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Karen C.H Zhoc (2018) Trí tuệ cảm xúc (EI) và học tập tự do

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Karen C.H Zhoc (2018) Trí tuệ cảm xúc (EI) và học tập tự do

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Emotional intelligence (EI) and self- directed learning: Examining their relation and

contribution to better student learning outcomes in higher education

NC 4.0. To view a copy of this license, visit https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/?

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Citation:

Zhoc, K. C., Chung, T. S., & King, R. B. (2018). Emotional intelligence (EI) and self‐directed learning:

Examining their relation and contribution to better student learning outcomes in higher education. British

Educational Research Journal, 44(6), 982-1004.

Link:

https://doi.org/10.1002/berj.3472
British Educational Research Journal
Vol. 44, No. 6, December 2018, pp. 982–1004
DOI: 10.1002/berj.3472

Emotional intelligence (EI) and self-

directed learning: Examining their relation
and contribution to better student learning
outcomes in higher education
Karen C. H. Zhoca,*, Tony S. H. Chungb and Ronnel B. Kinga
a
Department of Curriculum and Instruction, The Education University of Hong Kong;
b
Census and Statistics Department, The Government of the Hong Kong Special
Administrative Region

Self-directed learning is recognised as a key goal of higher education. To facilitate self-directed

learning, emotional intelligence (EI), which encompasses the ability to regulate one’s own emotions
and to generate positive emotions, is important. The present study aimed to examine the effects of
EI on self-directed learning and how EI and self-directed learning contribute to key learning out-
comes in higher education, including grade point average (GPA), generic learning outcomes (in-
cluding social, cognitive and self-growth outcomes) and students’ satisfaction with their university
experience. The study adopted a prospective longitudinal design with 560 first-year undergraduate
students completing different measures at the beginning and end of the academic year. Results of
the structural equation modelling showed that EI had a strong effect on self-directed learning,
which in turn was positively associated with GPA and various generic learning outcomes that are
related to students’ satisfaction with the university experience. To better delineate the relationship
between EI and self-directed learning, multiple regression was performed. Results indicated that
three key emotional abilities—emotional regulation of the self (ERS), appraisal of emotions in the
self (AES) and emotional regulation of others (ERO)—were positively associated with self-directed
learning. This study provided empirical evidence that students who are more emotionally intelligent
are more self-directed, leading to higher achievement in both academic and generic development,
which in turn results in higher university satisfaction. Implications of the findings are discussed.

Keywords: emotional regulation; emotional intelligence; higher education; self-directed learning

Introduction
With technological advancement, information and massive data can be relayed
instantly, accelerating the growth of knowledge and change in society. In response to
the rapid pace of change in modern society, self-directed learning has been deemed
an important educational aim in many countries, such as Hong Kong, Taiwan,
Korea, Japan and Thailand (OECD, 2000; Mok et al., 2007). In the context of
higher education, self-directed learning has also been fostered greatly. In addition to
its relevance in meeting the needs of society, self-directed learning is highly valued in
higher education because its emphasis on personal autonomy, personal responsibility

*Corresponding author. Department of Curriculum and Instruction, The Education University of

Hong Kong, Ting Kok, Hong Kong. E-mail: [email protected]

© 2018 British Educational Research Association

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Emotional intelligence and self-directed learning 983

and personal growth embodies the core values of higher education (Wilcox, 1996).
Hence, other than self-directed learning, other similar concepts such as autonomous
learning and lifelong learning are emphasised and designated as generic graduate
attributes in many universities all over the world (Chemers et al., 2001; Macaskill &
Denovan, 2013).
In Hong Kong, similar to many other countries, an important mission of higher
education is to nurture globally competitive students equipped with the capacity for
lifelong learning, so as to cope with the challenges of a more dynamic future (Univer-
sity Grants Committee, 2010). In relation to this, there was a revamp of the university
system in Hong Kong. More specifically, since September 2012, universities have
moved from a 3-year university system favouring early specialisation within a disci-
pline to a 4-year system that allows disciplinary study to be grounded in a broader
knowledge base that encourages critical thinking and self-directed learning (Curry,
2012). The new 4-year undergraduate curriculum not only provides more diverse
learning experiences for students—such as academic exchange, internship and com-
munity service—but also, more importantly, provides an inclusion of the common
core courses, which encourage inquiry-based learning.
While self-directed learning has received extensive attention from educators and
researchers, there is a paucity of research that investigates factors that are facilitative
of self-directed learning, especially in the higher education context (Song & Hill,
2007; Macaskill & Denovan, 2013). The present study aims to fill this gap by examin-
ing the role of emotional intelligence (EI) in self-directed learning in higher educa-
tion. Indeed, the process of becoming a self-directed learner is a painful one, as
students have to experience negativity, confusion, frustration and dissatisfaction with
their learning experience when they enter a new learning experience (Lunky-Child
et al., 2001). While some may react to negative emotions by choosing to withdraw,
there are others who are able to override them and respond assertively, to invest more
effort in solving the problem. That said, EI is likely to play an influential role in the
process of self-directed learning. The aim of the present study was to examine the
effects of EI on self-directed learning and how EI and self-directed learning con-
tribute to key learning outcomes in higher education, including academic achieve-
ment, generic learning outcomes (i.e. social, cognitive and self-growth outcomes) and
students’ satisfaction with their university experience.

Emotional intelligence
Emotional intelligence refers to individuals’ ability to appraise, express and regulate
emotions in the self and others and to make use of these emotions for problem solving
(Salovey & Mayer, 1990). According to Salovey and Mayer (1990), EI is conceptu-
alised as encompassing three major categories of emotional abilities. The first dimen-
sion involves the appraisal and expression of emotions in the self and others (i.e. the
ability to accurately perceive and express the emotions of the self and others, enabling
socially adaptive behaviours). The second dimension involves the regulation of emo-
tions in the self and others (i.e. the ability to control and modify the emotional states
of the self and others, so as to meet particular goals). The third dimension refers to
the utilisation of emotions in adaptive ways (i.e. the ability to make use of one’s own

© 2018 British Educational Research Association

emotions for solving problems). Although the model was later refined by Mayer and
Salovey (1997), the two models are similar in their basic components of EI (Schutte
et al., 2009).
While there are different theoretical conceptualisations of EI in the field, Salovey
and Mayer’s (1990, 1997) ability model of EI is one of the most widely accepted
models in the field, with the most research generated in peer-reviewed journals
(Zeidner et al., 2002; Fernandez-Berrocal & Extremera, 2006; Fernandez-Berrocal
et al., 2012).

