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JANE AUSTEN
Her Early Life
Jane Austen was a great woman novelist of the early 19th century. Jane was born on 16 December 1775 in
Steventon Rectory. She was the second daughter of The Reverend George Austen and his wife Cassandra.
Apart from her older sister, also called Cassandra Jane also had 6 brothers.
In 1783 Jane and her sister were sent to boarding school. While at school they both caught a fever (possibly
typhus) and Jane nearly died. Jane Austen left school in 1786.

The Great Writer

Even as a child Jane Austen loved writing and she wrote a lot of short stories called the Juvenilia. About
1795 she wrote a novel she called Elinor and Marianne. In the years 1796-97 Jane Austen wrote another
novel she called First Impressions. It was later published as Pride and Prejudice. Then in 1798-99 Jane
wrote a novel named Susan. It was published posthumously as Northanger Abbey in 1817.
In 1801 Jane Austen moved with her sister and parents to Bath. Jane Austen was a tall, slim woman. In 1802
she received a proposal of marriage from a man named Harris Bigg-Wither. At first Jane accepted but she
quickly changed her mind. Jane Austen never married. Her father George Austen died in 1805.
In 1807 Jane Austen moved to Southampton. She lived there until 1809. At that time Southampton was a
flourishing port and town with a population of over 8,000. However, in 1809 Jane Austen moved to the
little village of Chawton in north Hampshire.
Then in 1811 Sense and Sensibility was published. Pride and Prejudice was published in 1813. Mansfield
Park was published in 1814. Another book called Emma followed in 1816. Meanwhile Jane Austen wrote
Persuasion, but she died before it could be published. It was published posthumously in 1817.
Jane Austen died on 18 July 1817. Jane was only 41 years old. She was buried in Winchester Cathedral.

PRIDE AND PREJUDICE

At first glance, Pride and Prejudice is simply a novel about a journey toward love. However, there is really
much more to the novel than simply this. While a classic tale of the trials and tribulations of falling in love,
Pride and Prejudice also has quite a lot to say about social classes and women during Regency England.

The novel centers largely around the Bennet family including Mr. Bennet, Mrs. Bennet, and their
five daughters-Jane, Elizabeth, Mary, Kitty, and Lydia. At the beginning of the novel, Mrs. Bennet-
whose life centers around finding husbands for her daughters- is in a fluster because a new neighbor
has moved into the nearby Netherfield estate. She insists that Mr. Bennet go talk to this new
neighbor, a Mr. Bingley, because she hopes he will marry one of her daughters. Though it may
seem trivial, the need for a husband was actually a real concern for women during Regency England.
After Mr. Bennet's death, the Bennet daughters will be left with very little. It is important that they
get married so they will not face a life of poverty. Mrs. Bennet is overly aware of this fact.

Eventually, the Bennets do become acquainted with Mr. Bingley. They go to several balls where he is also
in attendance. His two sisters-Mrs. Hurst and Miss Caroline Bingley-are staying at Netherfield with him,
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and they attend these events as well. Mr. Bingley also brings along his friend, Mr. Darcy who happens to be
very rich. In general, everyone in town finds Mr. Bingley extremely agreeable. However, Mr. Darcy, who is
largely silent and dances with no one, is immediately labeled as proud and unlikeable. In particular, he
slights Elizabeth Bennet by calling her "barely tolerable" while she is within earshot.

Meanwhile, Mr. Bingley and Jane harbor a growing affection for each other. Mrs. Bennet hopes- quite
publically-that they will be married. However, Elizabeth's friend, Charlotte, is concerned that Bingley might
think Jane indifferent to him because she is shy and not always forthright with her feelings. She thinks Jane
should hurry up and marry Bingley before he loses interest. For Charlotte, marriage is a matter of security,
and love is merely a secondary benefit, if it happens at all.

Soon, Mr. Collins comes to visit the Bennets at their estate. A distant cousin, Mr. Collins will inherit
Longbourne when Mr. Bennet dies because is the nearest male relative. The Bennet sisters find him socially
awkward, irritating, and rather a nuisance. Perhaps most annoyingly, he talks constantly about his patroness,
Lady Catherine, whom no one has every heard of nor cares anything about. However, Mr. Collins has come
with the intention of wedding one of the Bennet daughters, though he really only tells this to Mrs. Bennet.
He initially targets Jane but, when he learns that she is being courted already, he decides to pursue Elizabeth
instead.

Meanwhile, the Bennet daughters have become acquainted with a militiaman, a certain Mr. Wickham. Kitty
and Lydia frequent Meryton, where a regiment is stationed, and they flirt shamelessly, encouraged all the
more by their mother. Wickham is one of their acquaintances. Soon enough, Elizabeth becomes rather
charmed by him. She is appalled to hear that he has a history with Mr. Darcy. Wickham claims that he and
Darcy grew up together. Wickham was supposed to receive an inheritance from Mr. Darcy's father but,
according to Wickham, Darcy cheated him out of the money. Elizabeth believes him immediately because
she has always thought herself a rather good judge of character. The story fuels her already growing dislike
of Mr. Darcy.

Shortly after a ball during which Elizabeth shares an unpleasant dance with Mr. Darcy, she receives an equally
unpleasant marriage proposal from Mr. Collins. He lists several reasons for marriage and, interestingly
enough, none of the reasons is love. Completely, surprised, Elizabeth tries to refuse. However, Mr. Collins
insists that she must be toying with him, as he believes this is the norm with young ladies. However, she
persists in her refusal. Mr. Collins even goes so far as to tell her she may never receive another marriage
proposal and that she should accept. Still, Elizabeth refuses.

Naturally, Mrs. Bennet is furious because she viewed this as an opportunity for her daughters to stay at
Longbourne. Not long after Elizabeth's refusal, Mr. Collins proposes to Charlotte Lucas. Charlotte, with no
other prospects of marriage and with the looming prospect of become an old maid, agrees to marry him.
Elizabeth is surprised, though the reader should not be based on their earlier conversation about love and
marriage.

Soon, more surprising news arrives. Bingley, despite his clear interest in Jane, has gone away to London.
Jane hears about it through a letter from Caroline Bingley. Elizabeth suspects that Caroline had something to
do with his going away. Though heartbroken, Jane pretends not to be.

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An aunt and uncle to the Bennet girls-the Gardiners-soon come by for a visit. Sensing Jane's upset state, they
offer to take her away to London for a vacation. Jane agrees. Meanwhile, Elizabeth goes to visit Charlotte
at her new home with Mr. Collins.

Charlotte, though she clearly doesn't love her husband, seems happy enough in her new home. Elizabeth
gets the chance to meet Lady Catherine, and finds her overbearing, proud, and entirely too judgmental.
Surprisingly, Elizabeth also encounters Mr. Darcy while visiting Lady Catherine, as he is Lady Catherine's
nephew. Mr. Darcy's cousin, Colonel Fitzwilliam, is also visiting. Elizabeth spends some time with both of
them and is surprised to learn from Colonel Fitzwilliam that Darcy had recently bragged to him about saving
one of his friends from an imprudent marriage. Elizabeth knows, immediately, that Darcy was referring to
Jane and Bingley. Her dislike of him grows stronger than ever.

She is more surprised than ever, then, when Darcy suddenly shows up at Mr. Collins' home and proposes to
her. Though his proposal is heartfelt, and he mentions his deep feelings for her, Elizabeth can't help but be
offended by his proposal as well. He tells her that he hesitated to propose because he objected to her family's
low status. Elizabeth refuses his offer, telling him she is upset because he separated Bingley and Jane. She
also tells him that she knows about his past with Wickham. With that, Darcy leaves.

He meets her the next day while she is on a walk and gives her a letter. The letter explains everything. He
admits to separating Jane and Bingley; however, he says he only did it because he thought Jane was
indifferent, and he didn't want Bingley's heart broken. As to her claims about Wickham, Darcy disproves
all of them. He tells Elizabeth that he had indeed given Wickham the inheritance he was promised, but that
Wickham gambled it all away. On top of that, Wickham even tried t o elope with Darcy's then fifteen-
y e a r - o l d sister, just to get her money.

Elizabeth is humiliated to learn to truth, and she realizes she was very wrong Darcy and Wickham. For the
first time, she realizes that her prejudice against Darcy completely got in the way of seeing him for who he
really is.

Elizabeth returns home, seeing that Kitty and Lydia are as silly as ever. In particular, Lydia receives an
invitation from a friend of hers, Mrs. Forster, to stay in Brighton where the militia will be stationed.
Elizabeth tells her father this is a bad idea, and that it will only encourage Lydia's flirtation and immature
behavior. However, Mr. Bennet insists it will be an opportunity for her to grow up a little bit. So, Lydia
departs.

At the same time, Elizabeth agrees to travel with the Gardiners and do some sightseeing. Ironically enough,
they end up visiting Pemberley-Mr. Darcy's estate. Mr. Darcy is not supposed to be home; however, he shows
up out of the blue and Elizabeth is completely embarrassed to be seen at his home. Darcy is a completely
gentleman to her, despite this. Elizabeth also hears from his servants how m u c h they respect him, and
s h e begins to see him in a new light.

Just as she is beginning to wonder if she might have a future with Darcy after all, Elizabeth receives terrible
news from home. Lydia has run away with Wickham. As a result, Lydia is in danger of ruining both her
own reputation and that of her family. Her family's only hope is to find Lydia and make sure she marries
Wickham. After telling Darcy what has happened, Elizabeth rushes home.

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Her father and Mr. Gardiner search for Lydia for several days. Mr. Bennet returns home, and a letter from
Mr. Gardiner arrives soon after, explaining that Lydia has been found. Wickham has agreed to marry her.
The Bennet suspect that Mr. Gardiner paid Wickham a handsome sum to marry h e r because Lydia has
very little to offer to an already poor soldier.

Following this, Lydia returns home, oblivious to the fact that she has done anything wrong at all. She
accidentally reveals that Darcy was at her wedding. After writing to Mrs. Gardiner, Elizabeth finds out that
it was Darcy who paid Lydia to marry Wickham. Elizabeth is stunned and grateful that he would do such
a thing, and she finds herself harboring a growing affection to him.

Unexpectedly, Bingley soon returns to Netherfield and, with him, Mr. Darcy. Elizabeth is disappointed that
she doesn't get a chance to talk to Darcy about all that has happened. However, Bingley proposes to Jane
after a few days, apologizing for leaving so suddenly before.

A few days later, Elizabeth receives an unexpected visit from Lady Catherine, who has come to follow up
on a rumor she has heard that Elizabeth is engaged to Mr. Darcy. Lady Catherine demands to know if this is
true and, when she learns it is not, tries to force Elizabeth into promising it will never be true. Elizabeth refuses
to bend to her will but is hopeful because such a rumor could mean that Darcy still has an interest in her.

Indeed, a few days later, Darcy reappears. He and Elizabeth talk about all that has happened, and he asks if
her feelings have changed toward him at all. She says they have, and they agree to be married.

The evolution of both Elizabeth and Darcy's characters is a major focus in the novel. At first, Darcy appears
overly proud because of his high-ranking social status. Meanwhile, Elizabeth is prejudice against him
because of his wealth and rank. It is because of this prejudice that Elizabeth makes false assumptions about
Darcy. And it is Darcy's pride that offends Elizabeth so greatly. However, as the novel progresses, Elizabeth
realizes she was wrong in her prejudice against Darcy and that he is actually a selfless, kind-hearted
individual. Similarly, Darcy realizes his faults and his overly proud nature in judging the Bennet family.
Once these two characters see each other's true natures, only then do they realize what true love really
is and, thus, achieve happiness together.

Additionally, the novel has quite a big to say about women's issues during Regency England. Austen clearly
points out the problems with a society in which women must chose to marry for love or for the sake of a
convenient lifestyle. The characters who are happiest at the end are those who have chosen love over money,
which seems to suggest that Austen is in favor of love. However, characters like Charlotte Lucas also point
out that this is not always a feasible option for women. Sadly, Charlotte must endure a life with an irksome
Mr. Collins as a husband. Though the reader might be disappointed in her, they must also realize Charlotte's
only other option would be life as a spinster and a burden to her parents. Clearly, Austen is a bit critical of
Charlotte's situation. This is also apparent in the overbearing character of Mrs. Bennet, and her singular
obsession with marrying off her daughters. Again, by showing the ridiculousness of Mrs. Bennet's behavior,
Austen shows that there should be more to women than just hoping for a profitable marriage.

EMMA
Rich, beautiful, and privileged Emma Woodhouse fancies herself to be an excellent matchmaker.
When her governess marries the well-to-do widower Mr. Weston, a match that Emma views herself
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to have made, Emma befriends the lower class Harriet Smith and sets out to similarly assist her.
She is convinced that her friend deserves a gentleman, though Harriet’s own parentage is unknown.
She coaxes Harriet into rejecting Mr. Martin, a farmer whom Emma believes below Harriet, and
she instead encourages her friend to admire Mr. Elton, the neighborhood vicar.
Mr. Knightley, a long-time friend and Emma’s brother-in-law, discourages Emma’s matchmaking
efforts. It turns out that all the signs that Emma has been interpreting as evidence of Mr. Elton’s
interest in Harriet were in fact intended for Emma herself. Harriet is heartbroken, and Emma
mortified. Humiliated by Emma’s rejection of him and her attempt to pair him with Harriet, Mr.
Elton retires to Bath. Emma realizes that personal pride in her judgment and her desires for Harriet
blinded her to the real situation. She resolves to never play matchmaker in the future.

