1.

Introduction
Database System Overview:

A database system is a collection of data and

a ;p8pset of programs to manage and access it
efficiently.
It overcomes the redundancy, inconsistency, and
lack of security in file systems.
Key Concepts:

Schema: The logical structure of the database (e.g.,

tables, columns, relationships).
Instance: The actual content/data stored in the
database at a given time.
Data Models: Frameworks for organizing and
structuring data. Examples:
Relational model (tables).
Hierarchical model (tree structure).
Network model (graph structure).
Data Independence:
Unit III: Database Design & Normalization
Functional Dependencies (FDs):

A relationship between two attributes in a table.

Definition: Attribute X determines attribute Y (X →
Y).
Example: StudentID → StudentName (Student ID
determines the name).
Normal Forms:

Used to eliminate redundancy and ensure data

integrity.
1NF (First Normal Form):
No repeating groups or arrays; atomic values in each
cell.
Example: A table with multiple phone numbers split
into individual rows.
2NF (Second Normal Form):
1NF + No partial dependency (non-prime attributes
depend on the whole primary key).
Example: Remove attributes dependent only on part
of a composite key.
3NF (Third Normal Form):
2NF + No transitive dependency (non-prime
attributes depend only on the primary key).
Example: Split tables to ensure non-key attributes
depend directly on the primary key.
BCNF (Boyce-Codd Normal Form):
Stronger version of 3NF where every determinant is
a candidate key.
Inclusion Dependencies:

Specify a subset relationship between columns of

two tables.
Example: Foreign key relationships.
Lossless Join Decomposition:

Splitting a table into smaller tables without losing

information when joining them back.
Multivalued Dependencies (MVDs):

Occur when one attribute determines multiple

independent attributes.
Used in 4NF to remove multivalued dependencies.
Join Dependencies (JDs):
Condition where a table can be reconstructed by
joining smaller tables.
Unit IV: Transaction Processing Concepts
Transaction System:

A transaction is a sequence of database operations

that form a logical unit of work.
Example: Bank transfer involving debit from one
account and credit to another.
Testing of Serializability:

Ensures the correctness of a concurrent schedule by

verifying it is equivalent to a serial schedule.
Conflict Serializability: Ensures no conflicting
operations (read/write) are reordered.
View Serializability: Ensures the result is the same as
a serial schedule, even if the order of conflicting
operations changes.
Schedules:

Sequence of operations from multiple transactions.

Recoverable Schedules: Ensure that committed
transactions do not depend on aborted ones.
Cascadeless Schedules: Prevent cascading rollbacks
by ensuring transactions only read committed data.
Recoverability:

Mechanism to restore the database to a consistent

state after failure.
Log-Based Recovery: Maintains a log of all database
changes to undo or redo operations during
recovery.
Checkpoints:
Savepoints in logs to reduce recovery time by
skipping already committed transactions.
Deadlock Handling:

Deadlocks occur when transactions wait indefinitely

for each other to release locks.
Techniques:
Timeout-based (abort transaction after a set time).
Deadlock detection (using wait-for graphs).
Unit V: Concurrency Control Techniques
Concurrency Control:

Ensures multiple transactions execute correctly

without interfering with each other.
Maintains ACID properties (Atomicity, Consistency,
Isolation, Durability).
Locking Techniques:
Locks: Mechanisms to prevent conflicting operations
on data.
Types:
Shared Lock (S): Allows read operations.
Exclusive Lock (X): Allows write operations.
Two-Phase Locking Protocol:
Growing phase: Acquire locks.
Shrinking phase: Release locks.
Ensures conflict serializability.
Time-Stamping Protocols:

Assigns a unique timestamp to each transaction to

resolve conflicts.
Older transactions get higher priority.
Validation-Based Protocols:
Transactions execute without restrictions and
validate before committing.
Validation checks ensure no conflicts.
Multiple Granularity:

Locks applied at different levels (e.g., table, row).

Reduces overhead by locking coarser or finer
granules as needed.
Multi-Version Schemes:

Maintains multiple versions of a data item.

Readers access older versions, while writers create
new versions.
Recovery with Concurrent Transactions:
Ensures the database state remains consistent even
with concurrent transactions and system failures.
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with examples and technical insights:

Unit III: Database Design & Normalization

1. Functional Dependencies (FDs)
Definition: If attribute X determines attribute Y, then
X is a determinant, and Y is dependent. Written as
𝑋
→
𝑌
X→Y.