Self-directed learning

What is self-directed learning?

Among the varied definitions of self-directed learning, Knowles’s (1975) definition is
one of the most widely adopted in the literature (O’Shea, 2003). It defines self-directed
learning as ‘a process in which individuals take the initiative, with or without the help
of others, in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating learning goals, identifying
human and material resources for learning, choosing and implementing appropriate
learning strategies and evaluating learning outcomes’ (p. 18). Despite its popularity,
this process perspective of self-directed learning was criticised, as its emphasis on the
skills and abilities required by an individual in the learning process cannot ensure one’s
persistence in learning throughout life (Macaskill & Denovan, 2013).
In view of the above, the personality perspective of self-directed learning is adopted
in this study, which conceptualises self-directed learning as a personal attribute or
learner’s characteristic. More specifically, we adopt the perspective of Brockett
(1983) in this study, which defines self-directed learning as a disposition to engage in
learning activities where the individual takes personal responsibility for developing
and carrying out learning endeavours in an autonomous manner without being
prompted or guided by other people, such as teachers, parents or peers. Indeed, as
pointed out by Oddi (1987), persistence is a psychological variable, which is not
dependent upon skills. The quintessence of self-directed learning is a willingness to
initiate and maintain systematic learning based on personal initiative. Hence, self-
directed learners are those with strong willpower to follow through and exercise self-
restraint and self-discipline to realise their plans and goals (Candy, 1991). That said,
self-directed learning is not so much about methods of learning, but about developing
capabilities in students to enable them to become autonomous learners (Macaskill &
Denovan, 2013).
The term ‘self-directed learning’ is used interchangeably with a number of educa-
tional concepts in the literature, such as autonomous learning, self-regulated learning
and lifelong learning (Hiemstra, 2000; Svedberg, 2010). While autonomous learning
can be considered synonymous to self-directed learning, self-regulated learning and
lifelong learning are concepts that are not the same as self-directed learning (Macas-
kill & Taylor, 2010). To illustrate, for autonomous learning, the learner accepts
responsibility for his or her own learning and is able to take charge of what is to be
learnt as well as when and how to learn it (Chene, 1983; Chan, 2001). Hence, auton-
omous learning shares the same fundamental principle of self-directed learning (i.e.

© 2018 British Educational Research Association

the locus of control and the responsibility for learning lie in the hands of the learner)
(Pierson, 1996). Meanwhile, for self-regulated learning, although it appears highly
similar to self-directed learning, there is a distinctive difference between the two (Pil-
ling-Cormick & Garrison, 2007; Loyens et al., 2008). As explained by Jossberger
et al. (2010), self-directed learning is situated at the macro level, which concerns the
planning of the learning trajectory as a whole, since the self-directed learner is always
the one to decide what is to be learned and how best to accomplish it. In contrast,
self-regulated learning is a more micro-level process, concerning the processes within
task execution, whereby the learner is involved in monitoring, regulating and control-
ling their own cognition, motivation and behaviour in the learning process. Self-direc-
ted learning, therefore, is a broader concept than self-regulated learning. As to
lifelong learning, self-directed learning is indeed a prerequisite for this (Greveson &
Spencer, 2005). As explained by Candy (1991), self-directed learning and lifelong
learning have a reciprocal relationship. Given that self-directed learning is the princi-
pal activity in the independent pursuit of learning, lifelong learning is ‘equipping peo-
ple with skills and competencies to continue their own “self-education” beyond the
end of formal schooling’ (Candy, 1991, p. 15). Self-directed learning, therefore, can
be considered both a means and an end to lifelong learning.

Self-directed learning in higher education

Given that the ultimate aim of self-directed learning is to facilitate students to become
autonomous and independent learners, there is a shift that moves away from teacher-
centred learning to student-centred learning, underpinned by a move from large lec-
tures towards the use of small-group teaching and learning (Smith, 2016). For
instance, problem-based learning is one of the main approaches in higher education
to encourage self-directed learning in students. For problem-based learning, small
groups of students learn and work collaboratively to understand and solve various
content-related problems that are presented in a case format (Cockrell et al., 2000).
During the process, students have to select and study the relevant information and lit-
erature for the issues generated and to plan and monitor the study activities that need
to be carried out. Then, they have to share and critically evaluate their findings and to
elaborate on knowledge acquired, if necessary. Hence, problem-based learning not
only helps students to construct an extensive and flexible knowledge base, but also
helps them to become effective collaborators and develop effective problem-solving
and self-directed learning skills (Loyens et al., 2008).

Self-directed learning and student learning outcomes

There is accumulating research evidence on the positive relationships between self-
directed learning and various student learning outcomes. For example, Lounsbury
et al. (2009) reported that self-directed learning was significantly correlated with the
cumulative grade point average (GPA) for college students and a number of cognitive
ability measures, including the ACT college entrance examination test, verbal reason-
ing, numerical reasoning, abstract reasoning and overall reasoning. Similarly, Zhoc
and Chen (2016) found that self-directed learning was positively associated with

© 2018 British Educational Research Association

students’ GPA and public examination results of the Hong Kong Advanced Level
Examination (HKALE) and the Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education
(HKDSE). Indeed, the experience and opportunity to engage in self-directed learning
activities were found to enhance students’ confidence, intrinsic motivation to learn,
critical thinking, quality of understanding as well as retention and recall (Fry, 1972;
Lunky-Child et al., 2001; Jennings, 2007; Smedly, 2007).