Meanwhile, Jane Fairfax, another accomplished and beautiful young woman, returns to Highbury
to visit her aunt and grandmother, Miss Bates and Mrs. Bates. Orphaned at an early age, Jane has
been educated by her father’s friends, the Campbells. She is expected to become a governess, as
she has no independent fortune. Emma greets her arrival with mixed admiration and jealousy, as
another favorite within their social circle. Emma also suspects Jane’s romantic involvement with
her friend’s husband, Mr. Dixon.
Mr. Weston’s son, Frank Churchill is also expected to visit after many delays. He lives with his
snobbish aunt and uncle, Mr. and Mrs. Churchill, in London. Emma anticipates his arrival with
pleasure and finds him charming. Mr. Knightley, on the other hand, immediately dislikes him as
superficial and silly. Frank’s flattering attentions soon single Emma out as the object of his choice.
Mr. Elton returns from Bath with his new bride, the self-important Mrs. Elton, who takes a liking
to Jane and distaste for Emma.
Misperception abounds, as various characters speculate over developing romances. Word games,
riddles, and letters provide fodder for mixed interpretations of who loves whom. Emma enjoys
Frank’s attention, but ultimately decides he is not for her. Mrs. Weston suspects a match between
Mr. Knightley and Jane, which Emma vehemently dismisses. Mr. Knightley saves Harriet from
social humiliation, asking her to dance when Mr. Elton snubs her. Emma encourages what she
believes to be Harriet’s developing interest in Frank, who long ago saved Harriet from the gypsies.
Everyone regards Frank and Emma as a match, but Mr. Knightley suspects Frank’s interest in Jane
and warns Emma. Emma laughingly dismisses his warning, believing she knows the secrets of each
character’s heart. When Mr. Knightley reprimands her for mocking the harmless Miss Bates,
however, she feels great remorse and resolves to improve her behavior to the Bateses.
Mrs. Churchill dies, setting in motion the shocking revelation that Frank and Jane have been secretly
engaged. Frank’s courtship of Emma was a cover to hide his true attachment, which his aunt
opposed. Through a series of painful misunderstandings, Jane broke off their engagement and was
about to take up a governess position. Frank frantically obtained his uncle’s approval to marry her,
and the two reconciled.
Emma also misperceived Harriet’s interest in Frank, as Harriet reveals herself to be in love with
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Mr. Knightley. In turn, Emma’s distress over this revelation triggers her own realization that she,
too, is in love with Mr. Knightley. Emma feels considerable anguish over her various
misperceptions about Frank, Jane, Harriet, and herself. She reproves herself for being blinded by
her own desires and self-interest.
Emma fears that Mr. Knightley will confess his love for Harriet, but to her surprise and delight, he
declares his love for Emma. Emma happily accepts Mr. Knightley’s proposal, and she later has the
opportunity of reflecting with Frank that, despite their many blunders, they have both been luckier
than they deserve in their beloveds. Emma is further cheered upon learning that Harriet has accepted
a second proposal from Mr. Martin. The novel concludes with three marriages: Harriet and Mr.
Martin, Jane and Frank, and Emma and Mr. Knightley—the final match which is celebrated as a
happy union of equals.

SENSE AND SENSIBILITY

Henry Dashwood, lived at Norland Park in Sussex, England, a property owned by his wealthy uncle.
Henry had three daughters by his current wife and one son from a prior marriage. When his uncle
died, Norland was left to Henry’s son John and John’s own son. This left Henry’s three daughters
without much of a fortune, and when he died, he asked John to look after his half-sisters. John, in
response, plans to give his sisters 3000 pounds each, but his wife Fanny quickly persuades him not
to do this, so that their own son will have that money. Henry’s widow, Mrs. Dashwood, and her
three daughters (the rational and self-controlled Elinor, the sensitive Marianne, and the young
Margaret) stay at Norland for several months after Henry’s death. Mrs. Dashwood despises Fanny,
but Elinor becomes close with Fanny’s brother, Edward Ferrars. Mrs. Dashwood and Marianne
think he and Elinor will marry. A relative of Mrs. Dashwood, Sir John Middleton, writes to her and
offers her a place to live on his property, Barton Park. Mrs. Dashwood accepts the offer, and moves
to a cottage on Sir John’s property with her daughters. The Dashwoods meet Sir John and his wife,
Lady Middleton, often attending dinners and balls at their home. They also meet Lady Middleton’s
mother, a kind but gossipy old woman named Mrs. Jennings, who enjoys predicting and
encouraging budding romances. Another frequent guest at the Middletons’ home is Colonel
Brandon, a friend of Sir John and a 35 year-old bachelor. It quickly becomes apparent that Brandon
loves Marianne, but Marianne thinks the idea of marrying a man so old and as lacking in taste as
she thinks Brandon to be is ridiculous.
One day, The Dashwood sisters go out for a walk in the country. When it begins to rain suddenly,
they run back toward their cottage, but Marianne trips and falls. A gentleman who happens to be
passing by picked her up and gallantly carries her home. He introduces himself as Willoughby.
Soon after, the Dashwoods see Willoughby again at dinner at Barton Park. Sir John tells Marianne
that Willoughby is “very well worth catching,” and she begins to grow fond of him. Willoughby
often visits the Dashwood cottage and spends much time with Marianne. They share many of the
same opinions and tastes in art, music, and literature. Mrs. Dashwood guesses that they might
become engaged. Marianne and Willoughby grow closer and closer, as the Dashwoods continue to
attend numerous social events at Barton Park. Margaret sees Marianne give Willoughby a lock of
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her hair, and assumes that they are engaged. One evening at Barton Park, Mrs. Jennings asks Elinor
if she had any man whom she was fond of, and Margaret lets slip that Elinor is taken by someone
whose name began with an F. The next day, a large group assembles at Barton Park to make an
expedition to Colonel Brandon’s brother-in-law’s property. However, Brandon receives a letter and
suddenly has to leave for London, cancelling the planned trip. Everyone decides to pass the day by
driving around the country, and Willoughby and Marianne go off in one carriage to his aunt’s
property, Allenham, which he is likely to inherit, and they survey it together. Over the next few
days, Willoughby continues to behave as though he is in love with Marianne.

However, one day Mrs. Dashwood, Elinor, and Margaret return from Barton Park to find
Willoughby’s carriage outside their cottage. When they go inside, Marianne is in tears and greatly
upset. Willoughby informs them that he has to leave for London indefinitely on business. Elinor is
slightly suspicious of Willoughby, as no one knows for sure whether he and Marianne are actually
engaged. After Willoughby’s departure, Marianne falls into extreme sadness. One day, she and
Elinor go for a walk outside. They see a gentleman approaching and Marianne is sure it’s
Willoughby. When the man gets closer, though, they see that it’s Edward Ferrars. Oddly, though,
Edward seems ill at ease and unhappy, rather than overjoyed to see Elinor. Marianne notices a ring
on his hand with a lock of hair in it. Edward says it is Fanny’s hair, though Elinor and Marianne,
both think it looks like Elinor’s. Elinor imagines that he had secretly gotten it from her somehow.
After about a week, Edward leaves, without proposing. Soon after, the Middletons host Lady
Middleton’s sister, Charlotte Palmer at Barton Park and introduce her and her husband to the
Dashwoods. The Palmers know Willoughby and seem to think that Marianne and he are engaged,
though Elinor is not so sure. After the Palmers depart, the Middletons have more guests:
Anne and Lucy Steele, two young sisters and relatives of Mrs. Jennings. Elinor and Marianne do
not particularly like the Steele sisters, who talk of nothing but their prospective boyfriends and
romantic conquests. At one point, Sir John mentions that Elinor is in love with Edward Ferrars, and
Anne responds that they know Edward well, though Lucy corrects her and says that they don’t know
him that well. As Lucy and Elinor are walking outside one day, Lucy asks if Elinor knows Edward’s
mother, Mrs. Ferrars. She explains that she is secretly engaged to Edward and has been for four
years. Because Lucy has no real fortune, they feared that Mrs. Ferrars, Edward’s mother, would
disapprove of the marriage. Lucy shows Elinor a letter from Edward and mentions that she had
given him a lock of hair, which he keeps in a ring.
Elinor is shocked but can’t doubt the truth of Lucy’s story. She wonders whether Edward had
intentionally deceived her in encouraging her affections for him. Soon after this, Elinor takes the
opportunity to ask Lucy more about her engagement after a party at Barton Park. Lucy says that she
and Edward are in love, but likely will have to wait until Mrs. Ferrars died to marry. As January comes
around, Mrs. Jennings invites Elinor and Marianne to stay with her in London. Elinor doesn’t want
to go, as she knows that Edward is going to be in London in February, but Marianne desperately
wants to go so that she can perhaps see Willoughby. The two sisters leave Margaret and their mother
behind at Barton to go stay in London for some time. As soon as they get to London, Marianne
writes to Willoughby, but doesn’t hear back from him. Instead, Colonel Brandon often pays visits
to the Dashwood sisters. Marianne is anxious about not hearing from Willoughby, and unable to
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enjoy the social events they attend in the city. Elinor writes to her mother, begging her to ask
Marianne clearly whether she is engaged to Willoughby or not. Finally, when Elinor and Marianne
go to a party with Lady Middleton, they see Willoughby there. Willoughby is cold to Marianne and
mostly ignores her. Marianne has to leave the party immediately, in despair. The next morning, a
letter arrives from Willoughby, and after reading it Marianne is “almost choked by grief.” In the
letter Willoughby disavows any romantic attachment to her and tells her that he is engaged to
someone else. Elinor and Marianne are both deeply shocked at Willoughby’s sudden change of
behavior, and Elinor tries to comfort her sister. She urges Marianne to restrain her emotions, but
Marianne responds that she can’t pretend to be all right when she’s miserable.
News of Willoughby’s engagement to a wealthy Miss Grey spreads. Elinor learns that Marianne
and Willoughby were never formally engaged, and that Willoughby only ever implied his love for
her. Mrs. Jennings tries to cheer Marianne up, predicting that she will now marry Colonel Brandon.
Having heard about the unfortunate news with Willoughby, Colonel Brandon pays a visit to Elinor
one day, and passes along some news that he thinks might help Marianne. In order to explain, he
has to tell Marianne about a woman named Eliza, whom he had been in love with a long time ago.
Eliza and Brandon were deeply in love, but she was married against her will to Brandon’s brother.
Brandon and Eliza tried to elope, but were caught. Brandon then left the country to serve in the
military, and during that time Eliza was seduced by numerous men and ended up divorcing
Brandon’s brother. When Colonel Brandon returned to the country, he found her confined to a house
because of debt, dying of consumption. She had an illegitimate daughter, also named Eliza, whom
he promised to take care of. Colonel Brandon had looked after this daughter as she grew up, but this
past year she had disappeared after a trip with friends to Bath. While Brandon was at Barton Park, he
received a letter that informed him that Eliza had been seduced by Willoughby, who had gotten her
pregnant and then abandoned her. This was why Brandon had left Barton so suddenly. Elinor is
shocked to learn this about Willoughby, but is grateful for Brandon’s honesty. She tells Marianne
the news, but it doesn’t make her feel any better. Having formerly believed Willoughby to be an
upstanding gentleman, she now mourns “the loss of Willoughby’s character.” Meanwhile, Colonel
Brandon and Elinor talk often, and Elinor begins to value him as a friend. Mrs. Jennings concludes
that Colonel Brandon will soon propose to Elinor.
Elinor finally persuades Marianne to leave the house, and they go with Mrs. Jennings to a jeweler,
where they meet an obnoxious gentleman ordering a toothpick case. While at the store, Elinor also
runs into her brother John, who has just arrived in town. The next day, he visits Elinor and Marianne,
meeting Mrs. Jennings, Colonel Brandon, and the Middletons. He tells Elinor that he is sure Brandon
is interested in her, and congratulates her. He also mentions that Mrs. Ferrars has arranged for
Edward to marry a wealthy woman named Miss Morton. After John and Fanny get to know the
Middletons, the Steeles, and Mrs. Jennings, they invite all them (as well as the Dashwood sisters) to
a dinner, along with Mrs. Ferrars. Elinor is interested to finally meet Mrs. Ferrars, and Lucy is
particularly anxious to see her possible future mother-in-law. At the dinner, Mrs. Ferrars is rude to
Elinor, whom she evidently disliked, but—much to Lucy’s delight—seems very fond of Lucy. Soon
after this, Marianne and Elinor go to a party with Fanny and John. There, Elinor sees the gentleman
from the jewelry store, and learns that he was Edward’s brother, Robert Ferrars.
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About two weeks later, Mrs. Jennings tells Elinor that Lucy and Edward’s secret engagement has
become known. Fanny became hysterical when she learned of it, and kicked Lucy out of her home,
where both the Steele sisters had been staying. The next day, John visits and reveals that when Mrs.
Ferrars found out about Edward’s secret engagement she disinherited and essentially disowned
Edward. Nonetheless, Edward refused to break off the engagement. A few days later, Elinor
encounters Lucy’s sister Anne in Kensington Gardens. Anne says that Edward offered Lucy the
chance to leave him, since he no longer has a substantial fortune, but she refused, so they were going
ahead with the engagement. The next morning, Elinor receives a letter from Lucy saying that she
and Edward are happy together in spite of everything and that he is going to become a priest and
that, once they had an established living somewhere, they would marry.
After spending over two months in London, Marianne and Elinor finally make plans to go back to
Barton Cottage, first stopping for a visit with the Palmers at their home, Cleveland. Before they
leave, Colonel Brandon pays a visit and Mrs. Jennings overheard part of the conversation and thinks
that Brandon is proposing to Elinor. In reality, he is telling her that he is going to offer Edward a
living on his estate, Delaford. As this would allow Edward and Lucy to marry, Elinor is greatly
distressed (which she hid from Brandon). Soon after Brandon leaves, Edward arrives, and Elinor
tells him the news. He is immensely grateful, and leaves to thank Brandon. Mrs. Jennings returns
and finally realizes that Brandon had not proposed to Elinor. Before leaving London, Elinor meets
with John and Fanny, and learns that Robert Ferrars is now going to marry Miss Morton instead of
Edward. Robert has received all the inheritance that was formerly going to go to Edward.
At the Palmer’s home at Cleveland, Marianne comes down with a terrible cold. She is so sick that
Mrs. Jennings thinks she was going to die, and Elinor sends Colonel Brandon to Barton to get Mrs.
Dashwood. Marianne finally begins to recover. As Elinor sits by her sleeping sister, she hears a
carriage outside. But it turns out to be Willoughby, not Barton. Elinor tells him to leave, but he
insists on speaking to her. He begs to be allowed to explain his behavior. He says that when he first
met the Dashwoods, he had no intentions of finding a wife, but simply enjoyed spending time with
Marianne.
He was “careless of her happiness,” and didn’t have any intention of “returning her affection.” Yet
he did fall in love with her. He had been expecting to inherit some wealth from his aunt Mrs. Smith,
but after she learned about his affair with Eliza, she disinherited him. Now Willoughby was
desperate for wealth, and a marriage with Marianne was entirely out of the question. So, he married
Miss Grey for her money, even though he didn’t really love her. It pained him to ignore Marianne
in London, and when he received letters from her, Miss Grey became suspicious and read them.
She was upset and dictated a letter for Willoughby to send back. (So, the hurtful letter from
Willoughby to Marianne was actually composed by Miss Grey.) Willoughby calls himself a fool and
a scoundrel and apologizes profusely. Elinor largely forgives Willoughby and pities his situation.
He leaves, and soon after Mrs. Dashwood and Colonel Brandon arrive.
Mrs. Dashwood delightedly tells Elinor that Brandon had told her on the journey to Cleveland that
he is in love with Marianne, and that she approves of their marriage. Marianne recovers fully, and
the Dashwoods return to Barton Cottage. On a long walk outside, Marianne tells Elinor that her
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illness has made her think back on her life, and she regrets her improper behavior with Willoughby,
as well as her rude contempt for Mrs. Jennings, Fanny, John, the Steeles, and the Middletons. She
resolves to dedicate her life from now on to her family and to keep her emotions in check. She says
that she has gotten over Willoughby, and only wishes that she could know that he hadn’t always
been lying to her. Elinor takes this chance to tell her what Willoughby had recently revealed.
Marianne receives this news relatively calmly and tells Elinor to tell their mother. Soon after this,
Elinor learns from a servant that Lucy and “Mr. Ferrars” have married. Elinor and Marianne are
both greatly upset by this news.
Colonel Brandon is due to soon visit soon, and Elinor looks forward to his arrival. Just when she is
expecting him, though, someone else arrives Edward. He tells her that he hasn’t married Lucy; his
brother Robert has! Elinor cries tears of joy. Edward explains that he had foolishly become engaged
to Lucy when he was too young and idle. They didn’t really love each other, and she had left him
for his wealthier brother. He now proposes to Elinor, who accepts, to the delight of her sisters and
mother.
Mrs. Ferrars eventually forgives Edward, returns some of his inheritance to him, and reluctantly
approves of his marriage to Elinor. Elinor and Edward settle at Delaford, where Elinor’s sisters and
mother often visit. Elinor, Edward, and Mrs. Dashwood all wish that Marianne would marry
Colonel Brandon and indeed she gradually grows more and more fond of him. She changes her
stubborn opinions about love and allows herself to learn to love Brandon. After they marry, Mrs.
Dashwood and her daughters maintain close ties and a “strong family affection.” Elinor and
Marianne enjoy happy marriages as well as a close relationship with each other.

