + 6 + −
16 128

f (2) ≈ 14.6875

971
SUM OF THE MACLAURIN SERIES

1. Find the sum of the Maclaurin series.

∞
7(x + 4)n
∑ n!
n=0

Solution:

Begin with the common series

∞ n
x
ex =
∑ n!
n=0

and then start manipulating it until it matches the given series.

∞ n
(x + 4)
e x+4 =
∑ n!
n=0

∞ n
7(x + 4)
7e x+4 =
∑ n!
n=0

So the sum of the series is 7e x+4.

2. Find the sum of the Maclaurin series.

972
 ∞
6(−1)n(x − π)2n+1
∑ 7(2n + 1)!
n=0

Solution:

Begin with the common series

∞
(−1)n(x)2n+1
∑ (2n + 1)!
sin x =
n=0

and then start manipulating it until it matches the given series.

∞
(−1)n(x − π)2n+1
∑
sin(x − π) =
n=0
(2n + 1)!

∞
6 6(−1)n(x − π)2n+1
∑
sin(x − π) =
7 n=0
7(2n + 1)!

So the sum of the series is (6/7)sin(x − π).

3. Find the sum of the Maclaurin series.

∞
e(−1)n(x + π)2n
∑
4+
n=0
3(2n)!

Solution:

973
Begin with the common series
∞
x 2n
n
∑
cos x = (−1)
n=0
(2n)!

and then start manipulating it until it matches the given series.

∞
(−1)n(x + π)2n
∑
cos(x + π) =
n=0
(2n)!

∞
e e(−1)n(x + π)2n
∑
cos(x + π) =
3 n=0
3(2n)!

∞
e e(−1)n(x + π)2n
∑
4 + cos(x + π) = 4 +
3 n=0
3(2n)!

So the sum of the series is

e
4+ cos(x + π)
3

974
RADIUS AND INTERVAL OF CONVERGENCE OF A MACLAURIN SERIES

1. Find the radius of convergence of the Maclaurin series.

5
f (x) =
1 − x3

Solution:

Start with the common series.

∞
1
xn
1−x ∑
=
n=1

and then start manipulating it until it matches the given series.

∞ ∞
5 n
5x n
∑ ∑
=5 x =
1−x n=1 n=1

∞ ∞
5 3 n 3n
1 − x3 ∑ ∑
= 5(x ) = 5x
n=1 n=1

Use the ratio test.

an+1
L = lim
n→∞ an

5x 3(n+1)
L = lim
n→∞ 5x 3n

975
 5x 3n+3
L = lim
n→∞ 5x 3n

L = lim x 3 < 1
n→∞

So the interval of convergence is

−1 < x 3 < 1
3 3
−1 < x < 1

−1 < x < 1

The interval of convergence spans from −1 to 1, which is 2 units wide. The

radius of convergence is half that, which means the radius of convergence
is 1.

2. Find the radius of convergence of the Maclaurin series.

f (x) = 4 cos(x 2)

Solution:

Start with the common series.

∞
(−1)n x 2n
∑ (2n)!
cos x =
n=0

976
and then start manipulating it until it matches the given series.
∞
4(−1)n x 2n
∑ (2n)!
4 cos x =
n=0

∞ n 2 2n
2 4(−1) (x )
∑
4 cos(x ) =
n=0
(2n)!

∞
2 4(−1)n x 4n
∑ (2n)!
4 cos(x ) =
n=0

Use the ratio test.

an+1
L = lim
n→∞ an

4(−1)n+1x 4(n+1)
(2(n + 1))!
L = lim
n→∞ 4(−1)n x 4n
(2n)!

4x 4(n+1)
(2(n + 1))!
L = lim
n→∞ 4x 4n
(2n)!

x 4(n+1)
(2(n + 1))!
L = lim
n→∞ x 4n
(2n)!