Relationship between EI and self-directed learning

‘Emotion is the foundation of learning’ (Zull, 2006, p. 7). It has a role to play in the
process of learning, including self-directed learning (Rager, 2009). Emotion, how-
ever, is a double-edged sword, which can serve as a motivator to enhance learning,
but can also prevent one from learning effectively. EI, which involves the ability to
manage emotions, can therefore make a critical difference to students’ learning and
academic performance.
More specifically, the relationship between EI and self-directed learning could be
unravelled from McCombs and Whisler’s (1989) analysis regarding the role of affec-
tive variables in autonomous learning. According to McCombs and Whisler (1989):
The propensity of learners for autonomous learning is a function of the development of cog-
nitive and metacognitive abilities for (a) processing, planning and regulating learning activi-
ties; and (b) controlling and regulating affect and motivation. . . If learners are to apply
processes necessary for autonomous learning, they must generate positive affect and motiva-
tion toward the learning task and toward applying the mental effort required. (p. 277)

The analysis by McCombs and Whisler reveals the significance of two elements in
driving autonomous or self-directed learning: (i) self-regulation and control of affect;
and (ii) generation of positive affect and motivation, which are both core components
of EI.

Self-regulation and control of affect

Self-directed learning involves processing, planning and regulating learning activities.
In the process of self-directed learning, self-regulation of affect is particularly impor-
tant as students are required to suppress distractions and other short-term attractions
so as to sustain their focus and effort on tasks in order to meet their self-defined learn-
ing goals (Pintrich & De Groot, 1990; Fredricks et al., 2004). Moreover, self-regula-
tion of affect is significant to avoid ruminating on negative events during times of
frustration. In so doing, it helps to maintain effort and persistence to act on progress-
ing towards the learning goals. The capability to regulate negative emotions also pro-
vides an adaptive mechanism for students to handle stressful academic learning
(Saklofske et al., 2012). That said, it is functional in helping students to become
more emotionally stable, which helps to minimise the adverse effects of negative emo-
tions on cognitive functioning for academic learning (Perera & DiGiacomo, 2013).
Furthermore, EI is at the core of self-regulation (Mayer & Salovey, 1993; DeSteno
& Salovey, 1997; Green & Salovey, 1999). It is related to the fact that the emotional
abilities of EI to monitor one’s own and others’ emotions, as well as to use this

© 2018 British Educational Research Association

information in the process to guide thinking and action, are facilitative of self-reflection
and self-monitoring, which are important for self-regulation (Lambert & McCombs,
1998; Kanfer & McCombs, 2000). When an individual is more aware of positive or
negative emotions through the processes of self-reflection and self-monitoring, atten-
tion is turned towards the self before taking action. Hence, self-regulation has a self-
referenced origin as an individual evaluates value to self, based on feedback from the
emotions, that facilitates action to regulate oneself in achieving goals (Salovey, 1992).

Generation of positive affect and motivation

Motivation is one tenet that is recognised as central to the concept of self-directed
learning. Motivation not only drives the decision to participate, but also helps to sustain
the will to work through a task to the end, so that goals are achieved (Corno, 1992).
According to Salovey and Mayer (1990), individuals who are more emotionally
intelligent are better at utilising emotions to motivate themselves to achieve a worth-
while end. In the realm of learning, they may harness positive emotions to foster their
intrinsic motivation to learn and to increase their confidence in their capabilities to
motivate goal-oriented behaviour. As suggested by Mega et al. (2014), students’
positive emotions can enhance their belief in the incremental theory of intelligence
(i.e. conceiving intelligence as changeable and increasable), which thus motivates the
enhancement of intellectual abilities through effort and learning. Moreover, positive
emotions also enhance students’ belief in their own intelligence, which can have a
motivating effect on learning (i.e. making more effort to understand their academic
work, as well as planning, monitoring and regulating their academic study) (Seifert,
2004). More importantly, affective state can affect students’ goal adoption, with stu-
dents experiencing positive emotions tending to feel that they have the resources to
approach a certain goal, which in turn facilitates goal-approaching behaviour. In con-
trast, students experiencing negative emotions tend to perceive themselves as having
no resources to approach a particular goal, and may therefore withdraw from goal
engagement (Linnenbrink, 2007). While approach motivation was found to be asso-
ciated with higher academic performance, avoidance motivation was found to be
related to lower academic achievement (Huang, 2012).

EI and student success

In higher education, there is wide agreement that student success should include not
only traditional measures of academic achievement, but also the attainment of desired
student and personal development outcomes (also referred to as generic learning out-
comes, such as communication skills, critical thinking, creativity and lifelong learn-
ing), as well as the degree to which students are satisfied with their college experience
(Kuh et al., 2006).

EI and academic performance

Academic performance is a traditional measure of student success in higher education
and there is increasing evidence supporting the positive relationship between EI and

© 2018 British Educational Research Association

academic performance. For example, studies have shown the significant association
between EI and academic performance, such as GPA and examination results
(O’Connor & Little, 2003; Fabio & Palazzeschi, 2009; Hogan et al., 2010). Students
who were academically successful were found to have significantly higher EI than the
unsuccessful students (Parker et al., 2004, 2005). Indeed, EI was found to predict
academic performance after controlling for general mental abilities and personality
traits (Song et al., 2010). In a study conducted by Sanchez-Ruiz et al. (2013), they
even found that EI was able to predict academic performance over and above cogni-
tive ability and established personality traits. Above all, based on a meta-analytic
study that involved 8,700 participants, EI was found to have modest to moderate
validity in predicting academic performance (Perera & DiGiacomo, 2013).