NORTHANGER ABBEY
Northanger Abbey begins by introducing us to its heroine, Catherine Morland, an unexceptional
but kind girl of seventeen. She has grown up in the countryside, the eldest daughter of a parson in a
family of ten children.
Catherine is a plain child but gets prettier as she gets older. She also begins to care about her clothing
and obsessively read novels.
Catherine is thrilled to be invited by a rich, childless couple from her neighborhood, Mr. Allen
and Mrs. Allen, to take her first trip away from home. When she arrives in the vacation town of Bath,
Catherine is disappointed to find that Mrs. Allen, who cares about little other than clothing, knows no
one. Catherine meets a young man of twenty-four named Henry Tilney. She finds him charming
and hopes to see him again soon.
Soon after, while in the Pump-room (one of the central meeting points in Bath), Catherine and Mrs.
Allen meet an old classmate of Mrs. Allen’s named Mrs. Thorpe, and Catherine becomes fast
friends with Mrs. Thorpe’s daughter Isabella. The Thorpes already know Catherine’s older brother
James, who goes to school with Mrs. Thorpe’s son, John. Catherine and Isabella become
inseparable, but Catherine continues to look for Henry Tilney, who seems to have left Bath.
One day to Catherine’s surprise, she and Isabella run into their brothers in the street. Catherine does
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not notice that James and Isabella have feelings for one another. Catherine is introduced to Isabella’s
brother John, a rude man who talks of little but horses, but who asks Catherine to dance with him at
a ball that night. Despite thinking John seems ill-mannered, Catherine has too little confidence in
her own judgment to decide that she does not like him.

At the ball, John leaves Catherine to talk to a friend about horses, and James and Isabella leave her
to dance together. Catherine feels that she looks as if she could not find a partner. To her surprise,
Henry appears and asks her to dance. She sadly declines his offer, because she is already engaged
to dance with John. John returns and they dance, but Catherine continually looks back at Henry.
During the dancing Catherine meets Henry’s sister, Miss Eleanor Tilney. Catherine hopes Henry
will ask her to dance again and feels crestfallen when she sees him lead another woman to the dance
floor. John wants to dance again, but she refuses him.
The next day, Catherine hopes to meet Eleanor and get to know her better. Instead, John, Isabella,
and James convince her go on a drive with them. Catherine rides with John, who scares Catherine
by saying that her brother’s carriage is unsafe, then takes this back when she becomes alarmed.
Catherine is confused by John’s self-contradiction. Returning from the drive, Catherine is upset to
learn that Mrs. Allen ran into the Tilneys while she was out.
The Thorpes continue to get in the way of Catherine developing her relationship with the Tilneys.
At another ball, Catherine is asked to dance by Henry, but John interrupts, saying Catherine
promised to dance with him. Catherine dances with Henry anyway and has a wonderful time.
Catherine plans a walk with the Tilneys for the next day, but when it rains, she is unsure if the
Tilneys will come. John convinces Catherine to go on another carriage ride by saying he saw the
Tilneys driving out of town.
From the carriage, Catherine sees the Tilneys walking through town. She is angry at John, who
seems to have lied about seeing the Tilneys, but he refuses to stop the carriage so she can get out.
Catherine apologizes to Henry Tilney for missing their walk that night at the theater. She also sees
Henry’s father, General Tilney, talking to John Thorpe and looking at her.
The next day Catherine reschedules her walk with the Tilneys for the following day, but the Thorpes
and James beg her to change her plans to go on another drive. Catherine refuses, but John reschedules
her walk with the Tilneys without her permission. Catherine runs to the Tilneys to take back what
John has done. After an enjoyable walk, Eleanor Tilney invites Catherine to come dine with them
the next night.
The next day, Isabella tells Catherine that she and James are engaged, but she worries the Morlands
will not approve of her as a daughter-in-law. Catherine had not suspected their romance and is
shocked and overjoyed. As Catherine is leaving the Thorpes’ lodgings, John waylays her. He talks
in abstract terms about their marrying, but she hardly listens and understands nothing.
At the next ball, Catherine dances with Henry, while Isabella, who told Catherine she did not intend
to dance, dances with Henry’s older brother Captain Frederick Tilney, who has just come to town.
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Catherine expresses surprise to Henry Tilney, who observes that Catherine does not understand
other people’s motives, because she only considers how she herself would behave in any situation,
and she is more good-natured than others.

The next day, Isabella learns how much the Morlands will give her and James. Isabella seems
disappointed about the amount of money and suggests that Mr. Morland has not been generous.
Catherine feels hurt, but Isabella says she is only disappointed that she and James must wait several
years to marry.
Catherine is thrilled to receive an invitation to travel to the Tilneys’ home at Northanger Abbey,
where she will live in an old building like the ones in the books she loves to read.
The next day in the Pump-room, Isabella encourages Catherine to marry John. Catherine is
dumbfounded to hear that John wants to marry her, but tells Isabella that she is interested in Henry,
not John. Captain Tilney then enters and sits down next to Isabella. Catherine overhears them
flirting and feels jealous on James’s behalf.
In the days before Catherine’s departure for Northanger, she observes this flirtation with growing
alarm. She asks Henry to tell his brother to leave Bath, but Henry says no outside interference
should be needed to ensure Isabella’s loyalty to James.
Soon after, Catherine leaves Bath with the Tilneys. On the ride there, Catherine tells Henry how
excited she is to go to a real abbey like the ones she has read about. Henry spins a tale about the
mysterious and frightening events likely to happen to her in an old building like Northanger.
Catherine is spellbound, though she knows Henry is teasing her.
Catherine hopes to uncover a mystery at Northanger. After finding nothing exceptional in her room,
Catherine develops a theory that the General is a villain and murdered his wife. She sneaks alone
to Mrs. Tilney’s room, where she is discovered by Henry. Learning of her suspicions, Henry urges
her to be a better judge of situations in the future. She feels humiliated and sure he will never love
her now, but he is only kinder to her after this.
Catherine receives a letter from James saying that his engagement to Isabella is off. He advises
Catherine to leave Northanger before Captain Tilney arrives to announce that he is engaged to
Isabella. Distressed, Catherine tells Henry and Eleanor about her brother’s letter, but they say their
father will not approve of the marriage since Isabella has no fortune. Catherine is puzzled, because
she has heard General Tilney say he does not care about money. Soon after, the General hints that
he hopes Catherine and Henry will marry. Catherine hopes that Henry feels the same way.
Isabella writes to ask Catherine’s help in resolving a misunderstanding with James, but Catherine
now sees through Isabella’s hypocrisy and resolves to forget her former friend.
Soon after, the General leaves for London for a few days and Henry leaves Northanger. One night
the General returns unexpectedly. He sends a distraught Eleanor to tell Catherine that she is to be
unceremoniously expelled from the house the next morning. Catherine is shocked, but tries to hide
this from Eleanor.
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A miserable Catherine returns home, where she is greeted joyfully. Her family resents the way she
has been treated, but counsels that she forget about it. Catherine mopes around the house, but no
one guesses that she is in love.

Three days later, Henry unexpectedly arrives at Fullerton and asks Catherine to marry him. He
explains that the General was misled in Bath by John to believe that Catherine was very rich, then
subsequently told by John in London that she was quite poor. The General wanted Catherine to
marry Henry when he believed she was an heiress, then rushed back to expel her from Northanger
when he learned she was not. Henry, to his father’s shock, refuses to obey the command to forget
her.
The Morlands give their permission for Catherine and Henry’s marriage on the condition that the
General give his. Eventually, after Eleanor marries a rich Viscount, and the General learns that
Catherine is not as poor as he had been led to believe, he gives his permission, and Catherine and
Henry are married.