Example:

In a student table:
StudentID → StudentName (StudentID uniquely
identifies the name).
CourseID → CourseName (CourseID uniquely
determines the course name).
Key Terminology:

Trivial FD: When

𝑌
⊆
𝑋
Y⊆X, the dependency is trivial. E.g.,
𝑆
𝑡
𝑢
𝑑
𝑒
𝑛
𝑡
𝐼
𝐷
→
𝑆
𝑡
𝑢
𝑑
𝑒
𝑛
𝑡
𝐼
𝐷
StudentID→StudentID.
Non-Trivial FD: When
𝑌
⊈
𝑋
Y

⊆X. E.g.,
𝑆
𝑡
𝑢
𝑑
𝑒
𝑛
𝑡
𝐼
𝐷
→
𝑆
𝑡
𝑢
𝑑
𝑒
𝑛
𝑡
𝑁
𝑎
𝑚
𝑒
StudentID→StudentName.
2. Normalization and Forms
Normalization is a stepwise process to structure
data efficiently in databases. Each form builds upon
the previous one to reduce redundancy and
dependency issues.

First Normal Form (1NF):

Removes repeating groups and ensures atomic
values in each field.
Example:
sql
Copy code
Non-1NF Table:
StudentID | Name | Courses
--------- | ------- | -------
1 | Alice | Math, Physics
2 | Bob | Chemistry

1NF Table:
StudentID | Name | Course
--------- | ------- | -------
1 | Alice | Math
1 | Alice | Physics
2 | Bob | Chemistry
Second Normal Form (2NF):
Achieves 1NF and removes partial dependencies
(dependencies on part of a composite key).
Example:
yaml
Copy code
Non-2NF Table:
(StudentID, CourseID) → {StudentName,
CourseName, Grade}

Issue: StudentName depends only on StudentID, not

on CourseID.

2NF Decomposition:
Student Table: StudentID → StudentName
Course Table: CourseID → CourseName
Enrollment Table: (StudentID, CourseID) → Grade
Third Normal Form (3NF):
Achieves 2NF and removes transitive dependencies.
Example:
yaml
Copy code
Non-3NF Table:
StudentID → AdvisorID → AdvisorName

3NF Decomposition:
Table 1: StudentID → AdvisorID
Table 2: AdvisorID → AdvisorName
Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF):
Stronger version of 3NF; ensures every determinant
is a candidate key.
Example:
A table where Course → Instructor but Instructor is
not unique violates BCNF.
Decompose into separate tables for Course →
Instructor and Instructor → OtherDetails.
3. Multivalued Dependencies (MVDs):
Occurs when one attribute determines multiple
independent attributes.
Example:
A student can have multiple phone numbers and
multiple hobbies. The attributes PhoneNumber and
Hobby are independent.
Solution: Split into two tables:
Student → PhoneNumber
Student → Hobby
4. Join Dependencies (JDs):
A table can be reconstructed by joining smaller
tables.
Used to achieve 5NF (Fifth Normal Form).
Example:
𝑅
(
𝐴
,
𝐵
,
𝐶
)
R(A,B,C) decomposed into
𝑅
1
(
𝐴
,
𝐵
)
R1(A,B) and
𝑅
2
(
𝐴
,
𝐶
)
R2(A,C).
Unit IV: Transaction Processing Concepts
1. Transaction System:
A transaction consists of a sequence of operations
that must adhere to ACID properties:
Atomicity: Either all operations succeed or none.
Consistency: The database remains consistent after
a transaction.
Isolation: Concurrent transactions do not interfere.
Durability: Committed changes are permanent.
2. Testing of Serializability:
Conflict Serializability:
Ensures conflicting operations (like write-write,
read-write) maintain the same order as in a serial
schedule.
Example: Two transactions T1 and T2 must ensure
𝑇
1
:
𝑤
𝑟
𝑖
𝑡
𝑒
(
𝑥
)
T1:write(x) happens before
𝑇
2
:
𝑤
𝑟
𝑖
𝑡
𝑒
(
𝑥
)
T2:write(x).
View Serializability:
A more relaxed form of serializability.
Allows reordering of operations as long as the initial
read and final write result match the serial
schedule.
3. Log-Based Recovery:
A log records every transaction to recover from
crashes.
Undo/Redo Logging:
Undo: Roll back incomplete transactions.
Redo: Reapply changes of committed transactions.
4. Checkpoints:
Periodic snapshots of the database state and log.
Reduce recovery time by skipping past transactions
already committed before the checkpoint.
Unit V: Concurrency Control Techniques
1. Locking Techniques:
Shared Lock (S): Allows read access.
Exclusive Lock (X): Allows write access.
Two-Phase Locking (2PL):
Growing Phase: Locks are acquired.
Shrinking Phase: Locks are released.
2. Timestamping Protocols:
Transactions are assigned timestamps to resolve
conflicts.
Example:
𝑇
1
T1: Timestamp 1.
𝑇
2
T2: Timestamp 2.
If
𝑇
2
T2 tries to write data read by
𝑇
1
T1,
𝑇
2
T2 is aborted to preserve order.
3. Validation-Based Protocols:
Divides execution into:
Read Phase: Transactions read data.
Validation Phase: Confirms no conflict with other
transactions.
Write Phase: Changes are committed.
4. Multi-Version Concurrency Control (MVCC):
Maintains multiple versions of data.
Readers access older versions, writers create new
versions.
Example: PostgreSQL uses MVCC for efficient
concurrent operations.
5. Deadlock Handling:
Detection:
Use a Wait-For Graph to identify circular wait
chains.
Break the cycle by aborting a transaction.
Prevention:
Resource ordering: Enforce a specific order for locks.
Timeout: Abort transactions waiting too long.
Additional Resources:
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of the topics above, let me know!