EI and the development of generic learning outcomes

Beyond academic performance, generic learning outcomes are considered important
measures of student success as they enable individuals to successfully navigate the
working world and meet the needs of a rapidly changing and knowledge-intensive
economy (Bridgstock, 2009). Generic outcomes (also referred to as graduate attri-
butes and generic skills) are the qualities, skills and abilities that students are expected
to develop during their time at university. These go beyond disciplinary expertise or
technical knowledge, and help to prepare graduates for their unknown future
(Bowden et al., 2000; Barrie, 2007).
In this regard, EI also contributes to students’ development of generic outcomes,
including social, cognitive and self-growth outcomes. The main reason is that EI
facilitates social interaction in an increasingly interactive and collaborative learning
environment in higher education. In fact, there is accumulating evidence on the sig-
nificant association between EI and positive social relationships (Lopes et al., 2003,
2004). One attributable reason is that ability in emotional perception was related to
greater accuracy in the assessment of mood experienced by others, which in turn was
pertinent to successful interactions with others (Engelberg & Sjoberg, 2004). More-
over, individuals with higher EI were able to make use of the emotional contents of
their experiences to develop greater attachment to others, building positive social
relationships (Clarke, 2010). Beyond this, EI is associated with positive emotions that
facilitate social interactions; the expression of positive emotions tends to elicit favour-
able responses from others, but the expression of negative emotions tends to drive
people away (Furr & Funder, 1998). Hence, individuals who are unable to create pos-
itive emotions were found to have greater difficulty in developing and sustaining even
casual interpersonal relationships (Ekman, 1992).
In this relation, EI is positively related to the development of cognitive outcomes
(e.g. critical and analytical thinking, problem solving and viewing things from a
broader perspective) as EI contributes to positive interactions with peers and teach-
ers, which are found to be crucial for general cognitive growth (Pascarella & Teren-
zini, 2005). More specifically, gains in cognitive development are linked with
activities such as studying or working on group projects with peers, exposure to peo-
ple with diverse backgrounds and perspectives, and discussing subject matters or
issues related to their studies with peers and teachers (Kuh et al., 2006). Similarly,

© 2018 British Educational Research Association

for social outcomes (e.g. communication skills, leadership and teamwork), interac-
tions with peers and teachers, as well as participation in educational out-of-class expe-
riences (e.g. work experience, residential hall living experience and meaningful
leadership activities) are all significant (Astin, 1993; Kuh, 1995; Pascarella & Teren-
zini, 2005). As to the self-growth outcomes (such as time management and critical
self-reflection), peer interactions, voluntary work, community service and experience
of serving in student organisations are all positively related (Kuh, 1995; Astin et al.,
1999). To facilitate self-growth, critical reflection is an essential element, which is
motivated and prompted by the intensity of emotions experienced. Hence, individu-
als with higher EI are more aware of emotions in the self and others, facilitating more
critical reflections and thereby fostering self-growth (Clarke, 2010).

EI and students’ satisfaction with their university experience

In addition to academic achievement and generic learning outcomes, there is a need
to complement student success with student satisfaction with their university experi-
ence, which refers to the degree to which students are satisfied with their experience
in the learning environment (Kuh et al., 2006; Tessema et al., 2012). Student satis-
faction is an important attribute or goal of the overall collegiate experience, and hence
a key outcome of higher education (Astin, 1993; Grayson & Meilman, 1999). More
importantly, it is an important outcome variable that is positively associated with
other dimensions of student success (e.g. academic performance, levels of student
engagement and social integration) (Strauss & Volkwein, 2002; NSSE, 2005).
There are no previous studies that investigate the direct relationship between EI
and students’ satisfaction with their university experience. Yet, the study con-
ducted by Lounsbury et al. (2005) may help to shed light on the relationship
between the two, finding as it did that there is no obvious relationship between
emotional stability and college satisfaction. Since EI is associated with emotional
stability, individuals with high EI are better at regulating their emotions and hence
are more emotionally stable (Salovey et al., 1999). Therefore, it is believed that
there is also no direct relationship between EI and students’ satisfaction with their
university experience. Instead of EI, Lounsbury et al. (2009) found that self-direc-
ted learning leads to positive-valued outcomes, such as GPA, which in turn
increase college satisfaction. This finding is consistent with the previous result
reported by Lounsbury et al. (2005) (i.e. higher GPA would lead to higher levels
of college satisfaction). In a similar vein, gains in generic outcomes (including
social, cognitive and self-growth outcomes) should lead students to be more satis-
fied with their college experience.

The present study

The aim of the present study was to examine the role of EI on self-directed learning
and how both EI and self-directed learning contribute to key learning outcomes in
higher education, including both the academic (i.e. GPA) and generic learning out-
comes (i.e. social, cognitive and self-growth outcomes), as well as students’ satisfac-
tion with the university experience. Specifically, it was postulated that while EI and

© 2018 British Educational Research Association

self-directed learning both directly influence the various student learning outcomes,
EI also influences self-directed learning, which in turn enhances the different student
learning outcomes. That said, self-directed learning would be partially mediating the
relationship between EI and the various student learning outcomes.
The study is significant as it provides empirical evidence on the value of EI and
self-directed learning in promoting student success. Given that EI has been shown to
be modifiable through training or intervention (Di Fabio & Kenny, 2011; Vesely
et al., 2014), the study has practical implications on how to enhance the key learning
outcomes in higher education, including students’ academic performance, generic
outcomes and their satisfaction with the university experience. It can also help shed
light on how best to improve the quality of undergraduate education, especially since
the early experiences in higher education are critical in establishing values, attitudes
and approaches to learning that will promote success for and beyond tertiary educa-
tion (McInnis & James, 1995; Trautwein & Bosse, 2017).
Apart from the above, the study contributes to expand our understanding of self-
directed learning studied in the eastern context (a large body of research on self-direc-
ted learning has been conducted mainly in the western context, which casts doubt on
the applicability of this concept in the eastern context) (Kramsch & Sullivan, 1996;
Chan et al., 2002). In fact, students in Hong Kong are generally perceived to be
dependent, reticent and passive (Pierson, 1996; Chan, 2001). Before the introduc-
tion of the New Senior Secondary Curriculum (NSSC) in 2009, the old curriculum
was criticised as being largely examination oriented, emphasising passive learning. As
a result, students under the old curriculum were used to learning in a teacher-centred
approach, with teachers having great control over the learning process. As such, stu-
dents tended to see knowledge as something to be transmitted by the teachers, rather
than as something to be explored and discovered on their own. Their passivity in
learning could also be reflected in their preference for memorisation and regurgitation
of information, an adaptive strategy for coping with assessment demands. To address
this problem, the NSSC was developed based on the guiding principle of developing
‘students’ overall capacities for self-directed, lifelong learning’ (Education and Man-
power Bureau, 2005, p. 20). In addition to increasing students’ competence in critical
thinking and independent learning, its ultimate purpose was to nurture students to
become self-directed lifelong learners. In other words, self-directed learning is a
timely issue that is greatly applicable in the local context.