MANSFIELD PARK
Mansfield Park tells the story of protagonist Fanny Price as she navigates her adolescence and
young adulthood. As a child, Fanny is sent to live with her aunt, Lady Bertram, and her uncle, Sir
Thomas, at their country estate, Mansfield Park. Mrs. Price, Fanny’s mother and Lady Bertram’s
sister, is of a lower class and struggles financially due to her poorly chosen marriage to naval officer
Mr. Price. Together they have too many children to care for, so Lady Bertram, Sir Thomas, and
Fanny’s other aunt Mrs. Norris contrive to take in Fanny, who is her eldest daughter.
At Mansfield, Fanny grows up with her four cousins: Tom, Edmund, Maria, and Julia. When Fanny
first arrives at Mansfield, she is uncomfortable because of her lack of proper manners and exposure
to luxury and wealth. She is homesick and misses her brother William, with whom she is extremely
close. In Fanny’s early years at Mansfield, her relations generally neglect her, and Mrs. Norris is
downright tyrannical and verbally abusive in how she treats her niece. Only her cousin Edmund
goes out of his way to make Fanny feel comfortable, establishing an intense bond between them.
As Fanny grows older, she begins to feel more used to the lifestyle at Mansfield. Fanny serves as a
companion to Lady Bertram, and stays at home with her reclusive aunt when the rest of the family
leaves to socialize. Mrs. Norris’s husband Mr. Norris eventually dies, causing Mrs. Norris to move
out of the Parsonage and into a house nearby. Normally, Edmund should have inherited his fortune,
but Tom, who has a gambling problem, must use the money set aside to pay back his debts. A new
preacher, Dr. Grant, moves into the Parsonage with his wife, Mrs. Grant.
Sir Thomas leaves for business in Antigua, and, frustrated by his son Tom’s lack of responsibility,
takes him along. Maria, meanwhile, attracts the attentions of the rich but stupid Mr. Rushworth, and
they begin a courtship. Mr. Rushworth asks for Maria’s hand in marriage, and she and Sir Thomas
both agree to it, on the condition that they wait until Sir Thomas returns from the West Indies to
wed. That summer, Mrs. Grant’s half siblings, Mary and Henry Crawford, come to stay with her.
They are both attractive and charming, and they quickly befriend the Bertrams. Tom returns from
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the West Indies, with Sir Thomas to follow in the late fall.
Henry flirts with both Julia and Maria, despite Maria’s engagement. Together, the Bertram children,
the Crawfords, and Fanny make a trip to Mr. Rushworth’s estate, where Henry focuses his flirtation
on Maria, leaving Julia feeling dejected. Meanwhile, Mary and Edmund begin to develop a romantic
feeling between them. This upsets Fanny, who, over the years, has come to love Edmund as more
than just a cousin.
The young people decide to put on a play after hearing about Tom’s friend, Mr. Yates, doing the
same at another party. Edmund and Fanny resist, saying it would not be proper, but eventually
Edmund joins in. Fanny, however, holds out. Maria and Henry continue to flirt. Edmund and Mary
fall deeper in love, and Fanny experiences intense pain watching them perform the love scenes.
They make all the preparations for the play, but Sir Thomas returns from Antigua just before it is
ready. He is angry at them, thinking the theatrics are totally improper, and puts an end to the fun.
Maria, who had hoped Henry would ask to marry her, gives up her dreams and marries Mr.
Rushworth. She and Julia go to Brighton together with him, and then to London. Mary becomes
closer with Fanny. With the other young women gone, Henry decides that, as a game, he will try to
seduce Fanny. Fanny, meanwhile, is still secretly in love with Edmund, and is caught in the middle
of Mary and Edmund’s romance, which is a constant source of pain. Edmund tries to determine if
Mary would marry him, but Mary is unwilling to commit because Edmund is a younger son,
fortuneless, and a clergyman. Fanny’s brother William comes to visit, and Sir Thomas, who has
warmed to Fanny since his return from Antigua, throws a formal ball in her honor.
Henry has not succeeded in his sport of seducing Fanny but has accidently fallen in love with her
while trying. He leaves for London, where he secures a promotion for William to win Fanny’s heart.
He then proposes to Fanny, who rejects him, much to Sir Thomas’s disapproval. Not long afterward,
Fanny returns to her childhood home in Portsmouth for the first time in many years. Fanny loathes
Portsmouth, but becomes close with her younger sister, Susan.
Henry visits Fanny at Portsmouth and reiterates his affection for her. Fanny begins to warm up to
him, and Mary encourages her to marry him. Soon afterward, however, Fanny receives word that
Tom is gravely ill. She worries and longs to return to Mansfield. Then, Fanny hears rumors that
Henry and Maria have run away together. In a letter, Edmund confirms the rumors and adds the
news that Julia and Mr. Yates have eloped. Fanny returns home to Mansfield and brings her sister
Susan with her.
When Edmund talks to Mary about the affair between Maria and Henry, she does not condemn their
actions, but rather complains about the fact that they were found out. As a result, Edmund is
disgusted and terminates his relationship with her, much to Fanny’s delight. Henry is totally
excommunicated from the Bertram household. Maria, now disgraced, leaves Mansfield to live in a
house far away with Mrs. Norris. Julia and Mr. Yates attempt to make amends with Sir Thomas and
are forgiven. The Grants and Mary move away from Mansfield, settling in London. Edmund thinks
about Fanny for the first time as a romantic option, and eventually falls in love with her. They marry
and lead a happy life together.
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PERSUASION
Persuasion takes place in England, beginning in the summer of 1814 and continuing over the course
of about eight months. Twenty-seven-year-old Anne Elliot, overlooked by nearly everyone other
than her friend and godmother Lady Russell, lives with her father—Sir Walter Elliot—and older,
unmarried sister Elizabeth at the Elliott estate, Kellynch Hall. Her younger sister Mary is married
to Charles Musgrove and lives nearby at his family's estate, Uppercross. A widower, the vain Sir
Walter lives an extravagant life. During his annual trip to London he confesses to Elizabeth, his
favored daughter, that they are in financial trouble.
Sir Walter reluctantly agrees to rent Kellynch Hall to Admiral and Mrs. Croft and subsequently
moves to Bath to save money and face. Coincidentally Mrs. Croft is the sister of Captain Frederick
Wentworth, to whom Anne was persuaded to break an engagement eight years before.
Wanting attention for her many imagined ailments, Mary invites Anne to visit her at Uppercross
Cottage, after which Anne will stay with Lady Russell until they both travel to Bath for the winter.
Before their tenants arrive, Sir Walter and Elizabeth depart for Bath. Mrs. Clay, an intimate friend
of Elizabeth's whose insinuating character Anne finds questionable, accompanies Sir Walter and
Elizabeth. Anne stays with Lady Russell for a week.
When Lady Russell leaves, Anne goes to Uppercross where she stays for two months attending to
her sister's complaints but enjoying the company of the Musgroves and their large family. Soon
after, the Crofts arrive at Kellynch Hall and call on the elder Musgroves; the Crofts' presence stirs
Anne's emotions.
A week later news of Captain Frederick Wentworth's arrival at Kellynch Hall reaches Anne. When
he is invited to dinner at the elder Musgroves, Anne tries to avoid him and stays home with her
nephew, Charles Jr., who has been injured, while Mary and her husband dine at her in-laws'. The
next morning Captain Wentworth calls on Mary, and he and Anne see each other for the first time
since they parted eight years before.
During the next month Anne and Wentworth meet several times. Henrietta and Louisa Musgrove
take interest in the captain, and Anne quietly observes their interactions. One day while Anne tends
to Charles Jr., his younger brother Walter pesters her and ignores her directions. While Charles
Hayter, a Musgrove cousin and suitor of Henrietta, distractedly tells Walter to heed Anne,
Wentworth "rescues" her by lifting her nephew from her back.
During a walk in the country Anne overhears Louisa tell Wentworth that Anne had refused her
brother Charles's proposal. Louisa's comments about Henrietta's fickleness and her admiration for
the Crofts' relationship lead Wentworth to compliment Louisa on her strong character. Anne feels
certain that he intends to marry Louisa. Shortly after Wentworth takes an impromptu trip to the
seaside city of Lyme to visit a friend.
Inspired by Wentworth's praise of Lyme, Louisa organizes an outing there for herself, Henrietta,
Anne, Charles, Wentworth, and Mary. They meet the Harvilles and Captain Benwick, Wentworth's
naval friends, and enjoy the family's hospitality. While walking near the ocean, Anne and
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Wentworth notice a gentleman admire her. The group suspects he is Anne's cousin and Sir Walter's
heir, William Elliot.
On their last visit to the Cobb (the harbor wall) Louisa falls and suffers a concussion. The only one
thinking clearly, Anne directs the group to help Louisa, who stays with the Harvilles.
Henrietta, Anne, and Wentworth return to Uppercross. After informing the Musgroves of the
accident, Wentworth returns immediately to Lyme. After a few days Anne encourages the
Musgroves to go to Lyme during Louisa's convalescence. Anne returns to Lady Russell's. During a
visit with the Crofts, Admiral Croft comments on Wentworth's strange way of wooing and expresses
surprise that he hadn't already settled matters with Louisa. When Mary and Charles return from
Lyme they argue over whether Captain Benwick is in love with Anne. Meanwhile, Wentworth
leaves Lyme.
In January Anne and Lady Russell venture to Bath. Anne learns that her father and Elizabeth have
reconciled with William Elliot. When he visits, he and Anne remember their Lyme encounter. They
become acquainted; despite his charm Anne mistrusts him. Anne renews a friendship with her
former classmate, Mrs. Smith, who is now a poor invalid living in rented rooms in Bath.
In February Louisa returns to Uppercross and announces her engagement to Captain Benwick. On
a walk Anne meets Admiral Croft, now in Bath, who resolves to bring Wentworth to Bath.
Wentworth arrives on his own, even before the invitation is sent, and Anne sees him in town. Her
emotions are strong.
At a concert Anne begins a conversation with Captain Wentworth, who is happily surprised at the
news of Louisa's engagement. Their guarded conversation reveals the possibility he still loves Anne.
During the concert however, William Elliot sits next to her and interrupts the conversation. Captain
Wentworth seems jealous and leaves.
The next day Anne visits Mrs. Smith and learns about William Elliot's unsavory past, which
includes failing to have executed the will of Mrs. Smith's husband. Anne's suspicions about him are
confirmed. When the Musgroves arrive in Bath, Anne devotes her time to them. At their hotel Anne
sees Captain Wentworth, who mentions how long it has been since they were engaged. The next
day Anne visits the Musgroves again, where Wentworth overhears her and Captain Harville discuss
love and constancy. He guesses correctly that Anne's impassioned defense of women's constancy
"when hope is gone" is meant for him. He confesses his love to Anne in a letter that he leaves for
her, asking her to tell him "with a look" if she still loves him. Overwhelmed she leaves. Wentworth
finds her in the street and, encouraged by Anne, proposes.
MARIA EDGEWORTH

CASTLE RACKRENT
Anglo-Irish writer Maria Edgeworth’s novel, Castle Rackrent ,first published in 1800, tells of the
decline of a family from her own aristocratic class. Seeking to present an authentic picture of these
corrupt, inefficient estate owners, Edgeworth invents narrator Thady Quirk, a faithful steward who
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recounts the fate of four Rackrent estate owners in unsparing details.
He begins with relating how his grandfather was a driver for Patrick O’Shaughlin, who was
descended from the Kings of Ireland but forced to change his name to the anglicized Rackrent when
a British-imposed Act of Parliament made it a condition for owning property. A great entertainer
and drinker, Patrick loses his life after a fit of drinking. After a lavish funeral, where Patrick is
mourned by everyone in three counties, he is succeeded by his son, Murtagh, who loses a great deal
of the family fortune in litigation suits. Against Thady’s advice, Murtagh digs up a fairy mount and
finds himself afflicted with a mortal sickness. Murtagh is succeeded by the dashing officer Kit
Stopgap. Kit, who proves himself to be a stopgap by nature, as well as by name, quickly removes to
Bath. There, he amasses enormous gambling debts and meanwhile employs a middle man to
oversee the estate, demanding that as much revenue should be extracted from it as possible,
regardless of the consequences for his tenants. It is around this time that Kit hands over the
management of his estate to Thady’s son, Jason. Kit returns to Rackrent with his Jewish wife, whom
he hopes will bolster his dwindling fortunes. However, when she refuses to hand over her diamonds,
Kit makes her a prisoner in her own bedroom. When it is rumored that about seven years later, she is
on her deathbed, Kit begins contemplating who will be his next wife. A scandal erupts and Kit enters
a duel among the intended wives’ brothers. When he is killed, the Jewish wife is freed and leaves
Rackrent for England.
Kit’s successor is Connoly Rackrent, more commonly known as Condy. He is a personal favorite
of Thady, who knew him since his boyhood. While Condy had a relatively un-aristocratic
background, went to grammar school with Thady’s own son, Jason, and was educated as a lawyer
in Dublin, on inheriting Rackrent, he shows no more aptitude than his predecessors. Refusing to
take care of the great debts he has inherited, he hands over responsibility to Jason, who in turn wants
to be compensated for his years of free service to the family. Condy gives Jason a bargain of some
acres, which the latter sells to under-tenants. In need of revenue, Sir Condy sells the hunting lodge
on his estate to Mr. Moneygawl. When Moneygawl’s youngest daughter, Isabella, wishes to marry
Condy, Condy, who is tormented by having to decide between her and the charming but
impoverished Judy M’Quirk, flips a coin to settle the matter. The toss comes up in Isabella’s favor.
On marriage to Condy, the theatrical Isabella, who comes with a small amount of her own fortune,
spends money on luxuries, such as building private theatres and entertaining. When Condy runs an
exorbitant election campaign to become a member of Parliament and is successful, a house in
Dublin is added to his expenses. Isabella, who is by now fed up, asks for permission to go back and
stay with her family, a request to which Condy agrees to.
Cindy’s debts, summarized by Jason, are by now insurmountable: he does not know how he will
pay them back. Jason then offers to buy the estate from him, a request which Thady, loyal to the
ancestral family, is shocked by. However, the indebted Condy agrees and makes an announcement
to the loyal public that he is going to retire into the hunting lodge on the estate for his health. Once
there, and with Thady’s assistance, Condy feigns a mortal illness, so that he can experience the
adoration of his own deathbed wake. Meanwhile, the news that Isabella may have been in a fatal
accident interrupts the festivities. Jason arrives with a shower of golden guineas, which are Condy’s
remaining share in the estate. Jason also brings a paper that declares that the entire Rackrent estate
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will be made over to him and only awaits Condy’s signature. Soon after signing, Condy contracts a
mortal fever and dies. Thady is sad, and more mournful for the passing of the Rackrents than proud
about his son’s ascent.

SIR WALTER SCOTT

THE HEART OF MIDLOTHIAN

The Heart of Midlothian (1818) by seminal Scottish writer Sir Walter Scott details the political
turmoil occurring through Scottland in 1736, as well as one woman’s mission for justice. It was
published under the pseudonym Jedediah Cleishbotham, and the identity of the author was revealed
only posthumously. Of Scott’s numerous works, The Heart of Midlothian often ranks as one of his
best.
Its themes include justice, honesty, and the value of religion.
The work opens to the Porteous Riots of 1736 in Edinburgh, Scotland. This was a mob reaction to
the authoritarian Captain John Porteous, who ordered the death of three men who may or may not
have stolen some goods. The men are being held in Old Tolbooth prison, which is at the epicenter
of Midlothian County, the site of many public executions. Events related to the Porteous Riots take
up most of the first volume.
Purportedly inspired by a letter Scott once received concerning a real woman named Helen Walker,
he introduces the second major push of the novel, which centers around Jeanie Deans. After her
younger sister, the beautiful yet spoiled Effie Deans, is incorrectly charged with killing her own
baby, Jeanie—a highly moral and religious person—walks all the way to London to plead her
sister’s case and receive a pardon from the king and queen of the U.K. Jeanie’s pilgrimage to the
king and queen is the prime subject of the second volume.
Jeanie refuses to tell any lie to save her sister’s life and believes that appealing to the monarchy will
help her case. Jeanie has a strong sense of right and wrong; her father, David Deans, once ran a
nunnery and is a devoted Presbyterian.
But before she can reach the royal court, Jeanie has to contend with the mob of the Porteous Riots.
The mob places any authority figures they see under their jurisdiction. This includes the young
minister Reuben Butler, who happens to be in love with Jeanie. Reuben observes how during the
prison break, Effie refuses to leave the prison; doing so would be akin to admitting she committed
the crime to which she was charged. Reuben reports this scene to Jeanie, and Jeanie becomes further
convinced that her sister is innocent.
The next time she visits the prison, Jeanie learns that the father of Effie’s baby is none other than
Geordie Robertson, a charismatic criminal who actually sneaked into Old Tolbooth and hung
Captain Porteous before his official execution. Effie hid the pregnancy from everyone, even her
family members; since no one can attest to her giving birth, there is no evidence to suggest that she
did not kill her baby.
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Reuben Butler and Jeanie would like to be married, but Reuben currently makes too little money to
support a family. When Jeanie tells him she’s going to walk to London to plead her sister’s case,
Reuben tries to dissuade her, but to no avail. Eventually, he decides to help her mission. Recalling
that his grandfather once gave the Duke of Argyll an invaluable favor, he writes an introductory
letter for Jeanie and bids her success.
Getting to London by foot is no simple matter. Along with common vagabonds who haunt the roads,
Jeanie is accosted by Meg Murdockson, an older woman (and probable witch) who hates Geordie
Robertson and Effie Deans because her own daughter, Madge Wildfire, once loved Geordie, but he
ditched for Effie. In fact, Madge stole Effie’s baby as punishment for their affair. To keep her from
rescuing Effie, Meg goes so far as attempting to murder Jeanie.
In volume three, Jeanie meets the Duke of Argyll, who is impressed by her manners and her mission.
He arranges for her to meet Queen Caroline (Queen of England from 1727-1737). The Queen is so
moved by Jeanie’s conviction that she tells her husband, King George II, to issue a royal pardon.
Jeanie returns to Scotland. To her delight, she discovers that her father is the new manager of a
valuable plot of land; the kind Duke of Argyll gave him this new honorific duty. Meanwhile,
Rueben Butler has received a major promotion as a minister in Knocktarlitie. Now with enough
money, Rueben and Jeanie become engaged. Jeanie’s father isn’t totally on board with the marriage
(Reuben tries to educate everyone and is a bit annoying), but he considers it well and good that his
daughter is marrying a minister.
In the last volume, Reuben and Jeanie have three children together. Effie’s future, however, is not
nearly as happy. Though she marries George Staunton, a Scottish lord, Effie reveals that the son
that everyone thought was murdered was actually sold to a work gang by the wicked Meg
Murdockson. In fact, George Staunton is really Geordie Robertson, the guy who killed Captain
Porteous and seduced Effie in the first place.
Later, when the boy comes of age, he returns to Scotland to murder his father. He successfully
shoots and kills Sir Staunton, before fleeing to the U.S., where is never heard from again.
Now a widow, Effie moves to London. She seems to enjoy high-life society, but eventually shocks
her sister by announcing she’s moving to France to become a nun. Jeanie is stunned that her sister
would give up the Protestant religion she grew up with to become Roman Catholic.