977
 x 4n+4 (2n)!
L = lim ⋅ 4n
n→∞ (2n + 2)! x

x4 (2n)!
L = lim ⋅
n→∞ (2n + 2)(2n + 1)(2n)! 1

x4 1
L = lim ⋅
n→∞ (2n + 2)(2n + 1) 1

x4
L = lim
n→∞ (2n + 2)(2n + 1)

1
L = x 4 lim
n→∞ (2n + 2)(2n + 1)

L = x4 ⋅ 0

L=0

The series converges if L < 1 and diverges if L > 1, so this series converges
everywhere, which means the interval of convergence is ∞, and therefore
the radius of conversion is ∞, too.

3. Find the radius of convergence of the Maclaurin series.

∞
x n ⋅ 3n
∑ n
n=1

978
Solution:

Use the ratio test.

an+1
L = lim
n→∞ an

x n+1 ⋅ 3n+1
n+1
L = lim x n ⋅ 3n
n→∞
n

x n+1 ⋅ 3n+1 n
L = lim ⋅ n n
n→∞ n+1 x ⋅3

x⋅3 n
L = lim ⋅
n→∞ n+1 1

1 n
L = 3x lim ⋅
n→∞ n+1 1

n
L = 3x lim
n→∞ n+1

L = 3x ⋅ 1

L = 3x

So the interval of convergence is

979
 3x < 1

−1 < 3x < 1

1 1
− <x<
3 3

The interval of convergence spans from −1/3 to 1/3, which is a width of 2/3.
The radius of convergence is half that, so the radius of convergence is 1/3.

980
INDEFINITE INTEGRAL AS AN INFINITE SERIES

1. Use an infinite series to evaluate the indefinite integral.

∫
x 2 cos(x 3) d x

Solution:

Start with the known Maclaurin series

∞
(−1)n x 2n
∑ (2n)!
cos x =
n=0

and then start manipulating it until it matches the given series, first by
substituting x 3 for x,

∞ n 3 2n
3 (−1) (x )
∑ (2n)!
cos x =
n=0

∞
3 (−1)n x 6n
∑ (2n)!
cos x =
n=0

and then multiplying by x 2.

∞ n 6n
2 3 2 (−1) x
∑ (2n)!
x cos x = x
n=0

981
 ∞
2 3 (−1)n x 2 ⋅ x 6n
∑
x cos x =
n=0
(2n)!

∞n 6n+2
2 3 (−1) x
∑ (2n)!
x cos x =
n=0

Integrate the series.

∞
(−1)n x 6n+2
∫ ∫ ∑ (2n)!
2 3
x cos(x ) d x = dx
n=0

n ∞
(−1)
∫ (2n)! ∫ ∑
x 2 cos(x 3) d x = x 6n+2 d x
n=0

∞
(−1)n x 6n+3
∫
2 3
∑ (2n)! 6n + 3
x cos(x ) d x = ⋅ +C
n=0

∞ n 6n+3
(−1) x
∫
2 3
∑ (6n + 3)(2n)!
x cos(x ) d x = C +
n=0

2. Use an infinite series to evaluate the indefinite integral.

∫
4x 3 sin(x 4) d x

Solution:

Start with the known Maclaurin series

982
 ∞
(−1)n x 2n+1
∑ (2n + 1)!
sin x =
n=0

and then start manipulating it until it matches the given series, first by
substituting x 4 for x,

∞ 2n+1
4 (−1)n(x 4)
∑ (2n + 1)!
sin(x ) =
n=0

∞ n 8n+4
4 (−1) x
∑ (2n + 1)!
sin(x ) =
n=0

and then multiplying by 4x 3.

∞
3 4 4x 3(−1)n x 8n+4
∑ (2n + 1)!
4x sin(x ) =
n=0

∞ n 8n+7
3 4 4(−1) x
∑ (2n + 1)!
4x sin(x ) =
n=0

Integrate the series.