Method

Participants
A total of 560 first-year undergraduate students from 10 faculties of a university in
Hong Kong responded to the survey at two time points of the study. Among them,
there were 213 males (38.0%) and 346 females (61.8%) [1 unreported (0.2%)].
Their ages ranged from 17 to 25 (M = 18.35, SD = 1.10). All of the respondents in
the study were Chinese. The academic disciplines of the participants are listed in
Table 1.

© 2018 British Educational Research Association

Procedures
The study adopted a prospective longitudinal design. Participants were invited to fill
in a paper survey during the registration period, which included measures of EI and
self-directed learning, as well as items on the background information of students
(e.g. gender, age and faculty). To prevent self-presentation, students were told that
the aims of the survey were to better understand their learning attitudes and personal
emotional experiences, instead of measuring their EI and self-directedness in learn-
ing. Then, they were followed up via email to answer an online survey at the end of
the first year, so as to tap students’ GPA and their satisfaction with the university
experience, as well as their achievement of the various generic outcomes. Participa-
tion in the study was entirely voluntary.

Measures
Emotional intelligence. EI was measured via the 33-item Emotional Intelligence Scale
(EIS) (Schutte et al., 1998), developed on the basis of Salovey and Mayer’s (1990)
model of EI. The scale has six key dimensions, including: (i) appraisal of emotions in
the self (AES) (e.g. ‘I am aware of my emotions as I experience them’); (ii) appraisal of
emotions in others (AEO) (e.g. ‘I know what other people are feeling just by looking at
them’); (iii) emotional regulation of the self (ERS) (e.g. ‘I seek out activities that make
me happy’); (iv) emotional expression (EE) (e.g. ‘I know when to speak about my per-
sonal problems to others’); (v) emotional regulation of others (ERO) (e.g. ‘I help other
people feel better when they are down’); and (vi) utilisation of emotions in problem solv-
ing (UEPS) (e.g. ‘I use good moods to help myself keep trying in the face of obstacles’)
(Zhoc et al., 2017). The internal consistency of the scale was reported by Zhoc et al.
(2017) to range from 0.85 to 0.93.

Self-directed learning. Self-directed learning was measured using the Self-Directed

Learning Scale (SDLS). The SDLS consists of 10 items, and is a uni-dimensional

Table 1. Academic disciplines of the participants in this study

Faculty n (%)

Architecture 30 (5.4%)
Arts 70 (12.5%)
Business & Economics 96 (17.1%)
Dentistry 10 (1.8%)
Education 31 (5.5%)
Engineering 64 (11.4%)
Law 25 (4.5%)
Medicine 88 (15.7%)
Science 92 (16.4%)
Social Sciences 52 (9.3%)
Missing 2 (0.4%)
Total 560 (100%)

© 2018 British Educational Research Association

scale developed by Lounsbury and Gibson (2006). Respondents have to indicate their
level of agreement on a five-point Likert scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly
agree). A higher total score on the SDLS would imply a higher level of self-directed-
ness in learning. Examples of the items include: ‘If there is something I don’t understand
in a class, I always find a way to learn it on my own’, ‘I am very motivated to learn on my
own without having to rely on other people’, and so on. The internal consistency of the
scale was reported to range from 0.84 to 0.87 in the college samples (Lounsbury
et al., 2009).

Student learning outcomes. In the follow-up survey, there was a 15-item Student
Learning Outcomes Scale (SLOS) that was designed to tap students’ self-
evaluation on the achievement of the generic learning outcomes. The scale was
devised with reference to the educational aims and institutional learning outcomes
for the undergraduate programme of the sampled university, which could be cate-
gorised broadly into the cognitive, social and self-growth outcomes of students.
The details of items in each category are listed in Table 2. The confirmatory fac-
tor analyses (CFA) results supported the three-factor model of the scale (see
Table 4 later for more details). Besides, the Cronbach alpha coefficients for the
social, cognitive and self-growth outcomes in this study were 0.87, 0.83 and 0.83,
respectively, indicating that all three factors were internally consistent. Apart from
the above, there were two items that gauged students’ end-of-year GPA and their
satisfaction with the university experience (‘overall evaluation of the first-year uni-
versity experience’).

Data-analytic plan. Structural equation modelling (SEM) (AMOS 23.0) was per-
formed to conduct measurement and structural analyses. Prior to testing the struc-
tural model, CFA were performed to validate the factor structure of the three
measurement scales used in the study. In addition to the conventional v2 test that was
used to evaluate whether the data deviate from the model significantly, a number of

Table 2. Scale measuring students’ self-evaluation on the achievement of the cognitive, social and
self-growth outcomes at the end of the academic year

Cognitive outcomes Social outcomes Self-growth outcomes

1. Dealing with unfamiliar 1. Communicating effectively with 1. Managing time more

problems others effectively
2. Thinking creatively 2. Greater understanding of others 2. Learning a new skill or
knowledge by yourself
3. Thinking analytically and 3. Getting along with people of 3. Ability to have critical
critically different cultural and ethnic self-reflection
backgrounds
4. Viewing things from a 4. Working collaboratively with others 4. Lifelong learning
global perspective
5. Developing in-depth 5. Leadership skills 5. Upholding personal
knowledge in my areas of and professional ethics
study

© 2018 British Educational Research Association

fit statistics were also employed to assess the model fit [e.g. comparative fit index
(CFI), goodness-of-fit index (GFI), normed fit index (NFI), non-normed fit index
(NNFI) and root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA)]. According to Hu
and Bentler (1999), values of CFI, NFI and NNFI should be over 0.95 so as to be
recognised as a good fit, although 0.90 is considered by many researchers as an
acceptable cutoff (Bentler & Bonett, 1980). As to the RMSEA, a value of 0.05 or less
indicates a close model fit (Browne & Cudeck, 1993), while a value below 0.08 is still
considered acceptable (MacCallum et al., 1996).
The purpose of performing SEM was to verify our hypothesised model that illus-
trates the structural relationships among EI, self-directed learning and the various
student learning outcomes as a whole, including students’ GPA, generic outcomes
and their satisfaction with the university experience. Since EI is a latent factor in the
model, multiple regression analyses were employed to further tease out whether and
how the six factors of EI are significant in influencing self-directed learning and the
achievement of generic outcomes.