IVANHOE
Ivanhoe is written in the tradition of medieval romances, full of swashbuckling heroes, evil villains,
and damsels in distress. It is set in the forests of northern England—in Yorkshire and
Nottinghamshire. Many of the castles and other locations mentioned are, or are based on, historical
places and can still be seen today.
Wilfred of Ivanhoe has come back to England after going on Crusade to the Holy Land with Richard
the Lionheart, who is believed to be in captivity in Europe. Disguised as a pilgrim, Ivanhoe returns
home to the estate of his father, Cedric of Rotherwood. Cedric, who is Saxon and wants to return
control of England to Saxon hands, has disinherited Ivanhoe for following the Norman king. (On
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October 14, 1066, at the Battle of Hastings, Norman-French forces, led by William the Conqueror,
defeated the last Anglo-Saxon king of England, Harold II, beginning the Norman takeover of
England. The Germanic Saxons had joined with the Angles and the Jutes to overtake England in
the fifth century; the merged peoples created the Anglo-Saxon race.) On the road Ivanhoe meets
Prior Aymer of Jorvaulx and the Templar knight Sir Brian de Bois-Guilbert and guides them to
Cedric's castle, where the entire company stays the night. Another traveler also shows up—an old
Jew known as Isaac of York. Ivanhoe overhears Bois-Guilbert telling his Saracen slaves to capture
or kill Isaac and helps the old man escape. In return the Jew arranges for Ivanhoe to get a horse and
armor.
Two days later everyone meets again at a tournament in the town of Ashby hosted by Richard's
brother Prince John. Cedric is there with his ward, the beautiful Rowena, and his friend, Athelstane
of Coningsburgh. Cedric has engineered the engagement of Athelstane and Rowena to rally the
Saxons behind a potential Saxon king. However, it is Rowena and Ivanhoe who are in love. Isaac
is also at the tournament along with his stunningly beautiful daughter, the healer Rebecca. A group
of knights—all supporters of Prince John—are the challengers at the tournament and will take on
all comers. Among them are the mighty Bois-Guilbert; the hulking Sir Reginald Front-de-Boeuf, a
Norman knight whose father took over an estate neighboring Cedric's; and Sir Maurice de Bracy, a
mercenary leader. At the end of the first day, the anonymous Disinherited Knight appears and
challenges Bois-Guilbert to joust. The newcomer defeats Bois-Guilbert, becoming the day's
champion. His reward is to name the Queen of Beauty and of Love, who will reign over the second
day of the tournament. The Disinherited Knight chooses the Saxon Rowena, which affronts Prince
John and his Norman supporters. On the second day of the tournament, with the support of a
mysterious knight in black armor, the Disinherited Knight wins again, but he has been badly
wounded and collapses just as Rowena is about to crown him victor. His helmet is removed and he
is revealed to be Wilfred of Ivanhoe. Isaac and Rebecca take him to their house, where Rebecca
begins nursing him back to health. The last event of the tournament is an archery contest. It is won
by an unknown yeoman who gives his name as Locksley. He wins by splitting the arrow in the
bull's-eye. Prince John offers him a position on his guard, but Locksley declines.
On the way back to Rotherwood, Cedric and his friends and retainers come across Isaac, Rebecca,
and a sick man on a litter, who have been deserted by their bodyguards. Reluctantly—because they
are Jews—Cedric allows them to join his party. Soon the group is attacked and captured by
woodland outlaws. Only Cedric's fool, Wamba, and his swineherd, Gurth, escape capture. It turns
out the outlaws are Normans in disguise. They take Cedric and his people to Torquilstone, Front-
de-Boeuf's heavily fortified castle, where they imprison the moneyed captives separately from one
another. Cedric and Athelstane are given lunch and held for ransom. Isaac is put in the dungeon,
where he is threatened with torture and death if he doesn't pay Front-de-Boeuf a huge sum of money.
Rowena is held in a distant room, where de Bracy tells her she will be released only if she marries
him. Rebecca finds herself in a turret room where she meets Ulrica, an old woman who was the
daughter of the Saxon who once owned the castle. Ulrica leaves Rebecca with Bois- Guilbert, who
wants the Jewess to be his lover. She threatens to jump from the balcony, which prevents him from
hurting her, but makes him want her more.
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Meanwhile Wamba and Gurth meet up with Locksley in the forest. Locksley turns out to command
a large number of skilled yeomen who live in the greenwood—his "merry men." They join forces
with the Black Knight and together attack Torquilstone. A long and bloody battle ensues, aided on
the inside by Ulrica, who sets fire to the castle's fuel supply. The casualties include Front-de-Boeuf,
who is severely injured and then burns to death in a locked room, and Athelstane, whose body is
taken to a nearby abbey. Bois-Guilbert rescues Rebecca from the fire and carries her off to a
Templar preceptory. The rest of the characters are reunited.
In York Prince John is horrified to hear from de Bracy that the Black Knight is really John's brother,
King Richard. John's closest adviser, Waldemar Fitzurse, assembles a small group of knights to
ambush and kill Richard in the greenwood. When they find the king, he is on his way to Athelstane's
funeral feast at Coningsburgh with Wamba as his guide. The two of them fight about eight attackers,
and Richard is weakening when Locksley and his men arrive to save the day. Richard reveals he is
the king, and Locksley reveals he is Robin Hood. Robin and his men swear allegiance to Richard,
who pardons them. Ivanhoe, accompanied by Gurth, joins them, and the whole party rides on to
Coningsburgh.
Unexpectedly, the Templar grand master shows up at the preceptory, where he decides to restore
the order's tarnished reputation by burning "the Jewess" at the stake for sorcery. At her trial she is
found guilty based on a case of distorted facts and out-and-out lies. Rebecca demands a trial by
combat, and the grand master appoints Bois-Guilbert as the order's champion.
At Coningsburgh Richard reveals his identity to Cedric and asks him to reconcile with Wilfred.
Suddenly, to everyone's amazement, Athelstane shows up dressed in his grave clothes. He has been
held captive because the abbey expected to receive a large gift from his estate after his death.
Athelstane has decided not to try to be king and not to marry Rowena because he knows she loves
Ivanhoe. But before he can tell Wilfred the good news, a Jew arrives with a message for Ivanhoe,
and both Ivanhoe and Richard disappear.
The time of Rebecca's trial by combat arrives, but no champion appears for her. Just as the grand
master is about to order her burned, Ivanhoe rides up. Both he and his horse are weak from their
journey, but he fights anyway and is knocked from his horse. Even though Ivanhoe's lance didn't
touch him, Bois-Guilbert also falls. Ivanhoe gets up, but his opponent doesn't. Bois-Guilbert is dead.
The grand master sees this as a message from God and frees Rebecca. Richard and a group of his
supporters arrive, and the king orders the Templars to get out of England. Rebecca leaves the
preceptory with Isaac without seeing Ivanhoe because she doesn't want him to see how much she
loves him.
Richard attends the wedding of Ivanhoe and Rowena. Two days later Rebecca comes to Rowena,
gives the Saxon woman some diamond jewelry, and announces she and Isaac are moving to Spain.

WAVERLY
Sir Walter Scott’s Waverley; or, ‘Tis Sixty Years Since, first published anonymously in 1814, is
Scott’s first novel and the world’s first work of historical fiction. Often comical and with aspects
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of a picaresque novel, Waverley depicts the travels of the English soldier Edward Waverley during
the Jacobite uprising of 1745. Scott went on to become a celebrated poet and writer of works such
as Ivanhoe and The Lady of the Lake.
Some historical context is necessary for modern readers to understand the novel. It is set during the
Jacobite uprising of 1745, when British subjects loyal to the deposed House of Stuart sought to regain
power and restore Charles Edward Stuart, or “Bonnie Prince Charlie,” to the throne, defeating the
reigning Hanover dynasty. This uprising, known as “The ’45,” was the last in a long line of attempts
at rebellion and restoring the Stuart name to the throne. A surge in Scottish nationalism helped fuel
the rebellion; the Stuart family originated from Scotland and the line of Mary, Queen of Scots.
Though the rebellion was unsuccessful, its aftermath helped create a legacy in Scottish literature and
a sense of national Scottish unity: the very legacy that led Sir Walter Scott to write Waverley.
The novel first introduces the Waverly family. Edward Waverley, the protagonist, is the son of the
second son of minor nobility. His uncle, Everard Waverley, is a Jacobite sympathizer who supports
the Stuarts, while his father, Richard, is a Hanoverian. This political difference has caused a rift
between the brothers, and Everard has denied his brother his share of the Waverley estate.
Sir Everard, however, has no children to inherit after him, and eventually, he decides to make his
nephew Edward his heir. As a result, Edward is raised jointly by his father and his uncle, passed
back and forth between their households. He is an extensive reader but indulges more in romances
than in readings that will further his education and challenge his mind. He receives little formal
education and spends his days daydreaming and indulging in a fantastical inner life.
Edward’s Aunt Rachel concerned that the boy has little experience with the real world, and hoping to
keep him from pursuing local women she deems unsuitable, decides that travel would do him good.
Richard arranges a commission for his son with the Hanoverian army at a platoon in Scotland.
Rachel sends him off with a warning not to be taken in with “Scottish beauties.”
Soon, Edward heads to his regiment in Dundee, where he fails to excel in his training. When
summer arrives, Edward visits a friend of his uncle’s in Perthshire, Lord Bradwardine. Once arrived,
he is introduced to Bradwardine’s daughter, the beautiful and spirited Rose. At a welcoming feast,
Bradwardine toasts him with an heirloom goblet believed to have mystical powers, the Blessed Bear
of Bradwardine.
The old-fashioned estate appeals to Edward’s romantic sensibilities, and he finds the wild character
of Scotland more appealing than his native England. He also falls in love with the stories, songs,
and dances of Davie Gellatly, a Shakespearean comic fool and Bradwardine’s servant.
Edward’s life changes with the surprise arrival of Highlander Evan Dhu Maccombich. Edward is
intrigued by this man and extends his leave from the army to visit the Highlands and see clan
chieftain Fergus Mac Ivor Vich Ian Vohr. On this journey, he ventures into a cave housing Scottish
outlaw Donald Bean Lean, a Robin Hood-like thief who steals only from the wealthy.
Then, Evan takes him to Fergus’s ancient Highland castle. He meets the beautiful Flora, Fergus’s
sister, who is a romantic like Edward and sings Gaelic poetry to him. Edward quickly falls in love
with her, but their match seems impossible: Edward is a Hanoverian soldier, and Flora is a Jacobite
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who has pledged her life to the cause of overthrowing the Hanoverian line.
Back in England, a change in power has diminished Richard’s political influence, and he has left
his seat in government. Soon after, Edward is accused of desertion from the army and of treason—
it turns out that the thief Donald Bean Lean convinced several of Edward’s men to join the
Highlanders using a seal he stole from Edward. Now Edward is taking the blame. He is arrested but
quickly rescued by the Highlanders, who lead him to safety at Holyrood Palace, where he meets
Bonnie Prince Charlie. With some persuasion from Flora, who says she might be willing to marry
him if he becomes a Jacobite, Edward switches political sides. He proposes repeatedly, but she says
she loves nothing more than the cause and cannot marry until Bonnie Prince Charlie is restored to
the throne.
Undeterred, Edward fights for the Jacobites in the September 1745 Battle of Prestonpans. During
the fight, both armies are bogged down in the marsh at the center of the battlefield. Edward rescues
a soldier who tumbles into the marsh; the man turns out to be a Hanoverian named Colonel Talbot.
Though a Hanoverian, the colonel is also a friend of his uncle Everard.
The war progresses and the Jacobite uprising is quelled. However, Talbot, indebted to Edward,
intervenes and makes sure he receives a pardon for fighting against the Hanoverians. Fergus
receives no such aid and is sentenced to death for his actions. After Fergus is executed, there is no
chance of Edward marrying Flora—but his affections have shifted to Bradwardine’s gentle
daughter, Rose, instead. Edward marries Rose, and Flora enters a convent. Though Bradwardine’s
estate had been seized, Edward purchases it and immediately returns it to his new father-in-law.
Waverley was an overwhelmingly successful novel. Though Scott published it anonymously,
reviewers quickly guessed he was the author, recognizing his style from his already-famous poetry.
The novel was so popular that Scott’s later works were advertised as written by “the author
of Waverley,” and his later works addressing similar historical themes became known as the
“Waverley novels.”