∞ n 8n+7
4(−1) x
∫ ∫ ∑ (2n + 1)!
4x 3 sin(x 4) d x = dx
n=0

n ∞
4(−1)
∫ (2n + 1)! ∫ ∑
4x 3 sin(x 4) d x = x 8n+7 d x
n=0

∞
4(−1)n x 8n+8
∫
3 4
∑ (2n + 1)! 8n + 8
4x sin(x ) d x = ⋅ +C
n=0

983
 ∞
4(−1)n x 8n+8
∫
3 4
∑ (8n + 8)(2n + 1)!
4x sin(x ) d x = C +
n=0

3. Use an infinite series to evaluate the indefinite integral.

∫
2x ln(1 + x 2) d x

Solution:

Start with the known Maclaurin series

∞
(−1)n x n
∑
ln(1 + x) =
n=0
n

and then start manipulating it until it matches the given series, first by
substituting x 2 for x,
∞ n 2 n
2 (−1) (x )
∑
ln(1 + x ) =
n=0
n

∞ n 2n
(−1) x
ln(1 + x 2) =
∑ n
n=0

and then multiplying by 2x.

∞
2 (−1)n x 2n
∑
2x ln(1 + x ) = 2x
n=0
n

984
 ∞
2 2x 1(−1)n x 2n
∑
2x ln(1 + x ) =
n=0
n

∞ n 2n+1
2 2(−1) x
∑
2x ln(1 + x ) =
n=0
n

Integrate the series.

∞
2(−1)n x 2n+1
∫ ∫∑
2
2x ln(1 + x ) d x = dx
n=0
n

2(−1)n ∞ 2n+1
∫ ∫
2
∑
2x ln(1 + x ) d x = x dx
n n=0

∞ n
2(−1) x 2n+2
∫
2
∑ n
2x ln(1 + x ) d x = ⋅ +C
n=0
2n + 2

∞ n 2n+2
2(−1) x
∫
2x ln(1 + x 2) d x = C +
∑ 2n 2 + 2n
n=0

985
MACLAURIN SERIES TO ESTIMATE AN INDEFINITE INTEGRAL

1. Use a Maclaurin series to estimate the indefinite integral.

sin(2x)
∫ 4x
dx

Solution:

Begin with the common series

∞
(−1)n(x)2n+1 x3 x5 x7 x9
∑ (2n + 1)!
sin x = =x− + − + −⋯
n=0
3! 5! 7! 9!

and then start manipulating it until it matches the given series, first by
substituting 2x for x,
∞
(−1)n(2x)2n+1 (2x)3 (2x)5 (2x)7 (2x)9
∑ (2n + 1)!
sin(2x) = = 2x − + − + −⋯
n=0
3! 5! 7! 9!

∞
(−1)n(2x)2n+1 8x 3 32x 5 128x 7 512x 9
∑ (2n + 1)!
sin(2x) = = 2x − + − + −⋯
n=0
6 120 5,040 362,880

∞
(−1)n(2x)2n+1 4x 3 4x 5 8x 7 4x 9
∑ (2n + 1)!
sin(2x) = = 2x − + − + −⋯
n=0
3 15 315 2,835

and then dividing by 4x.

986
 ∞
sin(2x) (−1)n(2x)2n+1 2x 4x 3 4x 5 8x 7 4x 9
∑
= = − + − + −⋯
4x n=0
4x(2n + 1)! 4x 3 ⋅ 4x 15 ⋅ 4x 315 ⋅ 4x 2,835 ⋅ 4x

∞
sin(2x) (−1)n(2x)2n+1 1 x 2 x 4 2x 6 x8
∑ 4x(2n + 1)!
= = − + − + −⋯
4x n=0
2 3 15 315 2,835

∞
sin(2x) (−1)n22n+1x 2n+1 1 x 2 x 4 2x 6 x8
∑
= = − + − + −⋯
4x n=0
2 x (2n + 1)!
2 1 2 3 15 315 2,835

∞
sin(2x) (−1)n22n−1x 2n 1 x 2 x 4 2x 6 x8
∑
= = − + − + −⋯
4x n=0
(2n + 1)! 2 3 15 315 2,835

Integrate the series term by term.