Results

Preliminary analyses: Correlations among study variables

As shown in Table 3, EI was significantly correlated with self-directed learning
(r = 0.46, p < 0.01). Moreover, except for GPA, EI was positively associated with
students’ satisfaction with their university experience (r = 0.13, p < 0.01) and their
attainment of generic learning outcomes (r = 0.31, p < 0.01). As to self-directed
learning, it was positively correlated with GPA (r = 0.12, p < 0.01) and generic
learning outcomes (r = 0.26, p < 0.01), as well as students’ satisfaction with their
university experience (r = 0.14, p < 0.01). It is worth noting that GPA (r = 0.25,
p < 0.01) and students’ attainment of generic leaning outcomes (r = 0.51,
p < 0.01) were both positively associated with students’ satisfaction with their uni-
versity experience.

Measurement models
Confirmatory factor analyses were performed to test the measurement models of the
EIS, SDLS and SLOS. All the fit statistics indicated a good fit of the data to the mea-
surement models tested (see Table 4).

Structural model: Relationships among EI, self-directed learning and student learning outcomes
The results of the SEM supported that the model was tenable [v2(174) = 348.03,
p < 0.001, GFI = 0.94, CFI = 0.95, RMSEA = 0.04, NFI = 0.91, NNFI = 0.94]
(see Figure 1). As expected, EI had quite a substantial association with self-directed
learning (b = 0.62, p < 0.005) and was able to explain a total of 38% of its variance.
Self-directed learning, in turn, was positively related to both the GPA (b = 0.15,
p < 0.005) and generic learning outcomes (b = 0.14, p < 0.005). While EI was posi-
tively associated with generic learning outcomes (b = 0.20, p < 0.005), it was found

© 2018 British Educational Research Association

Table 3. Correlation matrix for all study variables

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1. EI –
2. Self-directed learning 0.46** –
3. GPA 0.02 0.12** –
4. UES 0.13** 0.14** 0.25** –
5. Generic learning out- 0.31** 0.26** 0.15** 0.51** –
comes
6. Cognitive outcomes 0.28** 0.25** 0.15** 0.53** 0.92** –
7. Social outcomes 0.30** 0.21** 0.08 0.46** 0.87** 0.73** –
8. Self-growth outcomes 0.27** 0.24** 0.18** 0.48** 0.89** 0.77** 0.66** –

Notes: **p < 0.01.

UES = satisfaction with the university experience.

Table 4. CFA results for EIS, SDLS and SLOS

Measurements v2 d.f. RMSEA GFI CFI NFI NNFI

EIS 966.67** 306 0.04 0.96 0.95 0.92 0.93

(6-factor model)
SDLS 196.11** 32 0.05 0.98 0.95 0.94 0.93
(1-factor model)
SLOS 369.28** 83 0.07 0.92 0.93 0.91 0.91
(3-factor model)

Notes: **p < 0.001.

to have non-significant association with GPA. Furthermore, the results showed that
both the GPA (b = 0.17, p < 0.005) and generic learning outcomes (b = 0.49,
p < 0.005) were positively linked with students’ satisfaction with their university
experience.
Overall, the model was able to explain 5% of the variance in GPA, 9% of the vari-
ance in generic learning outcomes and 30% of the variance in students’ satisfaction
with their university experience, respectively.

Direct, indirect and total effects of EI and self-directed learning on student learning outcomes
To better delineate the relationships among the variables, the direct, indirect and
total effects of EI and self-directed learning on the various student learning outcomes
are presented in Table 5. It is worth noting that EI was found to have a significant
total effect on both the generic learning outcomes (b = 0.29, p < 0.005) and

SDL1 SDL2 SDL3 SDL4 SDL5

AES .66
.58 .55 .52 .49
.49
.42 SDL6
AEO .65
.38 .53 SDL7
EE .72
.62 .52
.70 EI SDL SDL8
ERS .58
.74
.52
SDL9
ERO
.20 .15
SDL10
.57 .14 n.s.
UEPS .09

.05
Generic .17
LOs GPA
.49 .30 .17

.92 .81 .86 UES

CogOut SocOut SGOut

Figure 1. Model illustrating the relationships among EI, self-directed learning and different
student learning outcomes
Note: AEO = appraisal of emotions in others; AES = appraisal of emotions in the self;
CogOut = cognitive outcomes; EE = emotional expression; ERO = emotional regulation of others;
ERS = emotional regulation of the self; Generic LOs = generic learning outcomes; SDL = self-
directed learning; SGOut = self-growth outcomes; SocOut = social outcomes; UEPS = utilisation
of emotions in problem solving; UES = satisfaction with the university experience. [Colour figure
can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]

students’ satisfaction with the university experience (b = 0.14, p < 0.005), but not on
the GPA. Having said that, based on 1,000 bootstrap samples, we found that through
self-directed learning, EI had significant indirect effects on students’ GPA (b = 0.14,
p < 0.05), generic learning outcomes (b = 0.09, p < 0.05) and satisfaction with the
university experience (b = 0.14, p < 0.005).