LEIGH HUNT
James Henry Leigh Hunt better known as Leigh Hunt was an English poet, essayist, journalist,
editor, writer and critic, who remained a prominent figure of the Romantic Movement in England.
He was editor of influential journals like ‘The Reflector’, and ‘The Indicator’, at a time when
periodicals were culturally quite effective and on the roll. He wrote poetries of varied forms that
embodied satires, epistles, narrative poems, short lyrics, odes, sonnets and poetic dramas. His works
were noted for their intense and expressive descriptions along with rhythmic and soulful qualities.
He was an enthusiast of nature and surroundings, a master of temperament, which reflected in many
of his works that infuse a feeling of vivaciousness and joy. The themes of most of his poems were
patriotism, love for nature and friendship. He translated poems of many foreign languages including
French, Roman, Greek and Italian. He inspired poets like Walter Savage Landor, Charles Dickens
and Charles Lamb and introduced many poets like Alfred Tennyson, Percy Bysshe Shelley, John
Keats and Robert Browning. His know-how of Italian and French versification is palpable from his
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two best known poems, ‘Jenny Kissed Me’ and ‘Abou Ben Adhem’. Two of his remarkable play
productions are ‘A Legend of Florence’ and ‘Lovers' Amazements’, while ‘The Story of Rimini’ is
counted as his major poem.
He was born on October 19, 1784, in Southgate London to Isaac Hunt and Mary Shewell Hunt. His
father originally from Barbados was a lawyer and his mother was daughter of a prosperous merchant
from Philadelphia.
His family fled from Philadelphia to England following the outbreak of the Revolutionary War. He
was the first child and youngest son to be born out of America. Eventually Isaac Hunt became an
Anglican preacher but struggled to sustain a permanent living.
He was named after James Henry Leigh, nephew of James Brydges, 3rd Duke of Chandos, who
was taught by Isaac Hunt.
He enrolled in the ‘Christ’s Hospital’, a free boarding school, in 1791 and received his formal
education there till 1799. While Samuel Taylor Coleridge graduated from the same school in early
1791, Charles Lamb left this school in 1789. Hunt had Thomas Barnes as one of his schoolmates.

Extensive reading, meticulous writing and a knack for classical literature were all part of his early
life, thanks to the school curriculum that encouraged such endeavours.
He was unable to join the university due to his speech impediment, which was later cured.
According to him, just after leaving school he did not do much apart from meeting school friends,
visiting book stalls and penning down verses.
He was inspired by the works of William Collins and Thomas Gray and many of his writings would
reflect an uncanny similarity of their verses. This was evident from ‘Juvenilia’, his first volume of
poems that he wrote in his school days. It was published in 1801 with the help of several notable
subscribers from England and America, who were amassed by his father.
‘Juvenilia’ consisted of sonnets, elegies, translations, pastorals and hymns echoing works of
William Collins, Thomas Gray and Alexander Pope. It received positive reviews from prominent
literary critics.
After leaving school he started writing for newspapers that include a volume of theatre criticism
issued in 1807 and a string of ‘Classic Tales’ along with critically written essays on authors.
For a while he worked as a clerk in his barrister brother Stephen’s office and thereafter in 1808
joined his brother John’s newspaper ‘Examiner’ in Strand, London, as its editor.
From 1810 to 1811 he also edited John’s quarterly magazine, ‘The Reflector’ and penned down a
satire, ‘The Feast of the Poets’ that annoyed William Gifford and many other poets.
Meanwhile ‘Examiner’ earned reputation for its unconventional political liberty and when it
censured Prince Regent in 1813 the two brothers faced prosecution and two years of imprisonment.
While in prison, he was visited by Charles Lamb, Thomas Moore and Lord Byron among others
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whose association made an impact in shaping up his career.
His major poem ‘The Story of Rimini’, published in 1816, earned him a spot in English literature.
Though it was based on the tragic chapter of ‘Francesca da Rimini’ found in ‘Inferno’ - the first
part of ‘Divine Comedy’ by Dante Alighieri', Hunt narrated it in a more optimistic form, contrary
to original mood of the subject.
He introduced Percy Bysshe Shelley and John Keats to the public by publishing their poems in the
‘Examiner’ in December 1816.
A group of poets gathered around him at Hampstead, better known as the ‘Hunt Circle’ included
Charles Lamb, Shelley, William Hazlitt, Benjamin Haydon, Keats and many others.
Two volumes of ‘The Round Table’ were published in 1817 that contained essays written by him
and William Hazlitt during 1814-17, which were originally issued in ‘The Examiner’.
‘Foliage’ was a collection of his poems after ‘Juvenilia’ and it was published in 1818.

His financial life however remained in distress and furthered when his friend Shelley, whose
generosity often helped Hunt, left for Italy in 1818.
In 1819 his works ‘Bacchus and Ariadne’ and ‘Hero and Leander’ came out. The same year he
joined ‘The Indicator’, a literary weekly of Joseph Appleyard, and edited the periodical till 1821.
Many contents of the weekly including essays, poems, stories and reviews were written by him.
Shelley and Lord Byron convinced him in 1821 to move to Italy to set up quarterly magazine,
‘Liberal’ where Hunt would edit, while all three would write. In this pursuit Hunt departed for Italy
on November 15, 1821. His voyage was filled with challenges including ill health, storm and other
adversities ultimately landing him in Italy on July 1, 1822.
The sudden demise of Shelley shattered Hunt placing him in a more precarious situation. He was
now literally dependent upon Byron who seemed less interested in patronising Hunt’s big family.
Hunt returned to England in September 1825.
He faced extreme poverty and sickness and his ‘London Journal’ (1834-35) succumbed due to lack
of subscribers.
His financial distress was somewhat minimised when he received an annuity of £120 from Mary
Shelley and her son in 1844 and thereafter a ‘Civil List Pension’ of £200 in 1847.
His notable works include ‘Lord Byron and Some of His Contemporaries’ (1828), ‘Captain Sword
and Captain Pen’ (1835), ‘A Legend of Florence’ (1840), ‘Autobiography’ (1850), ‘Stories in
Verse’ (1855) and ‘Lovers' Amazements’ (1858).
His notable translation works are Torquato Tasso's ‘Aminta’, titled as ‘Amyntas, A Tale of the
Woods’ (1820), and Francesco Redi's ‘Bacchus in Tuscany’ (1825).
Personal Life & Legacy

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Following courtship for years, he married Marianne Kent on July 3, 1809. They had ten children.
Over the years his wife became an alcoholic and would embarrass him by borrowing money from
his friends without his knowledge. After her death on January 26, 1857, her sister Elizabeth Kent
began assisting Hunt.
His eldest son, Thornton once remarked that Elizabeth, who was intelligent and also published two
books herself, would have been a more compatible wife for Leigh Hunt.
On August 28, 1859, he died in Putney and was interred in London’s ‘Kensal Green Cemetery’
beside his wife. Elizabeth was also buried beside him.
Trivia
One of the boarding houses at Christ’s Hospital school was named after him in September 1966.

ABOU BEN ADHEM

The poem focuses on an event in the life of the Sufi saint Ibrahim bin Adham (anglicized to Abou
Ben Adhem). Ben Adhem encounters an angel, who is writing a record of those who love God.
Learning his name isn't on this list, Ben Adhem instructs the angel to mark him down as one who
loves his "fellow men." The next night, the angel returns with a second list: those who are blessed
by God. Ben Adhem's name is at the top this time, suggesting that God favors those who love their
fellow human beings—indeed, that love for other people is the best way to express love for God.
Hunt is not particularly well-known for his poetry, and is better remembered for his role in
facilitating the work of other poets at the time (such as Keats and Shelly). "Abou Ben Adhem" is
one of a handful of Hunt's poems still commonly read.

THOMAS LOVE PEACOCK

Thomas Love Peacock, the son of a London merchant, was educated for a business career and not
for a life of artistic pursuits. Finding work in an office uncongenial, he was able to leave his job and
to live for a while on his inherited income. During these years he began to write poetry, and he
became a close friend of Percy Bysshe Shelley. After the poet's death, Peacock became his literary
executor and edited a volume of memorials. Peacock married Jane Gryffydh, a lady mentioned in
glowing terms in Shelley's poem "Letter to Maria Gisborne."
In this period Peacock also began to write the satirical novels on which his reputation rests. The
first group includes Headlong Hall (1815), Melincourt (1817), and Nightmare Abbey (1818). His
pattern in these works was to dispense with all but the most mechanical plotting and to devote his
attention to extended conversations between the inhabitants and guests at characteristic English
country houses. Headlong Hall includes Mr. Foster, an optimist; Mr. Escot, a pessimist; Mr.
Jenkinson, an advocate of the status quo; and Dr. Gaster, a minister more distinguished by his
worldliness than by his piety. Melincourt has a more integrated plot, centering on the wooing of a
wealthy heiress. Its main interest lies, however, in its satirical portraits of William Wordsworth,
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Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Robert Southey, Thomas Malthus, and Lord Monboddo. Nightmare
Abbey continues the satire of poets and philosophers of the day, including Coleridge, Lord Byron,
and Shelley.

In 1819 Peacock joined the East India Company and became a competent and successful executive
of colonial affairs. He continued his imaginative writing. In addition to poetry, he published two
romance-novels dealing with fairy-tale plots and characters. Maid Marian (1822) is set in medieval
England and concerns the legendary exploits of Robin Hood's band. The Misfortunes of Elphin
(1829) is a parody of the Arthurian legend in which King Arthur, Queen Guinevere, and the Welsh
bard Taliesin figure.
After these forays into the romance-novel, Peacock returned to his true métier with another satirical
novel, Crotchet Castle (1831). Leading intellectual figures of the day satirized in this work include
Coleridge, the rigorous school of Scottish economic thinkers, and those who joined in the period's
growing tendency to glorify the Middle Ages. Perhaps the most remarkable achievement of
Peacock's career was, however, his production of another novel of the same type almost 30 years
afterward. Gryll Grange (1860) shows the marks of age in its tendency to ramble from scholarly to
domestic subjects and in its avoidance of personal satire of leading intellectual figures. Gryll Grange
was Peacock's last novel. He was one of the most incisive commentators on the cultural life of
England in the first half of the 19th century.

FOR AGES OF POETRY

Peacock sympathizes neoclassical critical principles and parodies Wordsworth's romantic ideas.
The essay "The Four Ages of Poetry" deserves to be esteemed for its own witty insights and also
because Shelley was impelled to write “Defense of Poetry” in reply to it. Peacock says everything
that is artificial is anti-poetical. Peacock goes on to declare that poetry inevitably declined as the
age of gold that made way to silver and then to brass.
Peacock says that English poetry has passed through the Iron Age of chivalry and romance
literature, the Golden Age of Shakespeare, the silver Age of Dryden and Pope, and has reached the
Age of Brass, in which contemporary romantic poets have retreated into solitude and private
meditation, distancing themselves from the most important aspects of the life of their time. Peacock
attacks on the individual Romantic poets and by emphasizing that the Lake poets in general “wrote
verses on a new principle” by remaining studiously ignorant of history, society, and human nature,
by cultivating” the fancy at the expense of memory and reason, and by “seeing Nature” not “ as she
was,” as they professed to do, but “only as she was not, converting the land they lived in into a sort
of fairy-land, which they peopled with mysticisms and chimaeras” (513), consequently isolating
themselves from the majority of readers and rendering their poetry an adornment to, rather than an
influence on their society. He complains that the poetry of the Romantic era had divorced itself
from praxis, and so become self-conscious and essentially useless.
The development of poetry passed through four ages according to Peacock. (i) Iron or Bardic Age
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in which society was in its infancy and poets were “the sole depositories of all the knowledge of
their age” (509). (ii) Golden or Homeric Age in which poetry achieved perfection by synthesizing
the primitive vitality and power of the Iron Age with new knowledge and technical skill. With the
emergences of history, philosophy, or science the stature of poetry declined leading to (iii) Silver
or Virgilian Age, when poetry was no longer supreme but derivative, consisting of good sense and
learning conveyed in “a labored and somewhat monotonous harmony of expression …” (510).
Finally, there is the (iv) Brass or Nonnic Age and ends in “the second childhood of poetry’ as poetry
becomes self-conscious and pseudoarchaic (511). This age refers to the romantic age, which he calls
“semibarbarian” in a civilized community. The poet, in this age, lives in the days that are past. His
ideas, thoughts, feelings, associations, are all with barbarous manners, absolute customs, and
exploded superstitions. Peacock hold that there is a linear progress in the development of rational
knowledge. This make unlikely to return to a golden age of poetry, for poetry has less and less of
real experience to be concerned with.

NIGHTMARE ABBEY

The most literary of Peacock's satires, it mocks the modish gloom infecting contemporary literature:
Coleridge's German transcendentalism is the prime example, but Byron's self‐ dramatizing and
Shelley's esotericism are also ridiculed. In imitation of the opening of Godwin's novel Mandeville
(1817), Mr Glowry's isolated house is staffed by servants with long faces and names like Diggory
Deathshead. He gives a house party attended by Mr Toobad, the millenarian pessimist, Mr Flosky
(Coleridge), Mr Cypress (Byron), and Mr Listless, the common reader, who is currently immersed
in the blue devils. Two guests remain unfashionably cheerful, Mr Asterias the scientist and Mr
Hilary, whose literary tastes come from the Greeks. Scythrop Glowry, the son of the house, a young
writer who resembles Shelley, cannot decide between his frivolous cousin Marionetta and Mr
Toobad's sibylline daughter Stella. In a classic comic denouement, in which the ladies are discovered
to one another, Scythrop loses both.