sin(2x) 1 x2 x4 2x 6 x8
∫ 4x ∫2
dx = − + − + − . . . dx
3 15 315 2,835

sin(2x) x x 2+1 x 4+1 2x 6+1 x 8+1

∫ 4x
dx = C + − + − + − ...
2 3 ⋅ 3 15 ⋅ 5 315 ⋅ 7 2,835 ⋅ 9

sin(2x) x x3 x5 2x 7 x9
∫ 4x
dx = C + − + − + − ...
2 9 75 2,205 25,515

Then the indefinite integral can be expressed as

∞
sin(2x) (−1)n22n−1x 2n+1
∫ 4x ∑ (2n + 1)(2n + 1)!
dx = +C
n=0

2. Use a Maclaurin series to estimate the indefinite integral.

987
 cos x
∫ x2
dx

Solution:

Begin with the common series

∞
(−1)n x 2n x2 x4 x6 x8
∑ (2n)!
cos x = =1− + − + − ...
n=0
2! 4! 6! 8!

and then start manipulating it until it matches the given series, by dividing
through by x 2.
∞
cos x (−1)n x 2n 1 x2 x4 x6 x8
∑ x 2(2n)!
= = 2− + − + −⋯
x2 n=0
x 2!x 2 4!x 2 6!x 2 8!x 2

∞
cos x (−1)n x 2n−2 1 1 x2 x4 x6
∑
= = 2− + − + −⋯
x 2
n=0
(2n)! x 2 24 720 40,320

Integrate the series term by term.

cos x 1 1 x2 x4 x6
∫ x2 ∫ x 2 2 24 720 40,320
dx = − + − + − . . . dx

2 4 6
cos x 1 x x x
∫ x2 ∫
−2
d x = x − + − + − . . . dx
2 24 720 40,320

cos x 1 x x3 x5 x7
∫ x2
dx = C − − + − + − ...
x 2 24 ⋅ 3 720 ⋅ 5 40,320 ⋅ 7

988
 cos x 1 x x3 x5 x7
∫ x2
dx = C − − + − + − ...
x 2 72 3,600 282,240

Then the indefinite integral can be expressed as this series:

∞
cos x (−1)n x 2n−1
∫ x2 ∑ (2n − 1)(2n)!
dx = +C
n=0

3. Use a Maclaurin series to estimate the indefinite integral.

arctan x
∫
dx
x 2

Solution:

Begin with the common series

∞
(−1)n x 2n+1 x3 x5 x7 x9
∑ 2n + 1
arctan x = =x− + − + − ...
n=0
3 5 7 9

and then start manipulating it until it matches the given series, by dividing
through by x 2.
∞
arctan x (−1)n x 2n+1 x x3 x5 x7 x9
∑ (2n + 1)x 2
= = 2 − 2 + 2 − 2 + 2 −⋯
x2 n=0
x 3x 5x 7x 9x

∞
arctan x (−1)n x 2n−1 1 x x 3 x 5 x 7
∑
= = − + − + −⋯
x 2
n=0
(2n + 1) x 3 5 7 9

989
Integrate the series term by term.

arctan x 1 x x3 x5 x7
∫ ∫x 3
dx = − + − + − . . . dx
x2 5 7 9

arctan x x2 x4 x6 x8
∫
d x = C + ln x − + − + − ...
x 2 3⋅2 5⋅4 7⋅6 9⋅8

arctan x x2 x4 x6 x8
∫
d x = C + ln x − + − + − ...
x2 6 20 42 72

Then the indefinite integral can be expressed as this series:

∞
arctan x (−1)n x 2n
∫ ∑ 2n(2n + 1)
d x = C + ln x +
x 2
n=1

990
MACLAURIN SERIES TO ESTIMATE A DEFINITE INTEGRAL

1. Use a Maclaurin series to estimate the value of the definite integral.

3

∫0
1 2
3xe 2 x d x

Solution:

Start with the common series

∞
x xn
∑ n!
e =
n=0

and then start manipulating it until it matches the given series, first by
substituting (1/2)x 2 for x,

(2 x )
n
1 2

∑ ( 2 ) n!
∞ ∞ n ∞
1
x 2 1 x 2n x 2n
∑ ∑ 2nn!
e 2 = = =
n=0
n! n=0 n=0

and then multiplying by 3x.