Multiple regression analyses examining how the different emotional abilities of EI influence
students’ self-directed learning
The multiple regression analyses (see Table 6) clearly delineate that the three emo-
tional abilities of EI (i.e. ERS, ERO and AES) were able to explain 26% of the vari-
ance in self-directed learning [adjusted R2 = 0.26, F(3, 556) = 65.55, p < 0.001].
Among the three emotional abilities of EI, ERS was the most influential (b = 0.29,
p < 0.001), explaining the largest proportion of the variance in self-directed learning
(adjusted R2 = 0.21). This was followed by ERO (b = 0.21, p < 0.001) and

Table 5. Direct, indirect and total effects of EI and self-directed learning on generic learning
outcomes and satisfaction with the university experience

Satisfaction with the

GPA Generic learning outcomes university experience

Direct Indirect Total Direct Indirect Total Direct Indirect Total

EI !0.13 0.14* 0.01 0.20* 0.09* 0.29 – 0.14 0.14**

SDL 0.15* 0.03* 0.18* 0.14** - 0.14** – 0.10* 0.10*

Notes: **p < 0.005; *p < 0.05.

Table 6. Multiple regression analyses examining how the different emotional abilities of EI
influence students’ self-directed learning and generic learning outcomes

Standardised b p Adjusted R2 change Adjusted R2 F p

Self-directed learning
ERS 0.29 0.00** 0.21
ERO 0.21 0.00** 0.04 0.26 65.55 0.00**
AES 0.13 0.00** 0.01
Generic learning outcomes
UEPS 0.21 0.00** 0.08 0.10 31.54 0.00**
ERO 0.17 0.00** 0.02

Notes: **p < 0.005.

AES (b = 0.13, p < 0.005). As to generic learning outcomes, the emotional

abilities of UEPS (b = 0.26, p < 0.001) and ERO (b = 0.21, p < 0.001) were able to
explain a total of 10% of the variance [adjusted R2 = 0.10, F(2, 557) = 31.54,
p < 0.001].

Discussion
The aim of the present study was to examine the effects of EI on self-directed learning
and how EI and self-directed learning contribute to key learning outcomes in higher
education, including academic achievement, generic learning outcomes (i.e., social,
cognitive and self-growth outcomes) and students’ satisfaction with their university
experience. There are several findings that are worth noting.
Firstly, the study expands the extant literature by affirming the role of EI on
self-directed learning, which in turn is shown to enhance both the GPA and gen-
eric learning outcomes, including cognitive, social and self-growth outcomes.
Apart from concurring with the results of previous studies (Buvoltz et al., 2008;
Muller, 2008) in showing the significant association between EI and self-directed
learning, the present study, as a step further, finds that there are three emotional
abilities that are significant in driving the occurrence of self-directed learning:
ERS, AES and ERO.

As expected, emotional regulation of the self is the most crucial for self-directed
learning. Given that self-directed learners are goal oriented, it is critical for them to be
self-disciplined so as to realise their self-defined learning goals (Kirwan et al., 2014).
Indeed, in the process of achieving learning goals, self-regulation of emotions is
important so as to override different temptations and short-term attractions that may
lead to distraction and procrastination in goal-directed behaviour. Apart from this, as
mentioned before, the process of self-directed learning is painful as students have to
experience negativity, confusion, frustration and dissatisfaction with their learning
experience when they enter a new learning experience. The ability to regulate nega-
tive emotions is therefore critical, to sustain study effort and persist in the face of set-
backs in the course of pursuing goals.
As to the appraisal of emotions in the self, it is an important process facilitating
self-reflection, which in turn is critical for self-directed learning. Given that emotions
are signals providing information to an individual on what is valuable and meaningful,
an individual who is well aware of their own emotions can make good use of this emo-
tional information to guide thinking and action. For example, in the process of goal
setting for self-directed learning, the desirability of the goal is a function of the posi-
tive and negative emotional consequences of goal pursuit and achievement or failure
in achieving the goal. Similarly, in the process of monitoring and evaluating progress
during self-directed learning, individuals will use feedback from their emotions to
determine actions for further self-regulation (or not) in achieving the intended goals
(Salovey, 1992). That said, the appraisal of emotions in the self is critical for
self-directed learning.
Meanwhile, for the emotional regulation of others, it is facilitative of intellectual
exchanges with others in the highly interactive learning environment in higher educa-
tion. Although self-directed learners are self-reliant in learning, intellectual exchanges
with teachers and peers are critical parts of the learning process that not only nurture
cognitive growth and intrinsic motivation, helping individuals to delve into the sub-
ject matter, but may also inspire a solution to the problems encountered during learn-
ing. In short, self-directed learning is fostered by helpful interactions and
relationships with other people, who can offer advice and insight that facilitate indi-
viduals to progress in the course of achieving the learning goals. This explains why
emotional regulation of others is significant for self-directed learning.
Secondly, the study provides more evidence on the relationship between self-direc-
ted learning and student learning outcomes. Specifically, it shows that self-directed
learning positively affects not only the GPA, but also students’ development of gen-
eric outcomes, including social, cognitive and self-growth outcomes. In other words,
individuals with a higher level of self-directedness tend to gain more in both academic
and non-academic terms. This is understandable considering that, in the process of
learning, self-directed learners tend to take the initiative and are self-regulated in
learning, which leads them to exhibit behaviours (such as taking a deep learning
approach, setting higher learning goals and having more discussion and collaboration
with faculty and peers) that help them to achieve more in both academic and non-aca-
demic terms. It is worth noting that both the GPA and the generic learning outcomes
are influential on students’ satisfaction with the university experience, with the latter
having a much greater weight than the former, indicating that university students’