CHARLES LAMB
Charles Lamb was born on Feb. 10, 1775, in London. At the age of 7 he entered Christ's Hospital, a
free boarding school for sons of poor but genteel parents. After beginning a lifelong friendship with
Samuel Taylor Coleridge, a fellow student, Lamb left school in 1789. In 1792 he was hired as a
clerk in the East India Company and worked there for the next 33 years.
On Sept. 22, 1796, Lamb's sister, Mary, in a moment of anxious rage, stabbed their mother to death.
An inquest found Mary temporarily insane and placed her in the custody of Charles. After the death
of their father in 1799, Mary came to live with Charles for the rest of his life. This companionship
was broken only at intervals when the symptoms of Mary's illness recurred so that she had to enter
an asylum. This lifelong guardianship prevented Lamb from ever marrying. He himself had spent
6 weeks in an asylum during the winter of 1795, stuttered badly all his life, and became increasingly
dependent on alcohol. It is quite possible that his responsibility to Mary helped him to keep a firmer
grip on his own sanity.
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Lamb's literary career began in 1796, when Coleridge published four of Lamb's sonnets in his own
first volume, Poems on Various Subjects. In 1798 Lamb published his sentimental romance, A Tale
of Rosamund Gray, and, together with Charles Lloyd, a friend of Coleridge, brought out a volume
entitled Blank Verse. By 1801 Lamb had begun to contribute short articles to London newspapers
and to write plays in an effort to relieve the poverty he and Mary endured. In 1802 he published
John Woodvil, a blank-verse play which enjoyed no success, and on the night of Dec. 10, 1806, his
two-act farce, Mr. H., was greeted by "a hundred hisses" at the Drury Lane Theatre.
In 1807 Charles and Mary together brought out Tales from Shakespeare, a collection of prose
adaptations of Shakespeare's plays intended for young readers. The book proved popular with both
young and old, and the Lambs followed up this success with others in the same vein. In 1808 Charles
published his own version of Homer's Odyssey for children, The Adventures of Ulysses, and
in 1809 he collaborated again with Mary on Mrs. Leicester's School, a book of children's stories,
and Poetry for Children.
Meanwhile Lamb began a new aspect of his career in 1808 by editing the anthology Specimens of
the English Dramatic Poets Who Lived about the Time of Shakespeare. Lamb's brilliant comments
on the selections he chose began his reputation as a critic, and the entire volume was largely
responsible for the revival of interest in Shakespeare's contemporaries which followed its
publication. Lamb furthered his critical career with essays "On the Genius and Character of
Hogarth" and "The Tragedies of Shakespeare," published in Leigh Hunt's journal, the Reflector, in
1811. In 1818 he brought out a two-volume collection The Works of Charles Lamb. Ironically, his
real literary career was yet to begin.
Though Lamb was still far from famous, these years were among the happiest of his life. At their
home in Inner Temple Lane, he and Mary entertained their friends at a number of late Wednesday
evening gatherings. The company included many of the famous authors of the romantic period—
Coleridge, William Wordsworth, Robert Southey, William Hazlitt, and Hunt. Yet according to
Hazlitt, Lamb "always made the best pun and the best remark" of the evening.
Also, Lamb's letters to these friends during these years are among the best things he ever wrote.
Filled with excellent critical comments, they also reveal much of the wistful humor of Lamb's own
personality.
These letters no doubt did much to prepare Lamb for his forthcoming triumph as a familiar essayist.
From 1820 through 1825 he contributed a series of essays to the London Magazine which were
immensely popular. Though he wrote under the pseudonym Elia, these essays, like his letters, are
intimate revelations of Lamb's own thoughts, emotions, and experiences of literature and life. He
touches on few disturbing subjects. He prefers instead to look to the past for a sense of calm,
stability, and changelessness. Yet beneath the wit, humor, and humanity of such essays as "A
Dissertation upon Roast Pig," "Witches and Other Night-Fears," and "Dream Children," one finds
a gentle nostalgia and melancholy. This bittersweet tone remains the hallmark of Lamb's style.
In 1823 Charles and Mary met and eventually adopted an orphan girl, Emma Isola. In August the
Lambs moved from London for the first time, to Islington and then to Enfield. Charles's health was
weakening, and a long illness during the winter of 1824 led him to retire permanently from the East
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India Company. He now occupied his time with walking trips around Hertfordshire with Emma
Isola.

By 1833 the frequency and duration of Mary's attacks had increased so that she needed almost
constant care, so the Lambs moved to Edmonton to be near Mary's nurse. Charles ended his literary
career the same year with Last Essays of Elia. In July, Emma's marriage to Charles's friend Edward
Moxon left him depressed and lonely. One year later the death of Coleridge made that loneliness
acute. "I feel how great a part he was of me," wrote Lamb. Five weeks later, on Dec. 27, 1834,
Lamb himself was dead.

ESSAYS OF ELIA
In his Essays of Elia and its sequel, Last Essays of Elia, Charles Lamb explores a broad range of
topics and works with various non-fiction tropes that often edge into the terrain of fiction. We see
him writing obituaries, dream journals, diatribes, and tributes. What unifies Lamb's essays is his
lyrical, conversational writing style. Like many fellow Romantics, he often employs purple prose
and shows off his sharp wit, but the essays themselves remain accessible and often fun. Elia is the
persona Lamb uses when writing essays, so instead of referring to Lamb or "the narrator," these
synopses will refer simply to "Elia."

"Old China"

Elia details his pet obsession, old china. The essay starts with—typical for Elia—a flight of fancy,
as he gets lost in a scene of a tea ceremony depicted on a cup. The essay veers into a conversation
with Cousin Bridget about whether the days when they were poorer were more fulfilling than those
of their comparative wealth.

"Dream-Children; A Reverie"

Much of this essay reads as Elia's elegy to his grandmother, Field, the magnanimous, fearless
woman who took care of a mansion where Elia spent much of his childhood. He recounts Field as
well as his late brother John to his children, but when Elia begins to tell the children about their
mother Alice, they fade away, and Elia wakes up from a dream. He never had any children by Alice,
since Alice chose to marry another man.

"A Dissertation Upon Roast Pig"

A comical essay which includes many nuggets of fiction, "A Dissertation" is Elia's attempt to
imagine the provenance of people eating roast pork, a dish that he loves. He talks about an imaginary
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ancient boy who burns down his family's shack but eats the pig that died in the fire and loves it. The
essay veers into a discussion of Elia's love of sharing food with other people, before ending with a
moral conundrum of how animals that are to be eaten should be slaughtered.

"The South-Sea House"

Elia describes the bank where he used to work, the South Sea House, which was the site of a famous
financial speculation hoax. He recounts his various co-workers as well as the owners of the bank,
but eventually reveals that his account may be as much of a hoax as the scam that the bank
infamously ran.

"Ellistoniana"
Elia writes an obituary for his friend Elliston, a beloved stage actor whose on-stage and off-stage
presences were indistinguishable from one another. Elliston is described as a passionate man whose
only regrets are that he was pigeonholed late in his career for doing what he did best.

"Rejoicings Upon a New Year's Coming of Age"

This is a fanciful essay which is effectively a work of fiction imagining a New Year's Day party
where all of the days of the year are personified and mingle with one another. April Fool's is the
master of ceremonies and creates delightful chaos throughout the celebration.

"Detached Thoughts on Books and Reading"

In this essay, Elia talks about his compulsive reading habit, praising his favorites, Shakespeare and
Milton, while confessing that he'll read just about anything with text that is put in front of him. He
rails against newspapers and especially the practice of reading them out loud in public settings, as
this violates that individualistic style of reading that Elia favors.

"Grace Before Meat"

Elia is typically skeptical of hypocrisy in organized religion, but this is really the essay where he
outlines the substance of his critique by way of articulating his own religious and moral convictions.
He believe that grace is usually uttered insincerely, and that only the poor really have dignity in
saying it, as they are truly grateful for the opportunity to have food on their table. This extends to a
broader condemnation of the rich.

"The Old and New Schoolmaster"

Elia talks about the limits of his education based on the old style of pedagogy, which was wholly
rooted in learning English and literature pertinent to it. The new schoolmasters know a little bit

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about everything so that their pupils' curiosity can always be satisfied. The essay ends with a letter
from a schoolmaster about how alienated he feels from his students after the passing of his wife.

"The Praise of Chimney-Sweepers"

In an essay that is somewhat uncomfortable to read because of its treatment of race, Elia praises
young boys who are chimney sweepers. He praises the tea they drink and their jovial attitude, before
describing dinners that his late friend used to throw for the boys every year where they were treated
like nobility. As with many of Elia's essays, this one elevates the nobility of the lower classes.

TALES FROM SHAKESPEARE

A children's book written in collaboration by Charles Lamb and Mary Lamb in 1807. The book is
designed to make the stories of Shakespeare's plays familiar to the young. Mary Lamb was
responsible for the comedies, while Charles wrote the tragedies; they wrote the preface between
them. Marina Warner, in her introduction to the Penguin 2007 edition, says that Mary did not get
her name on the title page till the seventh edition in 1838.
The book contains the following tales:

➢ The Tempest (Mary Lamb)

➢ A Midsummer Night's Dream (Mary Lamb)
➢ The Winter’s Tale (Mary Lamb)
➢ Much Ado About Nothing (Mary Lamb)
➢ As You Like It (Mary Lamb)
➢ Two Gentlemen of Verona (Mary Lamb)
➢ The Merchant of Venice (Mary Lamb)
➢ Cymbeline (Mary Lamb)
➢ King Lear (Charles Lamb)
➢ Macbeth (Charles Lamb)
➢ All's Well That Ends Well (Mary Lamb)
➢ The Taming of the Shrew (Mary Lamb)
➢ The Comedy of Errors (Mary Lamb)
➢ Measure for Measure (Mary Lamb)
➢ Twelfth Night (Mary Lamb)
➢ Timon of Athens (Charles Lamb)
➢ Romeo and Juliet (Charles Lamb)
➢ Hamlet, Prince of Denmark (Charles Lamb)
➢ Othello (Charles Lamb)
➢ Pericles, Prince of Tyre (Mary Lamb)
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THOMAS DE QUINCY
De Quincey was considered one of the greatest prose stylists of the English Romantic era, otherwise
best known for poetry, and his imaginative, convoluted prose style, best exemplified in Confessions
of an English Opium Eater but also on display in a great variety of other works that were widely read
in 19th-century England and America, exerted a vast influence on later literary radicals such as
American mystery pioneer and experimentalist Edgar Allan Poe and the French poet Charles
Baudelaire.
"Among his earliest memories were dreams," wrote De Quincey biographer Grevel Lindop—
appropriate for a writer who put a powerful stream of his interior life into everything he penned. De
Quincey was born Thomas Quincey in the English city of Manchester on August 15, 1785. The
family later adopted the name De Quincey, hypothesizing that they were related to an old Anglo-
French family named de Quincis that dated back to the time of the Norman Conquest. De Quincey's
father Thomas was a cloth merchant in Manchester, the cradle of English industry, and the family
lived in a pleasant country home. De Quincey was the fourth of five children; he was close to his
siblings and was deeply affected by the deaths of his sisters Jane and Elizabeth during his childhood.
With his brother William he created a rich fantasy life centered on the two imaginary warring
kingdoms of Gombroon and Tigrosylvania. De Quincey's father died in 1793, leaving the family
with sufficient financial resources for the time being.
De Quincey was educated in private schools and quickly showed a gift for language in general.
When he was about eight, he impressed a local bookseller by translating a book of a Latin-language
copy of the Bible into English at sight, and by the time he was 15 he could speak, read, and write
ancient Greek fluently. One teacher at the Bath Grammar School remarked to a visitor that De
Quincey could have given a better oration in front of an ancient Athenian mob than he, the teacher,
could have done before an English one.
In 1801 De Quincey began attending the Manchester Grammar School, a prep school-like institution
that could have earned him a valuable Oxford University scholarship. He learned some important
literary lessons while he was there, reading the early works of William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor
Coleridge, and other English Romantic poets who would greatly influence his own writing in the
future. At the time, however, De Quincey was bored. He ran away from the school, defying the
wishes of his mother, and wandered around the Wales region, sleeping outdoors in order to stretch
his money supply. Finally broke, he went to London to try to borrow money on the strength of his
family's good name.
Things went from bad to worse. Lenders refused his applications for loans, and he nearly starved
to death. He was apparently befriended by a prostitute named Ann, who at one point revived him
after he collapsed on the street by spending her own meager savings on a bottle of port wine and
bringing it to him. When De Quincey later returned to London to look for her, she had disappeared,
and no record of her other than De Quincey's recollections has ever surfaced. Readers have
occasionally wondered whether she might have been a product of De Quincey's imagination, but
the details he provides in his descriptions of her are convincing ones.