∞ ∞ ∞
1
x 2 x 2n 3x 1 ⋅ x 2n 3x 2n+1
∑ 2nn! ∑ 2nn! ∑ 2nn!
3xe 2 = 3x = =
n=0 n=0 n=0

Integrate the power series.

991
 3 3 ∞
3x 2n+1
∫0 ∫0 ∑ 2nn!
1
x2
3xe 2 dx = dx
n=0

3
3 ∞
3
∫0 2 n! ∫ ∑
1
x2
3xe 2 dx = n x 2n+1 d x
n=0
0

3 ∞ 3
3 x 2n+2
∫0
1 2
x
∑ 2nn! 2n + 2
3xe 2 dx = ⋅
n=0 0

Expand the power series through its first eight terms.

3
3x 2 3x 4 3x 6 3x 8 3x 10
∫0
1 2
x
3xe 2 dx = + + + +
2 8 48 384 3,840

3
3x 12 3x 14 3x 16
+ + +
46,080 645,120 10,321,920 0

3
3(3)2 3(3)4 3(3)6 3(3)8 3(3)10
∫0
1 2
x
3xe 2 dx = + + + +
2 8 48 384 3,840

3(3)12 3(3)14 3(3)16

+ + +
46,080 645,120 10,321,920

3(0)2 3(0)4 3(0)6 3(0)8 3(0)10

( 2
− + + + +
8 48 384 3,840

3(0)12 3(0)14 3(0)16

46,080 645,120 10,321,920 )
+ +

992
 3

∫0
1 2
3xe 2 x d x ≈ 13.5 + 30.375 + 45.5625 + 51.257813 + 46.132031

+34.599023 + 22.242229 + 12.511254

3

∫0
1 2
3xe 2 x d x ≈ 256.180

2. Use a Maclaurin series to estimate the value of the definite integral.

π/2

∫0
12 cos(x 2) d x

Solution:

Start with the common series

∞
(−1)n x 2n
∑ (2n)!
cos x =
n=0

and then start manipulating it until it matches the given series, first by
substituting x 2 for x,

∞
n 2 2n ∞
(−1) (x ) (−1)n x 4n
cos(x 2) =
∑ (2n)! ∑ (2n)!
=
n=0 n=0

and then multiplying by 12.

993
 ∞ n 4n ∞
2 (−1) x 12 ⋅ (−1)n x 4n
∑ (2n)! ∑
12 cos(x ) = 12 =
n=0 n=0
(2n)!

Integrate the power series.

π/2 π/2 ∞
12 ⋅ (−1)n x 4n
∫0 ∫0
2
∑
12 cos(x ) d x = dx
n=0
(2n)!

π/2 π/2 ∞
12 ⋅ (−1)n
∫0 (2n)! ∫0
2
x 4n d x
∑
12 cos(x ) d x =
n=0

π/2 π/2
12 ⋅ (−1)n x 4n+1
∫0
2
12 cos(x ) d x = ⋅
(2n)! 4n + 1 0

Expand the power series through its first six terms.

π/2
12(−1)0 x 4(0)+1 12(−1)1 x 4(1)+1
∫0
2
12 cos(x ) d x = ⋅ + ⋅
(2 ⋅ 0)! 4(0) + 1 (2 ⋅ 1)! 4(1) + 1

12(−1)2 x 4(2)+1 12(−1)3 x 4(3)+1 12(−1)4 x 4(4)+1

+ ⋅ + ⋅ + ⋅
(2 ⋅ 2)! 4(2) + 1 (2 ⋅ 3)! 4(3) + 1 (2 ⋅ 4)! 4(4) + 1

π/2
12(−1)5 x 4(5)+1
+ ⋅
(2 ⋅ 5)! 4(5) + 1 0

π/2 1 5 9 13 17 21 π/2
12x 12x 12x 12x x 12x
∫0
12 cos(x 2) d x = − + − + −
1 10 216 9,360 57,120 76,204,800 0