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Logical Independence: Changes in schema do not

affect application programs.
Physical Independence: Changes in storage
structure do not affect schema.
Languages:
DDL: Used to define database schema (CREATE,
ALTER, DROP).
DML: Used for querying and updating data (SELECT,
INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE).
2. Data Modeling using the Entity Relationship (ER)
Model
ER Model Concepts:

Entity: An object (e.g., student, course) that can be

distinctly identified.
Attributes: Properties of entities (e.g., student
name, roll number).
Relationships: Associations between entities (e.g., a
student enrolls in a course).
ER Diagram Notations:

Entities are represented as rectangles.

Attributes are represented as ovals.
Relationships are represented as diamonds.
Key Constraints:

Super Key: Any attribute or combination of

attributes that uniquely identifies a row.
Candidate Key: A minimal set of attributes that
uniquely identifies a row.
Primary Key: A selected candidate key.
Generalization & Aggregation:

single entity (e.g., Car and Truck → Vehicle).

Generalization: Combines similar entities into a

Aggregation: Treats a relationship as an entity for

further relationships.
Conversion of ER Diagrams to Tables:
Entities become tables.
Relationships become tables with foreign keys
referencing the related entities.
3. Relational Data Model and Language
Relational Data Model:

Represents data as a collection of tables (relations).

A table has rows (tuples) and columns (attributes).
Integrity Constraints:

Entity Integrity: Primary keys cannot be NULL.

Referential Integrity: Foreign keys must reference
valid primary keys in another table.
Relational Algebra:

A procedural query language with operations such

as:
Selection (σ): Filters rows based on a condition.
Projection (π): Selects specific columns.
Union (∪): Combines tuples from two relations.
Set Difference (-): Finds tuples in one relation but
not in another.
Cartesian Product (×): Combines tuples from two
relations.
Join (⨝): Combines related tuples from two relations.
Relational Calculus:

A non-procedural query language based on logic.

Tuple Relational Calculus (TRC): Specifies the
desired result without providing steps.
Domain Relational Calculus (DRC): Uses domain
variables instead of tuples.
4. Introduction to SQL
Characteristics of SQL:

Declarative language for defining and manipulating

relational databases.
Supports DDL, DML, and DCL (Data Control
Language) commands.
Advantages of SQL:

Standardized across database systems.

Simple syntax.
Efficient querying and data manipulation.
SQL Commands:

DDL: CREATE TABLE, ALTER TABLE, DROP TABLE.

DML: SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE.
DCL: GRANT, REVOKE.
SQL Features:

Joins: Combine data from multiple tables.

Inner Join: Returns matching rows.
Left Join: Returns all rows from the left table and
matching rows from the right.
Right Join: Returns all rows from the right table and
matching rows from the left.
Full Outer Join: Returns rows when there is a match
in either table.
Aggregate Functions:
Perform calculations on a set of values: SUM, AVG,
COUNT, MAX, MIN.
Indexes: Speed up data retrieval.
Views: Virtual tables created by queries.
Subqueries: Nested queries used within a larger
query.
Cursors: Used to iterate through query results row
by row.
These detailed notes should cover your syllabus
comprehensively. Let me know if you need further
clarification on any specific topic or examples for
practice!
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