focus is no longer on academic performance only, but on the extent of achieving per-
sonal development such as leadership skills, problem-solving and communication
skills, as well as analytical and creative thinking, and so on. In other words, the find-
ings in this study correspond to those of Lounsbury et al. (2009), in which self-direc-
ted learners were found to be more optimistic, conscientious, self-actualised and
open to new experiences. They not only achieved higher academic performance, but
also had higher college satisfaction.
Thirdly, EI is found to pose a significant direct impact on the generic student learn-
ing outcomes. Further analyses show that UEPS and ERO are influential in students’
achievement of generic outcomes, which are largely acquired through the processes of
interacting with peers and teachers as well as participating in educational out-of-class
activities (such as community work, internship and serving in student organisations).
For UEPS and ERO, they are both significant in social interactions. For example, the
expression of positive emotions, the suppression of negative communication with
others, the control of emotional responses to private problems are all important in
enhancing interpersonal relationships (Salovey & Mayer, 1990). The achievement of
the generic learning outcomes, in turn, can facilitate academic performance. After all,
academic learning involves a lot of cognitive activities, which requires having different
cognitive skills, such as problem-solving skills and viewing things from a global per-
spective. Besides, social skills may also facilitate academic performance through qual-
ity interaction with teaching staff and peers, as cognitive abilities can be enhanced
through active discussion of ideas, debating points of view and critically reviewing
work with peers or teachers (Guthrie & Wigfield, 2000).
Last but not least, while it was found in many studies that there was a direct rela-
tionship between EI and academic performance, this study shows that the relation-
ship between the two is mediated by students’ self-directedness in learning.
Moreover, EI may differentially predict success by major subject area, with social and
emotional skills more crucial for liberal arts than for sciences (Parker et al., 2009).
Indeed, there were concurring results reported by Zhoc et al. (2017), who found that
EI was positively associated with students’ GPA in the faculties of business and social
sciences only, not with all students as a whole. Since subjects in both faculties are
people oriented, it is likely that a good knowledge and understanding of the emotions
of the self and others could contribute to better academic performance in studies
which are related to an understanding of human behaviour (e.g. business, psychology,
sociology and political science).
The study is significant as it not only establishes the affirmative relationship
between EI and self-directed learning, but also teases out the specific emotional abili-
ties that are influential on self-directed learning and generic learning outcomes. Given
that EI is shown to be modifiable through training or intervention programmes (Di
Fabio & Kenny, 2011; Vesely et al., 2014), a practical implication of this study is
that relevant interventions may be incorporated in the university orientation pro-
gramme so as to lay a better psychological foundation that fosters students’ optimal
functioning in the university. In addition, an inclusion of EI as part of the standard
college curriculum could lead to many potential personal, social and societal benefits
(Vandervoort, 2006).

Despite the positive findings, there are several limitations in this study that should
be noted. Firstly, the study sample was restricted to one university in Hong Kong.
Since the sample was not representative of higher education as a whole, the study
should be replicated in other higher institutions so as to ensure the generalisability of
the results. Besides, the study made use of self-reported GPA. Although there is a
high correlation between self-reported and actual college GPA (r = 0.90), the use of
actual academic achievement from school records could further ensure the reliability
of the data (Kuncel et al., 2005). Moreover, self-report measures are used to assess
EI, self-directed learning and the generic learning outcomes, which may be subject to
response biases and cannot accurately reflect actual behaviours (Mega et al., 2014).
Behavioural measures may be needed as well in future studies.
To conclude, students who are more emotionally intelligent have higher self-direct-
edness, which leads them to achieve more not only in academic terms, but also in per-
sonal development including social, cognitive and self-growth aspects. As a result,
they are also more satisfied with their overall university experience. To facilitate self-
directed learning, there are three crucial emotional abilities of students that should be
strengthened: ERS, AES and ERO.

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Karen C.H Zhoc (2018) Trí tuệ cảm xúc (EI) và học tập tự do

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Karen C.H Zhoc (2018) Trí tuệ cảm xúc (EI) và học tập tự do

Uploaded by

Emotional intelligence (EI) and self- directed learning: Examining their relation and

contribution to better student learning outcomes in higher education

NC 4.0. To view a copy of this license, visit https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/?

Educational Research Journal, 44(6), 982-1004.

Emotional intelligence (EI) and self-

Self-directed learning is recognised as a key goal of higher education. To facilitate self-directed

Keywords: emotional regulation; emotional intelligence; higher education; self-directed learning

*Corresponding author. Department of Curriculum and Instruction, The Education University of

© 2018 British Educational Research Association

© 2018 British Educational Research Association

What is self-directed learning?

© 2018 British Educational Research Association

Self-directed learning in higher education

Self-directed learning and student learning outcomes

© 2018 British Educational Research Association

Relationship between EI and self-directed learning

Self-regulation and control of affect

© 2018 British Educational Research Association

Generation of positive affect and motivation

EI and student success

EI and academic performance

© 2018 British Educational Research Association

EI and the development of generic learning outcomes

© 2018 British Educational Research Association

EI and students’ satisfaction with their university experience

The present study

© 2018 British Educational Research Association

© 2018 British Educational Research Association

Self-directed learning. Self-directed learning was measured using the Self-Directed

Table 1. Academic disciplines of the participants in this study

© 2018 British Educational Research Association

Cognitive outcomes Social outcomes Self-growth outcomes

1. Dealing with unfamiliar 1. Communicating effectively with 1. Managing time more

© 2018 British Educational Research Association

Preliminary analyses: Correlations among study variables

© 2018 British Educational Research Association

Table 3. Correlation matrix for all study variables

Notes: **p < 0.01.

Table 4. CFA results for EIS, SDLS and SLOS

Measurements v2 d.f. RMSEA GFI CFI NFI NNFI

EIS 966.67** 306 0.04 0.96 0.95 0.92 0.93

Notes: **p < 0.001.

© 2018 British Educational Research Association

SDL1 SDL2 SDL3 SDL4 SDL5

.92 .81 .86 UES

© 2018 British Educational Research Association

Satisfaction with the

Direct Indirect Total Direct Indirect Total Direct Indirect Total

EI !0.13 0.14* 0.01 0.20* 0.09* 0.29** – 0.14** 0.14**

Notes: **p < 0.005; *p < 0.05.

Standardised b p Adjusted R2 change Adjusted R2 F p

Notes: **p < 0.005.

AES (b = 0.13, p < 0.005). As to generic learning outcomes, the emotional

© 2018 British Educational Research Association

© 2018 British Educational Research Association

© 2018 British Educational Research Association

© 2018 British Educational Research Association

© 2018 British Educational Research Association

© 2018 British Educational Research Association

© 2018 British Educational Research Association

© 2018 British Educational Research Association

Svedberg, M. K. (2010) Self-directed learning and persistence in online asynchronous undergradu-

© 2018 British Educational Research Association

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EI !0.13 0.14* 0.01 0.20* 0.09* 0.29 – 0.14 0.14**