π/2 5 9 13 17 21 π/2
6x x x x x
∫0
12 cos(x 2) d x = 12x − + − + −
5 18 780 57,120 6,350,400 0

994
 π/2

∫0
12 cos(x 2) d x

5 9 13 17 21
6 π /2 π /2 π /2 π /2 π /2
= 12 π /2 − + − + −
5 18 780 57,120 6,350,400

6(0)5 09
( 18 780 57,120 6,350,400 )
013 017 021
− 12(0) − + − + −
5

π/2

∫0
12 cos(x 2) d x ≈ 15.039770 − 3.710914 + 0.423903

−0.024137 + 0.000813 − 0.000018

π/2

∫0
12 cos(x 2) d x ≈ 11.729417

3. Use a Maclaurin series to estimate the value of the definite integral.

3
π

∫0
15 sin(x 3) d x

Solution:

Start with the common series

995
 ∞
(−1)n x 2n+1
∑ (2n + 1)!
sin x =
n=0

and then start manipulating it until it matches the given series, first by
substituting x 3 for x,

∞ 2n+1 ∞
3 (−1)n(x 3) (−1)n x 6n+3
∑ (2n + 1)! ∑ (2n + 1)!
sin(x ) = =
n=0 n=0

and then multiplying by 15.

∞ n 6n+3 ∞ n 6n+3
3 (−1) x 15(−1) x
∑ (2n + 1)! ∑ (2n + 1)!
15 sin(x ) = 15 =
n=0 n=0

Integrate the power series.

3 3
π π ∞
15(−1)n x 6n+3
∫0 ∫0
15 sin(x 3) d x =
∑ (2n + 1)!
dx
n=0

3 3
π n π ∞
15(−1)
∫0 (2n + 1)! ∫0 ∑
15 sin(x 3) d x = x 6n+3 d x
n=0

3 3
π n π
15(−1) x 6n+4
∫0
3
15 sin(x ) d x = ⋅
(2n + 1)! 6n + 4 0

Expand the power series through its first six terms.

3
π 0 6(0)+4 1
15(−1) x 15(−1) x 6(1)+4
∫0
3
15 sin(x ) d x = ⋅ + ⋅
(2(0) + 1)! 6(0) + 4 (2(1) + 1)! 6(1) + 4

996
 15(−1)2 x 6(2)+4 15(−1)3 x 6(3)+4
+ ⋅ + ⋅
(2(2) + 1)! 6(2) + 4 (2(3) + 1)! 6(3) + 4
3
4 6(4)+4 5 6(5)+4 π
15(−1) x 15(−1) x
+ ⋅ + ⋅
(2(4) + 1)! 6(4) + 4 (2(5) + 1)! 6(5) + 4 0

3 3
π 4 10 16 22 28 34 π
15x x x x x x
∫0
15 sin(x 3) d x = − + − + −
4 4 128 7,392 677,376 90,478,080 0

3 4 10 16 22 28 34
π
15 π π π π π π
3 3 3 3 3 3

∫0
15 sin(x 3) d x = − + − + −
4 4 128 7,392 677,376 90,478,080

15(0)4 010
( 90,478,080 )
016 022 028 034
− − + − + −
4 4 128 7,392 677,376

3
π

∫0
15 sin(x 3) d x ≈ 17.254317 − 11.352885 + 3.501515

−0.598417 + 0.064452 − 0.004762

3
π

∫0
15 sin(x 3) d x ≈ 8.86422

997
MACLAURIN SERIES TO EVALUATE A LIMIT

1. Use a Maclaurin series to evaluate the limit.

e 2x − 1 − 2x
lim
x→0 x2

Solution:

The Maclaurin series expansion of e x is

x 1 2 1 3 1 4
e =1+x+ x + x + x +⋯
2 6 24

So the Maclaurin series expansion of e 2x is

1 1 1
e 2x = 1 + 2x + (2x)2 + (2x)3 + (2x)4 + ⋯
2 6 24

1 1 1
e 2x = 1 + 2x + (4x 2) + (8x 3) + (16x 4) + ⋯
2 6 24

4 3 2 4
e 2x = 1 + 2x + 2x 2 + x + x +⋯
3 3

Subtract 1 and subtract 2x.