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Eventually De Quincey worked out his problems with his family, and he enrolled in Oxford
University's Worcester College in 1803. It was while he was a student there that his opium addiction
began. At first he took the drug in the form of laudanum, a liquid tincture (an alcohol- based
distillate) that he sought out for toothache relief. De Quincey's career at Oxford was mercurial; he
was a brilliant student in English literature and in the Greek, Latin, and German languages.
Embarking on his final exams in 1808 he started out strongly but left school before finishing, and
he never received his degree.
Instead, he plunged more deeply into the literary life. By the time he left Oxford, he had made the
acquaintance of several of the leading writers of the day, central figures in what would be known
as the Romantic movement. He donated five hundred pounds anonymously to "Kubla Khan" author
and fellow opium user Samuel Taylor Coleridge when Coleridge was in dire financial straits, and
he lived for a time with poet William Wordsworth and his wife. Moving frequently from place to
place, De Quincey lived in absolute disorder. He accumulated a huge library of books, and his
friends began to treat him as something of a mobile lending library. Sometimes he would move out
of a house or country cottage when it became too clogged with his papers and unfinished projects—
sometimes his landlords had a strong enough belief in his potential that they carefully stored his
materials. Despite his often-chaotic life, De Quincey was known as a loyal and supportive associate;
when his friend John Wilson became a professor and was placed in the position of having to give
lectures on subjects with which he was unfamiliar, De Quincey cheerfully ghostwrote the lectures
for him.
In 1817 De Quincey married Margaret Simpson, the daughter of a farmer in the Grasmere district
of northern England. They eventually had eight children. By the time of the marriage, De Quincey
had burned through much of the money he had coming from his family, and his opium usage had
ballooned to a massive 340 grains daily—more than 20 grams. Periodically he tried to give up the
drug, but he succeeded only in lowering his intake and keeping it at a consistent level.
By the late 1810s, well into his fourth decade of life, De Quincey had written only a few articles
and pamphlets despite the brilliance many friends recognized in him. But now, faced with the
necessity of supporting his family, he began to contribute prolifically to magazines, submitting
everything from popularizations of the theories of pioneer British economist David Ricardo, to
literary criticism, to translations of German poetry and drama. His greatest success, however, came
when he wrote about himself, in a dizzying style that combined erudition, flights of prose
complexity, and bald honesty. His first work in this vein was Confessions of an English Opium
Eater , which appeared in London Magazine in 1821 and was soon reprinted in book form. It
remained the best known of all De Quincey's writings.
The form of CONFESSIONS OF AN ENGLISH OPIUM EATER was and remains unusual; it
is partly memoir and partly an exploration of the effects of a mind-altering substance. In a lengthy
section of "Preliminary Confessions," De Quincey recounted the story of his wanderings as a young
man, including his encounters with Ann, the London prostitute. But the bulk of the work is given
over to personal descriptions of "The Pleasures of Opium" and "The Pains of Opium." At the
beginning of the work De Quincey seems to promise a moralistic antidrug stance, observing that
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"If opium-eating be a sensual pleasure, and if I am bound to confess that I have indulged in it to an
excess, not yet recorded of any other man, it is no less true, that I have struggled against this
fascinating enthralment with a religious zeal, and have at length accomplished what I never yet
heard attributed to any other man—have untwisted, almost to its final links, the accursed chain
which fettered me."
The rest of the document, however, gives equal weight to both the positive and negative aspects of
opium usage. "[T]hou buildest upon the bosom of darkness, out of the fantastic imagery of the brain,
cities and temples … beyond the splendour of Babylon and Hekatompylos," wrote De Quincey,
"and 'from the anarchy of dreaming sleep,' callest into sunny light the faces of long- buried beauties,
and the blessed household countenances, cleansed from the 'dishonours of the grave.' Thou only
givest these gifts to man; and thou hast the keys of Paradise, oh just, subtle, and mighty opium!" He
rhapsodized about his heightened perceptions of music while under the drug's influence.
De Quincey was equally eloquent in describing the depressive states that came with drug usage.
"But for misery and suffering, I might, indeed, be said to have existed in a dormant state," he
recalled. "I seldom could prevail on myself to write a letter; an answer of a few words, to any that I
received, was the utmost that I could accomplish; and often than not until the letter had laid weeks, or
even months, on my writing-table. Without the aid of M. [his wife], all records of bills paid, or to
be paid, must have perished; and my whole domestic economy … must have gone into irretrievable
confusion."
Confessions of an English Opium Eater was a major success and put De Quincey on the literary
map. For the next two decades he was in demand as a contributor to England's leading periodicals.
He made money off of a translation of a German hoax novel called Walladmor that had been
promoted as a lost work by Scottish historical fantasy novelist Sir Walter Scott. De Quincey wrote
some fiction of his own: the novel Klosterheim (1832) and short stories such as "The Household
Wreck" (1838) had elements of description and fantasy that anticipated the styles and themes of
avant-garde writers such as Poe and Franz Kafka. He also penned a widely read series of biographies
of writers, with subjects ranging from Roman emperors to the Romantic poets he personally knew.
The latter group was as unconventional in form as were his drug memoirs; De Quincey inserted
himself into the narratives, producing a unique mix of biography and autobiography.
De Quincey suffered anew from the deaths of family members in the 1830s. One son, Julius, died
at age four; another, William, suffered from a brain disorder and died at 18; and De Quincey lost
his wife to typhus in 1837. His opium dosages increased sharply. By this time, he had moved to
Edinburgh, Scotland, in whose environs he spent most of the rest of his life. The aging writer once
again was forced to juggle creditors, but things changed for the better when his oldest daughter,
Margaret, took charge of the household.
They improved further in the 1840s and 1850s when De Quincey's reputation as one of Britain's
greatest writers expanded. He gained readers in the United States, and his collected works were
issued in Boston (they ran to 22 volumes) by the Ticknor, Reed and Fields publishing firm.
Although it was not required to do so (Britain and the United States had no reciprocal copyright
protection at the time), the firm paid DeQuincey royalties. He continued to write in his old age, and
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to assemble and revise his works for new collected editions. He died in Edinburgh on December 8,
1859. Many critics in the following decades thought of De Quincey as a writer of genius who had
never quite reached his full potential, but a new spate of studies and biographies of the author began
appearing in the late 20th century—an age sympathetic to outsider figures and to experimenters with
psychoactive substances.

MARY WOLSTONECRAFT

A VINDICATION OF THE RIGHTS OF WOMAN

Mary Wollstonecraft writes A Vindication of the Rights of Woman in response to French politician
Talleyrand-Périgord’s pamphlet on national education. Her argument is that if women are not
“prepared by education to become the companion of man, she will stop the progress of knowledge
and virtue.” Wollstonecraft believes that the neglect of women’s education has caused great misery.
Women are taught that romance is the primary goal of their lives, and they are not encouraged to
develop their reason or virtue.
In her critique of contemporary views of women’s education, Wollstonecraft looks primarily at
middle-class women and considers them first as “human creatures … placed on this earth to unfold
their faculties.” She bases her argument on the belief that reason is what makes people human, that
virtue is what distinguishes people from one another, and that virtue is attained through knowledge.
Wollstonecraft rejects the common argument that men and women should aim to acquire different
virtues. She believes that although men and women generally have different duties in life, they
should strive for identical virtues. But because women tend to be given a haphazard education, they
are not given adequate opportunity to develop their reason and attain virtue. More often, they’re
taught to please men, preparing themselves for only a brief period of life—that is, courtship and early
marriage. They aren’t even prepared to build sustainable marriages or to care for their children
effectively.
Because women are taught that pleasure is the overriding goal of their lives, they are never given
the opportunity to struggle with adversity and thereby develop knowledge and virtue. Instead of
learning to rely on reason, they’re allowed to be driven by emotions and delicate sensibilities, which
do not prepare women to be good wives and mothers. This neglectful education also leaves them
especially vulnerable if widowed, or if seduced and “ruined” by a man—situations in which they
are left without any means to support themselves financially.
Wollstonecraft specifically critiques several eighteenth-century writers on the subject of women’s
education. Her most detailed critique is of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who argues that women only
need to be educated inasmuch as it prepares them to serve men. She also dismisses Fordyce’s
sentimental sermons and Gregory’s rules of decorum. She concludes that women have absorbed
many of these oppressive standards because they haven’t been taught to distinguish between reason
and prevailing prejudices. She also addresses the importance of childhood impressions, the
necessity of modesty for both sexes, and the distinction between external reputation and virtue.
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Wollstonecraft sees duty—especially, for most women, the duties of motherhood and domestic
life—as a vital building-block for families and thus, ultimately, for society. Because society
pressures women to care primarily about external beauty, they have no incentive to attend to the
duties nature has given them, leading to unhappiness and malformed family bonds. Women deserve
the protection of civil laws in order to support them in fulfilling their duties. They should also have
the option of studying medicine, politics, and business in order to have more occupational doors
open to them, allowing them to be of greater use to society at large.

Wollstonecraft concludes A Vindication with a proposal to establish free national schools for all
children. Such schools—marked by strongly republican “jostlings of equality”—would focus on
creating good citizens, nurturing the virtues that have taken root at home. She advocates
coeducation at every stage, believing this will allow relations between the sexes to develop in more
natural and healthy ways. Educating girls in such schools will not distract them from domestic
duties; rather, it will awaken their minds and prepare them all the better to fulfill their duties, caring
for their families based on reason and virtue rather than ill-informed prejudice and unruly feelings.
Finally, Wollstonecraft calls for a “revolution” for women, reiterating that their subordinate status
is due to men’s prejudices and not to any inherent weakness. This will be proven once women are
free to develop their understanding and affections. As women are released from ignorance, they
will enjoy greater independence befitting rational creatures with human souls, and society as a
whole will only benefit.

MARY SHELLEY

Daughter of William Godwin and Mary Wollstonecraft. Wife of P. B. Shelley.

FRANKENSTEIN

Mary Shelley's Frankenstein is a classic novel, one that could be categorized as both Romantic and Gothic. The
Romantic movement in British literature began in the late 1700s. Authors during this period often focused on the
power of the nature, the importance of the individual, idealized rustic life, and they shunned technology and city-life.
Frankenstein certainly does all of these things. Characters often find refuge in nature, those living a simple life are
idealized, and certainly the power of science and technology is questioned.

Additionally, the Gothic movement was a sub-genre within Romanticism. It too focused on the
"sublime" or awe-inspiring power of nature. Often times, Gothic novels convey an air of mystery
and darkness, and are fraught with the emotional dilemmas of the characters. This is evident
in Frankenstein as well, as the entire story is centered around the nature of evil, while both the
monster and Victor Frankenstein face emotional turmoil.

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Shelley's Frankenstein is also a frame story- a story framed or surrounded by another story. The
novel begins with a series of letters from Robert Walton to his sister. Robert Walton is at sea with a
group of sailors when his boat gets stuck in the ice. His crew rescues an injured Victor Frankenstein
from the ice, though Victor is weak and on the verge of death. Throughout the rest of the novel,
Robert Walton is relating Victor Frankenstein's story to his sister via letter. The novel only returns
to Robert Walton at the very end.

Victor Frankenstein begins his story with his youth, telling of his loving parents and his adopted
sister, Elizabeth. Victor leaves for university but, before he does, his mother dies from an illness.
At the university, Victor begins to study science, which he had been fascinated with since his youth.
When he has learned all that his professors can teach him, he locks himself up in his apartment,
resolving to make a living creation of his own. His fascination with creating life is likely due to the
untimely death of his mother. Victor ultimately succeeds, creating a monster so hideous and
terrifying that he is immediately ashamed of what he has done. Victor flees his own apartment and,
when he returns, the monster has escaped.

Eventually, Victor is forced to return home to his family when he receives word that his younger
brother, William, has died unexpectedly. Victor hears that the young man was strangled, and he
knows immediately it must be his monster's doing. However, Victor does not speak up about what
his creation has done and the family servant, Justine, takes the fall for the crime. She is sentenced
to death. Victor feels a tremendous burden after this happens, feeling responsible for the monster's
actions and for being unable to save Justine.
Victor and his family take a vacation to clear their heads and, unexpectedly, Victor meets with the
monster. The frame story now goes a step further, as Victor relates the story of his monster. The
monster tells of how he left Victor's apartment and gradually came to understand the world through
his senses. The monster settled into hovel outside of the cottage of the De Lacey family. Throughout
the course of several months, the monster watched the De Lacey family-Felix, Agatha, and an old
man. He learns to read, and he learns that this family is completely invested in each other. Shortly,
another woman, Safie, arrives to the cottage. She is in love with Felix, who had tried to help her
imprisoned father. The monster tries to reveal himself to these people hoping that, because they seem
like kind, generous people that they will accept him. More than anything, the monster feels a deep
desire for love and belonging. Instead, he is driven off when he reveals himself to the De Laceys. He
vows, as a result, that he will take revenge on mankind and, especially, his creator.
Victor finishes the monster's story by telling how the monster made one demand of him: he wanted a
mate. The monster promised that, if Victor created a mate for him, he would run away to South
America and never harm another person. Reluctantly, Victor agrees.

After traveling for at time to seek answers, Victor goes to a remote island in Scotland and begins
work on the she-monster. Halfway through, however, he has second thoughts and destroys the
partially formed creation. The monster sees him do this and, enraged, tells Victor he will be with
him on his wedding night, presumably to take revenge. The monster's statement is an example
of foreshadowing, or a hint of what will happen later in the novel.
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Victor disregards the remains of the she-monster in the ocean. When he comes ashore, he is accused
of murder, only to find out the victim was Henry Clerval, the friend with whom Victor had been
traveling. After a period of guilt-induced illness, Victor returns home and marries his childhood
love, Elizabeth.

The night of their marriage, Victor is haunted by the monster's words, convinced he will have to
battle his creation. However, the monster kills Elizabeth when Victor least expects it. Weeks later,
Victor's father dies of grief as well.

As a result, Victor vows that he will get revenge, and he chases the monster around the globe. This
is how he ends up in the icy North. The story, at this point, returns to Robert Walton, emerging from
the frame. Victor dies and, a few days later, the monster appears telling Walton that now he too is
ready to die.

The novel addresses several themes or universal ideas. The first is the nature of evil. The monster in
the beginning of the novel is a kind and compassionate being. Against his will, he is brought into
the world, and he is initially a pure-spirited individual. Time and time again, however, he suffers
because of his hideous appearance, despite his innocent inner self. He only becomes evil because
the world makes him so. On the other side of the coin, Victor might be considered genuinely evil
because he goes against nature and takes the creation of life into his own hands. He constantly
assigns evil characteristics to the monster, without ever trying to see his true nature first. Victor also
flees his responsibilities as creator, a clearly impure trait.

Additionally, the novel also addresses the idea of human loneliness. Many of the characters in the
novel-Robert, Victor, the De Lacey family, and the monster-all experience feelings of isolation and
despair. The frame story nature of the novel also seems to reinforce this isolation. Though each
story has echoes of the same emotion, each character is isolated, unable to see past their own
suffering to recognize it in others. Shelley's point seems to be that this feeling of aloneness is part
of the human experience.

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