4 3 2 4
e 2x − 1 − 2x = 1 + 2x + 2x 2 + x + x + ⋯ − 1 − 2x
3 3

4 3 2 4
e 2x − 1 − 2x = 2x 2 + x + x +⋯
3 3

998
Divide by x 2.
4 3 2 4
e 2x − 1 − 2x 2x 2 3
x 3
x
= 2 + 2 + 2 +⋯
x2 x x x

e 2x − 1 − 2x 4 2 2
= 2 + x + x +⋯
x 2 3 3

Substitute into the given limit and then evaluate.

( )
e 2x − 1 − 2x 4 2 2
lim = lim 2 + x + x +⋯
x→0 x 2 x→0 3 3

e 2x − 1 − 2x 4 2 2
lim = 2 + (0) + (0) + ⋯
x→0 x 2 3 3

e 2x − 1 − 2x
lim =2
x→0 x2

2. Use a Maclaurin series to evaluate the limit.

arctan x − x
lim
x→0 x3

Solution:

The Maclaurin series for the expansion of arctan x is

x3 x5 x7 x9
arctan x = x − + − + −⋯
3 5 7 9

999
Subtract x.

x3 x5 x7 x9
arctan x − x = x − + − + −⋯−x
3 5 7 9

x3 x5 x7 x9
arctan x − x = − + − + −⋯
3 5 7 9

Divide by x 3.

arctan x − x x3 x5 x7 x9
=− 3 + 3 − 3 + 3 −⋯
x 3 x ⋅3 x ⋅5 x ⋅7 x ⋅9

arctan x − x 1 x2 x4 x6
=− + − + −⋯
x 3 3 5 7 9

Substitute into the given limit and then evaluate.

x→0 ( 3 )
arctan x − x 1 x2 x4 x6
lim = lim − + − + −⋯
x→0 x 3 5 7 9

arctan x − x 1 02 04 06
lim =− + − + −⋯
x→0 x 3 3 5 7 9

arctan x − x 1
lim = −
x→0 x3 3

3. Use a Maclaurin series to evaluate the limit.

cos(3x) + 92 x 2 − 1
lim
x→0 x4

1000
Solution:

The Maclaurin series for the expansion of cos x is

x2 x4 x6 x8
cos x = 1 − + − + −⋯
2! 4! 6! 8!

So the Maclaurin series expansion of cos(3x) is

(3x)2 (3x)4 (3x)6 (3x)8

cos(3x) = 1 − + − + −⋯
2! 4! 6! 8!

9x 2 81x 4 729x 6 6561x 8

cos(3x) = 1 − + − + −⋯
2! 4! 6! 8!

Add (9/2)x 2 and subtract 1.

9 2 9x 2 81x 4 729x 6 6561x 8 9

cos(3x) + x − 1 = 1 − + − + − ⋯ + x2 − 1
2 2! 4! 6! 8! 2

9 2 81x 4 729x 6 6561x 8

cos(3x) + x − 1 = − + −⋯
2 4! 6! 8!

Divide by x 4.

cos(3x) + 92 x 2 − 1 81x 4 729x 6 6561x 8

= 4 − 4 + 4 −⋯
x4 x ⋅ 4! x ⋅ 6! x ⋅ 8!

cos(3x) + 92 x 2 − 1 81 729x 2 6561x 4

= − + −⋯
x4 4! 6! 8!

Substitute the terms into the given limit and then evaluate.

1001
 cos(3x) + 92 x 2 − 1
x→0 ( 4! )
81 729x 2 6561x 4
lim = lim − + −⋯
x→0 x4 6! 8!

cos(3x) + 92 x 2 − 1 81 729(0)2 6561(0)4

lim = − + −⋯
x→0 x4 4! 6! 8!

cos(3x) + 92 x 2 − 1 81
lim =
x→0 x4 4!

cos(3x) + 92 x 2 − 1 27
lim =
x→0 x4 8

1002
1003